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Cud

Cud is a bolus of partially digested food regurgitated from the first stomach (rumen) of ruminant animals, such as cows, sheep, and goats, to the mouth for further chewing and insalivation as part of the rumination process.^[1]^[2] This regurgitation allows ruminants to break down tough, fibrous plant material more effectively, as their multi-chambered stomachs rely on microbial fermentation in the rumen to initiate digestion before re-chewing enhances mechanical breakdown and nutrient extraction.^[3]^[4] Rumination, often referred to as "chewing the cud," typically occupies approximately 30 to 40 percent (7 to 10 hours) of a cow's day, depending on diet quality, and involves the production of copious saliva—100 to 200 liters (26 to 53 US gallons) daily in adult cattle—which buffers the rumen's acidic environment and provides essential nutrients like bicarbonate and phosphorus to support microbial activity.^[1]^[5]^[6] The process is crucial for ruminants' adaptation to grazing on cellulose-rich forages, enabling efficient energy harvest from materials indigestible to non-ruminants, and is observed in over 200 species worldwide, including even-toed ungulates like deer and giraffes.^[7]^[8] In agricultural contexts, effective cud chewing is a key indicator of ruminant health and welfare; disruptions, such as from poor forage quality or stress, can lead to reduced feed efficiency and conditions like rumen acidosis.^[5] Research emphasizes that optimal rumination supports sustainable livestock production by maximizing nutrient utilization from pasture-based diets.^[4]

Definition and Etymology

Definition

Cud refers to a bolus of partially digested food that ruminant animals regurgitate from the rumen, the first compartment of their multi-chambered stomach, back into the mouth for further mastication.^[9] This semi-degraded material, softened by initial microbial fermentation in the rumen, is re-chewed to break down plant fibers more effectively before being reswallowed.^[10] Unlike general monogastric digestion, cud formation and re-chewing represent a specialized adaptation in ruminants' four-chambered stomachs, enabling efficient breakdown of cellulose-rich forage that single-stomach animals cannot process as thoroughly.^[1] This process, known as rumination, distinguishes ruminants by allowing them to extract maximum nutrients from tough vegetation during periods of rest.^[11] Early naturalists observed this behavior as a distinctive trait of herbivores like cows. In the 18th century, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, described cud-chewing in his Histoire Naturelle as a form of effortless regurgitation, likening it to vomiting without strain, which facilitates repeated grinding of food to aid digestion.^[12] Such accounts highlighted the cow's apparent idleness while lying down, actually engaged in this vital re-mastication essential for survival on fibrous diets.^[13]

Etymology

The term "cud" originates from Old English cudu or cwudu, denoting both the regurgitated food bolus of ruminants and a sticky substance like gum or resin.^[14] This word derives from Proto-Germanic *kweduz, which similarly referred to resin or a glutinous material, reflecting the cud's texture as a semi-digested, cohesive mass.^[14] Cognates appear in related Germanic languages, such as Old Norse kvaða (resin) and Old High German quiti (glue), underscoring a shared Indo-European root associated with adhesive or chewable substances like Sanskrit jātu (gum).^[15] In other linguistic traditions, the concept of cud connects to Hebrew gerah, a term meaning "a second chewing" or "rumination," derived from the root gārar (to scrape or rumble, evoking the throat's action).^[16] This word appears in biblical texts to describe the chewing behavior of clean animals, influencing English translations from the medieval period onward.^[16] The word's usage evolved through Middle English as cudde, appearing in 14th-century texts to describe animal feeding habits, and by the 16th century in idiomatic phrases like "chew the cud" for contemplation.^[14] In scientific nomenclature, "cud" became standardized in 18th- and 19th-century natural history works, such as those by Carl Linnaeus and later zoologists, to denote the bolus in ruminant digestion without alteration, bridging medieval agricultural descriptions to modern biology.^[17]

Biological Role in Rumination

Rumination Process

The rumination process in ruminants begins with the initial ingestion of feed, which is minimally chewed and formed into a bolus mixed with saliva before being swallowed into the reticulorumen.^[2] In the rumen, this material undergoes microbial fermentation, where anaerobic bacteria and protozoa break down complex plant fibers, producing volatile fatty acids as byproducts that provide energy.^[18] The partially digested material, now known as cud, consists of softened plant particles that float or are suspended in the rumen fluid. Regurgitation occurs when specific physiological triggers activate, including coordinated contractions of the reticulum that propel the cud bolus toward the cardia sphincter, coupled with relaxation of the distal esophageal sphincter to facilitate reverse peristalsis.^[18] These movements are regulated by neural signals from motility centers in the brainstem, transmitted via vagal efferents to control the timing and force of reticuloruminal contractions, often modulated by sensory inputs from rumen stretch receptors and chemosensors detecting fermentation byproducts.^[18] Once regurgitated into the mouth as a compact bolus, the cud is re-chewed extensively—typically 50–70 times per bolus—to further reduce particle size, while mixing with fresh saliva that adds bicarbonate to buffer the acidic rumen contents and maintain an optimal pH for microbial activity.^[1]^[2]^[19] The re-chewed cud is then reswallowed, passing through the esophagus to the reticulum and rumen for additional fermentation or advancing to the omasum and abomasum for further digestion and absorption.^[18] Rumination bouts typically last 30-70 seconds per bolus and occur during periods of rest, with ruminants dedicating 6-8 hours daily to the process; for instance, cows produce numerous boluses during these sessions.^[20]^[1] This mechanical action evolutionarily enhances cellulose breakdown by increasing the surface area of feed particles, thereby improving access for fermentative microbes and boosting overall nutrient extraction from fibrous diets.^[18]

Ruminant Animals and Adaptations

Ruminants, the animals that produce and chew cud, belong to the suborder Ruminantia within the order Artiodactyla, or even-toed ungulates. This group encompasses key families such as Bovidae, which includes bovids like cows, sheep, and goats; and Cervidae, comprising deer and their relatives. Camelids (family Camelidae in suborder Tylopoda) also ruminate and share similar digestive adaptations despite the taxonomic distinction. These species have evolved to efficiently digest fibrous plant material through foregut fermentation, a process central to cud production.^[21]^[22] Anatomically, ruminants are distinguished by their four-chambered stomach, consisting of the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum. The rumen, the largest compartment, acts as the primary site for microbial fermentation, where ingested forage is broken down into a semi-liquid mass known as cud through the action of symbiotic bacteria and protozoa. The reticulum aids in mixing and initial sorting of ingesta, while the omasum absorbs water and volatile fatty acids, and the abomasum functions as a true stomach secreting digestive enzymes. This specialized structure enables the regurgitation of cud for further mechanical breakdown, enhancing nutrient extraction from otherwise indigestible cellulose.^[1]^[23] Behaviorally, ruminants have adapted resting postures to optimize rumination, often lying down on their left side in a sternal recumbent position, which positions the rumen favorably for efficient regurgitation and minimizes interference with rumen motility. This posture facilitates prolonged chewing sessions, typically occurring in bouts throughout the day when the animal is not grazing. Daily cud-chewing duration varies by species and diet; for instance, mature cattle ruminate approximately 7-8 hours per day, processing up to 40-50 kg of dry matter, whereas sheep ruminate for about 5-7 hours, handling smaller volumes suited to their body size and foraging habits. These adaptations allow ruminants to maximize energy intake from low-quality forage in diverse environments, from grasslands to deserts.^[24]^[25]^[26] Certain non-ruminants, such as rabbits, are classified as pseudoruminants due to hindgut fermentation in their cecum, but they do not produce true cud; instead, they form cecotropes—nutrient-rich, soft fecal pellets that are directly re-ingested from the anus for additional nutrient absorption, distinct from the regurgitated, fermented bolus of ruminants. Historically, observational similarities led to misconceptions, as seen in biblical texts like Leviticus 11:6, which describe hares as chewing the cud based on their jaw movements and re-ingestion behaviors, though modern taxonomy confirms they lack the ruminant digestive anatomy.^[27]^[28]

Chemical Composition

Physical Characteristics

Cud consists of a compact, semi-solid bolus of partially digested forage regurgitated from the rumen for re-mastication in ruminant animals such as cattle. This material exhibits a moist and softened consistency, achieved through initial microbial fermentation in the rumen and coating with copious amounts of saliva produced during chewing.^[10]^[1] The texture of cud is characteristically fibrous and spongy, reflecting the presence of partially broken-down plant fibers that have undergone limited degradation. It maintains a temperature close to the animal's core body heat, approximately 39°C in cattle, facilitating the continuation of enzymatic and microbial processes. The odor is distinctly fermented, arising from volatile compounds produced by rumen bacteria, which veterinarians note as a standard indicator during oral examinations.^[29] Variations in cud characteristics occur based on dietary forage type; for instance, diets high in coarse, long-stemmed grasses yield boluses with larger particle sizes and greater firmness, necessitating extended chewing to further reduce fiber length for rumen passage. In contrast, finer or more processed feeds result in softer, less fibrous boluses.^[30] Veterinary assessment of cud quality plays a key role in evaluating livestock health, particularly rumen function. Techniques include direct observation of rumination, counting chews per bolus (ideally 50–60 for optimal nutrition), and inspecting for dropped "cud balls" in housing areas, which signal potential acidosis from imbalanced diets. Manual palpation of the oral cavity can reveal impacted cud, while behavioral monitoring ensures adequate daily rumination time, typically 6–8 hours in healthy cows.^[31]^[32]

Biochemical Components

Cud, the semi-digested bolus regurgitated from the rumen, primarily comprises partially broken-down plant fibers, salivary secretions, and a diverse microbial community that facilitates further fermentation. The plant fibers include cellulose and hemicellulose, which form the structural components derived from ingested forage, accounting for a significant portion of the dry matter.^[33] Saliva contributes bicarbonate ions as a key buffering agent to maintain rumen pH stability and enzymes such as lysozyme, which exhibit antimicrobial properties against potential pathogens in the rumen environment.^[34] The microbial fraction encompasses bacteria, protozoa, and fungi, which collectively enable the breakdown of complex carbohydrates into utilizable nutrients.^[35] Key chemical products within cud arise from microbial fermentation, notably volatile fatty acids (VFAs) such as acetate, propionate, and butyrate, which serve as primary energy sources for the host ruminant. Typical VFA concentrations in rumen contents, reflective of cud, range from 80 to 160 mM total, with acetate comprising 50-70%, propionate 20-30%, and butyrate 10-20% of the molar composition.^[36] These VFAs are generated through anaerobic fermentation of carbohydrates by rumen microbiota. The pH of cud typically falls within 5.5 to 7.0, buffered by salivary bicarbonate and phosphate to optimize microbial activity and prevent acidosis.^[1] Nitrogen compounds, including ammonia derived from protein degradation, are also present, supporting microbial protein synthesis essential for ruminant nutrition.^[1] The microbial ecology of cud is dominated by symbiotic bacteria specialized in lignocellulosic degradation, with Fibrobacter succinogenes playing a pivotal role in cellulose hydrolysis through cellulase production.^[37] Other notable groups include Prevotella species, which predominate in diverse dietary conditions and contribute to hemicellulose and pectin breakdown, alongside protozoa and anaerobic fungi that enhance fiber accessibility by physically disrupting plant cell walls.^[38] These interactions ensure efficient nutrient extraction from recalcitrant plant materials like lignins. Analytical studies on bovine cud reveal a typical fresh composition of approximately 88% water (12% dry matter), with dry matter consisting of 16-25% crude protein, 20-30% fiber (including cellulose and hemicellulose), 2-3% lipids, and 10-15% ash and minerals.^[33] These proportions can vary based on diet but underscore cud's role as a hydrated matrix optimized for re-chewing and microbial action.^[39]

Cultural and Religious Contexts

Jewish Dietary Laws

In Jewish dietary laws, known as kashrut, the consumption of land mammals is permitted only if the animal both chews its cud—referred to in Hebrew as gerah, meaning to regurgitate and re-chew partially digested food—and possesses fully cloven hooves. This dual criterion is established in the Torah, specifically in Leviticus 11:3, which states: "Whatever parts the hoof and is cloven-footed and chews the cud, among the animals, that you may eat," and reiterated in Deuteronomy 14:6 with similar wording.^[40] Animals lacking either trait are deemed non-kosher (treif), and their flesh is forbidden, along with contact with their carcasses to maintain ritual purity (Leviticus 11:8).^[40] Examples of kosher animals include cows, sheep, and goats, which exhibit both characteristics, allowing their meat to be prepared and eaten under proper slaughter (shechita) and inspection protocols. In contrast, non-kosher animals include the pig, which has cloven hooves but does not chew cud; the camel, which chews cud but has padded feet without full cleavage; and the hare, which was biblically described as chewing cud but lacks cloven hooves (Leviticus 11:4-7). The hyrax is similarly prohibited for the same reason.^[41]^[40] Rabbinic interpretations, such as those by Rashi in the 11th century, clarify gerah as the process of returning softened food from the stomach to the mouth for further mastication, emphasizing thorough digestion as a symbolic act of reflection and discernment in Jewish life. Debates in the Talmud and later codes, like Maimonides' Mishneh Torah, address borderline cases; for instance, the hare's apparent cud-chewing was traditionally observed through its jaw movements, though modern biology distinguishes this as caecotrophy (eating fecal pellets) rather than true rumination—yet halakhic rulings uphold the Torah's classification without alteration, prohibiting the hare due to its hooves.^[40]^[42] Historically, these laws have shaped Jewish dietary practices since ancient Israel, where observance ensured communal purity during Temple rituals and exile, enforced by rabbinic courts and local customs to verify animal traits before slaughter. In contemporary times, Orthodox authorities like the Orthodox Union maintain enforcement through rigorous certification, inspecting livestock for cud-chewing behavior and hoof structure at farms and abattoirs to confirm kashrut compliance.^[43]^[44]^[45]

References in Other Traditions

In Christian tradition, references to cud appear in the Old Testament dietary laws, which parallel those in Jewish scriptures, designating animals that chew the cud and have cloven hooves as clean for consumption. Beyond literal classification, the process of chewing the cud serves as a metaphor for spiritual meditation and reflection on divine teachings, particularly in the Psalms. For instance, Psalm 1:2 describes the blessed person as one who "meditates day and night" on the law of the Lord, a practice often likened by Christian interpreters to a ruminant's repeated chewing to extract full nourishment, emphasizing deep, iterative contemplation of Scripture.^[46] This imagery underscores the value of internalizing God's word through prolonged pondering, as seen in devotional writings that draw on ruminant behavior to illustrate transformative spiritual digestion.^[47] In Islamic texts, ruminants are portrayed positively as provisions from God, with the Quran highlighting livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats, and camels as sources of food, milk, and utility, implying their natural processes within broader purity and halal guidelines. Surah Al-An'am (6:142-144) discusses grazing animals (bahimat al-an'am), which include cud-chewing species, as created for human benefit, though certain restrictions apply based on slaughter and invocation of God's name to ensure lawfulness. Camels, explicitly mentioned in Surah Al-Ghashiyah (88:17) as a sign of divine creation, exemplify ruminants viewed favorably in Islamic dietary laws, where they are halal if properly slaughtered, contrasting with prohibited carnivores or swine. This reflects a theological emphasis on gratitude for God's bounties in animal physiology and utility.^[48] Hindu traditions revere cows as sacred embodiments of motherhood, non-violence, and abundance, integrated into symbolic representations of sustenance and purity across Vedic texts.^[49] The Rigveda and other scriptures portray the cow (go) as a divine gift providing milk, dung for fuel, and labor, fostering a cultural ethos of protection that extends to their natural behaviors, seen as part of the harmonious cycle of life upheld in ahimsa (non-harm).^[50] This reverence positions the cow as a maternal figure akin to deities like Aditi, symbolizing earth's fertility and ethical living without exploitation.^[51] Ancient Egyptian iconography occasionally depicts ruminants, particularly cows associated with goddesses like Hathor, in contexts of fertility and renewal that evoke afterlife themes.^[52] Cows symbolized life-giving forces and protection in the underworld journey, as in tomb art showing bovine figures aiding the deceased's rebirth, aligning with broader motifs of regeneration.^[53] From the 17th to 19th centuries, European scholars debated the biblical classification of hares as cud-chewers in Leviticus 11:6, initially viewing it as a scientific error since hares do not ruminate like true ruminants.^[54] Resolution came through observations of hare refection—re-ingesting nutrient-rich cecotropes (soft feces) in a chewing motion—which ancient observers, including 18th-century naturalist Carl Linnaeus, mistook for cud-chewing, thus reconciling the text with emerging biology.^[55] This clarified the Hebrew term gerah as encompassing any re-mastication of partially digested material, dispelling misconceptions without altering scriptural intent.^[56]

Culinary Applications

Traditional Dishes

In traditional cuisines of various ethnic groups, cud— the partially digested plant material from the rumen of ruminants—serves as a key ingredient in select dishes, valued for its unique texture and flavor contribution derived from the animal's digestive process. These recipes typically emerge from communities where resource efficiency and whole-animal utilization are cultural norms, transforming what might otherwise be discarded into flavorful soups and stews.^[57]^[58] Among the Dong ethnic group in southeast China's Guizhou Province, Niu Bie Tang, or cow cud soup, stands as a renowned delicacy prepared by extracting the rumen's contents from cattle specially fed fine grass and herbs prior to slaughter to enhance flavor. The cud is combined with bile and other offal, then boiled to create a bitter, aromatic broth often served as a base for noodle dishes, reflecting the Dong's resourceful approach to livestock byproducts in their mountainous homeland.^[57] In Filipino-Ilocano cuisine, Pinapaitan is a hearty stew originating from northern Luzon, utilizing ruminant stomach contents—including cud-like chyme—alongside offal such as tripe, heart, kidney, liver, and intestines from beef or goat. The ingredients are boiled until tender, then flavored with bile to impart a signature bitter taste, sometimes augmented with souring agents like tamarind mix and green peppers for balance, making it a warming dish suited to the region's tropical climate and emphasis on nose-to-tail eating.^[58] Cud for these dishes is ethically sourced through traditional harvesting from the stomachs of ruminants post-slaughter, promoting sustainable use of animal byproducts and reducing food waste in line with whole-carcass utilization practices.^[59]^[60]

Nutritional and Preparation Considerations

Cud consists of partially digested plant material and microbial biomass from the rumen, containing proteins derived from microbial sources and volatile fatty acids (VFAs) such as acetate, propionate, and butyrate produced during fermentation in ruminants. In traditional dishes incorporating rumen contents, such as the Filipino pinapaitan, a typical 250-gram serving delivers about 20 grams of protein and 200 calories, supporting muscle maintenance and overall energy needs while being low in carbohydrates. However, the microbial component could introduce potential probiotic benefits from beneficial rumen bacteria, though this is diminished by typical cooking methods.^[61]^[62] Despite these nutrients, consuming cud carries significant health risks due to potential bacterial pathogens harbored in the rumen, such as Escherichia coli O157:H7, a major cause of foodborne illness in humans. Undigested plant residues in cud may also trigger allergic reactions in individuals sensitive to specific forages or grasses. To mitigate risks, thorough preparation is essential, including cleaning to remove debris and contaminants from rumen contents, followed by cooking to an internal temperature of at least 165°F (74°C) to kill pathogens; fermentation in select ethnic preparations can further enhance safety and digestibility if properly controlled.^[63]^[64] In modern contexts, veterinary regulations prohibit feeding ruminant materials like cud to livestock to prevent the spread of diseases such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, or mad cow disease), reflecting broader concerns over prion transmission. For human diets, cud's inclusion in ethnic cuisines promotes sustainability by utilizing animal by-products, reducing food waste and livestock emissions by up to 14% when offal consumption increases, while providing nutrient-dense options in resource-limited settings.^[65]^[66]

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Jun 4, 2008 · Although Hindus follow no single set of rules, reverence for cows can be found throughout the religion's major texts. Some trace the cow's ...
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[PDF] India's Sacred Cow by Marvin Harris - UNCW
Many Indians agree with Western assessments of the Hindu reverence for their cattle, the zebu, a large-humped species of cattle prevalent in Asia and Africa.
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In Hinduism, the belief that the cow is representative of divine and natural beneficence and should therefore be protected and venerated.
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Cattle, Oxen and Bulls, the Most Useful Animal of Ancient Egypt
Jun 13, 2011 · They become symbolic of those first important men who rose above others to lead, perhaps at first, small tribes that grew along the path to ...
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Cows & Bulls in Ancient Egypt
They were symbols of fertility, life, and protection. The reverence for cows is evident from historical accounts, like those by Herodotus, who noted the ...Missing: cud chewing
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Chewing the Cud - Ministry Magazine
Chewing the cud involves double passage through the digestive tract, like reingestion, where animals re-ingest food, such as hares, and is called coprophagy.Missing: historical debates 17th- 19th
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https://egypt-museum.com/cows-bulls-in-ancient-egypt/
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Is the Bible wrong about the rabbit/hare chewing the cud?
" Let's take a closer look at the Hebrew version of both. Here is the word for "cud" according to Strong's: gerah, the cud (as scraping the throat): cud.Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
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Delicacies from China's Dong ethnic group: Cow Cud Soup - CGTN
May 3, 2021 · Niu Bie Tang, or Cow Cud Soup, is a delicacy made by the Dong ethnic group in the southeast of China's Guizhou Province.Missing: recipe | Show results with:recipe
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Beef Papaitan - Panlasang Pinoy
2 hr 15 minDec 11, 2020 · Beef Papaitan or Papaitang Baka is a version of the popular Pinapaitan that makes use of the cow's internal organs.Missing: cud | Show results with:cud<|separator|>
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This review underscores the significance of offal as a nutrient-rich and functional ingredient source. It details the yields of various edible organs and the ...
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Mar 7, 2025 · If you're worried about the safety of eating offal, it's best to source it from grass-fed, organic animals that come from a reputable and fully ...
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Nutrient Absorption and Utilization in Ruminants
Volatile fatty acids (VFA) are produced in large amounts through ruminal fermentation and are of paramount importance in that they provide greater than 70% ...Missing: cud | Show results with:cud
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Papaitan Nutrition - SnapCalorie
1 serving (250 grams) contains 200 calories, 20.0 grams of protein, 10.0 grams of fat, and 5.0 grams of carbohydrates.
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Tiny but mighty: the role of the rumen microbes in livestock production
These microbes compose 70% to 80% of the entire microbial population in the rumen (McAllister et al., 1994). The liquid-based fraction are planktonic bacteria ...Rumen Microbiome · Ruminal Fermentation... · Impact On Livestock...<|control11|><|separator|>
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For many years it has been known that healthy ruminants transiently harbor the human pathogen Escherichia coli O157:H7 in their gastrointestinal tract; however ...
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Enteric Escherichia coli O157:H7 in Cattle, and the Use of Mice as a ...
Jul 10, 2022 · As such, E. coli O157:H7 is considered to be an important zoonotic pathogen, and its main reservoirs are healthy domesticated ruminants, ...
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Feed Ban Enhancement: Implementation Questions and Answers
Apr 29, 2024 · FDA added a new section 589.2001 to the regulations which prohibits the use of high-risk cattle material in feed for all animal species.
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Organ meats should be part of a planet-friendly diet - Popular Science
Jun 4, 2019 · Upping offal consumption by 50 percent achieved was the second best option, reducing livestock emissions by 14 percent.