December 26
December 26 is the 360th day of the year (361st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with five days remaining until the year's end.[1] In numerous Commonwealth nations including the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, it is observed as Boxing Day, a public holiday rooted in 19th-century customs where employers distributed boxed gifts, money, or food to household servants and tradespeople as a post-Christmas gratuity, with earlier ties to church alms collections for the poor.[2] Across many Christian countries, particularly in Europe such as Ireland, Austria, and Italy, it serves as St. Stephen's Day, commemorating Saint Stephen, the first Christian martyr stoned to death in Jerusalem circa 34–36 AD for his faith, as described in the Acts of the Apostles.[3] The date has also witnessed pivotal historical occurrences, most notably the December 26, 2004, magnitude 9.1 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake off Indonesia's coast, which unleashed a tsunami devastating coastal regions across the Indian Ocean and resulting in over 200,000 deaths from Indonesia to East Africa.[4][5]Events
Pre-1600
Pope Dionysius (r. 259–268) died on December 26, 268, in Rome from natural causes, likely advanced age, after a pontificate focused on condemning Sabellian and Marcionite heresies amid post-persecution recovery in the early Church.[6][7] Pope Zosimus (r. 417–418) died on December 26, 418, in Rome from natural causes during his short tenure, which involved asserting papal primacy against Pelagian sympathizers in Gaul and resolving clerical appeals from the provinces.[8][9] Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur (1483–1530), Timurid prince and founder of the Mughal dynasty following his 1526 victory at Panipat, died on December 26, 1530, in Agra at age 47 from natural causes attributed to illness, possibly a fever exacerbated by the era's limited medical interventions; his passing prompted the succession of his son Humayun, who inherited a fragile empire vulnerable to Afghan rivals and internal strife.[10][11]1601–1900
John Wilkes (1725–1797), English radical politician, journalist, and advocate for parliamentary reform, died on December 26, 1797, in London at the age of 72.[12] His campaigns against general warrants and for press freedom, sparked by the 1763 North Briton No. 45 scandal, secured legal precedents like the rejection of seditious libel prosecutions without jury trial, influencing English common law protections for speech.[12] However, Wilkes's repeated electoral disqualifications and reliance on personal charisma over institutional mechanisms demonstrated the empirical constraints of individual radicalism, as his Middlesex victories failed to yield lasting structural reforms amid elite resistance and public disillusionment by the 1790s. Antoine Houdar de la Motte (1672–1731), French playwright, poet, and librettist, died on December 26, 1731, in Paris. His adaptations of classical works, including abbreviated versions of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey arguing for modern superiority over ancient models, contributed to early 18th-century literary debates on neoclassicism versus innovation.[13] De la Motte's collaborations with composers like Campra on operas such as Camille (1706) advanced French lyrical tragedy, though his empirical approach to textual criticism—prioritizing accessibility over fidelity—highlighted tensions in cultural transmission without resolving underlying causal divergences in artistic evolution. Heinrich Schliemann (1822–1890), German archaeologist and self-taught excavator of Bronze Age sites, died on December 26, 1890, in Naples from a cerebral infection following ear surgery.[14] His 1870s digs at Hisarlik (identified as Troy) and Mycenae uncovered artifacts like Priam's Treasure and the Mask of Agamemnon, providing physical corroboration for Homeric narratives and shifting historiography from mythic dismissal to evidence-based validation of oral traditions' historical kernels.[14] Schliemann's passing concluded his field campaigns, which, despite amateur methods and later stratigraphic critiques, catalyzed professional archaeology's emphasis on interdisciplinary verification over speculative reconstruction. Stephen Girard (1750–1831), French-born American financier and philanthropist, died on December 26, 1831, in Philadelphia. His banking acumen during the War of 1812, including loans exceeding $10 million to the U.S. government, stabilized federal credit amid fiscal crises, while his post-mortem bequest founding Girard College for orphans demonstrated private capital's role in public education without state dependency.[15] Girard's estate, valued at $7 million—the largest in U.S. history at the time—underscored causal links between mercantile risk-taking and institutional legacy, though inheritance disputes revealed limits in enforcing donor intent absent robust legal safeguards.1901–present
Harry S. Truman, the 33rd President of the United States from 1945 to 1953, died on December 26, 1972, at age 88 in Kansas City, Missouri, from pneumonia that progressed to multiple organ failure and a coma.[16] [17] His Truman Doctrine of 1947 pledged U.S. support against communist aggression, delivering $400 million in aid to Greece and Turkey and influencing the Marshall Plan's $13 billion in European reconstruction, which contributed to economic recovery and NATO's formation in 1949 to counter Soviet expansion.[18] Comedian and actor Jack Benny died on December 26, 1974, at age 80 in Los Angeles from pancreatic cancer, diagnosed just days earlier after stomach pains; the disease had metastasized undetected.[19] His radio and television programs, running from the 1930s to 1960s, consistently ranked in the top 10, with the TV version averaging 27.5 million weekly viewers at its peak in the 1950s, establishing self-deprecating humor and stinginess as comedic staples.[20] Film director Howard Hawks died on December 26, 1977, at age 81 in Palm Springs, California, from complications of a concussion sustained in a fall over his dog several weeks prior.[21] Known for over 40 films including His Girl Friday (1940) and Rio Bravo (1959), Hawks influenced genres like screwball comedy and Westerns, with his works grossing tens of millions adjusted for inflation and mentoring stars such as Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall. Soul musician Curtis Mayfield died on December 26, 1999, at age 57 in Roswell, Georgia, from complications of type 2 diabetes, including respiratory failure following a 1990 stage accident that paralyzed him from the neck down.[22] His 1972 soundtrack for Super Fly sold over 1 million copies in its first two months, earning a Grammy for Best Instrumental Arrangement, and his socially conscious lyrics on poverty and civil rights shaped funk and soul, with over 20 million records sold lifetime. Primatologist Dian Fossey died on December 26, 1985, at age 53 in her Rwanda cabin, hacked to death with a machete in an unsolved murder likely linked to poachers or research rivals; her body was discovered the next day.[23] Her 18-year study of mountain gorillas documented family structures and behaviors, reducing poaching incidents at Karisoke Research Center from dozens annually to near zero by 1980 through armed patrols, though her confrontational anti-poaching tactics drew criticism for endangering staff. Former U.S. President Gerald Ford died on December 26, 2006, at age 93 in Rancho Mirage, California, from arteriosclerotic cerebrovascular disease and cardiac arrest.[24] [25] As the only unelected president (1974–1977), Ford's pardon of Richard Nixon prevented prolonged national division post-Watergate, while his administration navigated stagflation with unemployment peaking at 9% in 1975 and inflation at 11%, stabilizing via vetoes of 66 spending bills to curb deficits exceeding $50 billion annually. Singer Teena Marie died on December 26, 2010, at age 54 in her Las Vegas home from a grand mal seizure, with autopsy revealing no trauma or drugs but possible contribution from a prior 2004 head injury; her daughter found her.[26] [27] Known as the "Ivory Queen of Soul," her debut Wild and Peaceful (1979) reached No. 2 on R&B charts, selling over 500,000 copies, and collaborations with Rick James yielded hits like "I'm a Sucker for Your Love," amassing millions in sales over three decades. Professional wrestler Jonathan Huber, known as Brodie Lee, died on December 26, 2020, at age 41 from idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, a lung-scarring condition unrelated to COVID-19, after treatment at Mayo Clinic.[28] As AEW World Champion, Lee's "Dark Order" faction drew peak TV ratings of 1.2 million viewers for his title win in 2020, revitalizing storylines and mentoring younger talent in promotions reaching global audiences.Births
Pre-1600
Pope Dionysius (r. 259–268) died on December 26, 268, in Rome from natural causes, likely advanced age, after a pontificate focused on condemning Sabellian and Marcionite heresies amid post-persecution recovery in the early Church.[6][7] Pope Zosimus (r. 417–418) died on December 26, 418, in Rome from natural causes during his short tenure, which involved asserting papal primacy against Pelagian sympathizers in Gaul and resolving clerical appeals from the provinces.[8][9] Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur (1483–1530), Timurid prince and founder of the Mughal dynasty following his 1526 victory at Panipat, died on December 26, 1530, in Agra at age 47 from natural causes attributed to illness, possibly a fever exacerbated by the era's limited medical interventions; his passing prompted the succession of his son Humayun, who inherited a fragile empire vulnerable to Afghan rivals and internal strife.[10][11]1601–1900
John Wilkes (1725–1797), English radical politician, journalist, and advocate for parliamentary reform, died on December 26, 1797, in London at the age of 72.[12] His campaigns against general warrants and for press freedom, sparked by the 1763 North Briton No. 45 scandal, secured legal precedents like the rejection of seditious libel prosecutions without jury trial, influencing English common law protections for speech.[12] However, Wilkes's repeated electoral disqualifications and reliance on personal charisma over institutional mechanisms demonstrated the empirical constraints of individual radicalism, as his Middlesex victories failed to yield lasting structural reforms amid elite resistance and public disillusionment by the 1790s. Antoine Houdar de la Motte (1672–1731), French playwright, poet, and librettist, died on December 26, 1731, in Paris. His adaptations of classical works, including abbreviated versions of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey arguing for modern superiority over ancient models, contributed to early 18th-century literary debates on neoclassicism versus innovation.[13] De la Motte's collaborations with composers like Campra on operas such as Camille (1706) advanced French lyrical tragedy, though his empirical approach to textual criticism—prioritizing accessibility over fidelity—highlighted tensions in cultural transmission without resolving underlying causal divergences in artistic evolution. Heinrich Schliemann (1822–1890), German archaeologist and self-taught excavator of Bronze Age sites, died on December 26, 1890, in Naples from a cerebral infection following ear surgery.[14] His 1870s digs at Hisarlik (identified as Troy) and Mycenae uncovered artifacts like Priam's Treasure and the Mask of Agamemnon, providing physical corroboration for Homeric narratives and shifting historiography from mythic dismissal to evidence-based validation of oral traditions' historical kernels.[14] Schliemann's passing concluded his field campaigns, which, despite amateur methods and later stratigraphic critiques, catalyzed professional archaeology's emphasis on interdisciplinary verification over speculative reconstruction. Stephen Girard (1750–1831), French-born American financier and philanthropist, died on December 26, 1831, in Philadelphia. His banking acumen during the War of 1812, including loans exceeding $10 million to the U.S. government, stabilized federal credit amid fiscal crises, while his post-mortem bequest founding Girard College for orphans demonstrated private capital's role in public education without state dependency.[15] Girard's estate, valued at $7 million—the largest in U.S. history at the time—underscored causal links between mercantile risk-taking and institutional legacy, though inheritance disputes revealed limits in enforcing donor intent absent robust legal safeguards.1901–present
Harry S. Truman, the 33rd President of the United States from 1945 to 1953, died on December 26, 1972, at age 88 in Kansas City, Missouri, from pneumonia that progressed to multiple organ failure and a coma.[16] [17] His Truman Doctrine of 1947 pledged U.S. support against communist aggression, delivering $400 million in aid to Greece and Turkey and influencing the Marshall Plan's $13 billion in European reconstruction, which contributed to economic recovery and NATO's formation in 1949 to counter Soviet expansion.[18] Comedian and actor Jack Benny died on December 26, 1974, at age 80 in Los Angeles from pancreatic cancer, diagnosed just days earlier after stomach pains; the disease had metastasized undetected.[19] His radio and television programs, running from the 1930s to 1960s, consistently ranked in the top 10, with the TV version averaging 27.5 million weekly viewers at its peak in the 1950s, establishing self-deprecating humor and stinginess as comedic staples.[20] Film director Howard Hawks died on December 26, 1977, at age 81 in Palm Springs, California, from complications of a concussion sustained in a fall over his dog several weeks prior.[21] Known for over 40 films including His Girl Friday (1940) and Rio Bravo (1959), Hawks influenced genres like screwball comedy and Westerns, with his works grossing tens of millions adjusted for inflation and mentoring stars such as Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall. Soul musician Curtis Mayfield died on December 26, 1999, at age 57 in Roswell, Georgia, from complications of type 2 diabetes, including respiratory failure following a 1990 stage accident that paralyzed him from the neck down.[22] His 1972 soundtrack for Super Fly sold over 1 million copies in its first two months, earning a Grammy for Best Instrumental Arrangement, and his socially conscious lyrics on poverty and civil rights shaped funk and soul, with over 20 million records sold lifetime. Primatologist Dian Fossey died on December 26, 1985, at age 53 in her Rwanda cabin, hacked to death with a machete in an unsolved murder likely linked to poachers or research rivals; her body was discovered the next day.[23] Her 18-year study of mountain gorillas documented family structures and behaviors, reducing poaching incidents at Karisoke Research Center from dozens annually to near zero by 1980 through armed patrols, though her confrontational anti-poaching tactics drew criticism for endangering staff. Former U.S. President Gerald Ford died on December 26, 2006, at age 93 in Rancho Mirage, California, from arteriosclerotic cerebrovascular disease and cardiac arrest.[24] [25] As the only unelected president (1974–1977), Ford's pardon of Richard Nixon prevented prolonged national division post-Watergate, while his administration navigated stagflation with unemployment peaking at 9% in 1975 and inflation at 11%, stabilizing via vetoes of 66 spending bills to curb deficits exceeding $50 billion annually. Singer Teena Marie died on December 26, 2010, at age 54 in her Las Vegas home from a grand mal seizure, with autopsy revealing no trauma or drugs but possible contribution from a prior 2004 head injury; her daughter found her.[26] [27] Known as the "Ivory Queen of Soul," her debut Wild and Peaceful (1979) reached No. 2 on R&B charts, selling over 500,000 copies, and collaborations with Rick James yielded hits like "I'm a Sucker for Your Love," amassing millions in sales over three decades. Professional wrestler Jonathan Huber, known as Brodie Lee, died on December 26, 2020, at age 41 from idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, a lung-scarring condition unrelated to COVID-19, after treatment at Mayo Clinic.[28] As AEW World Champion, Lee's "Dark Order" faction drew peak TV ratings of 1.2 million viewers for his title win in 2020, revitalizing storylines and mentoring younger talent in promotions reaching global audiences.Deaths
Pre-1600
Pope Dionysius (r. 259–268) died on December 26, 268, in Rome from natural causes, likely advanced age, after a pontificate focused on condemning Sabellian and Marcionite heresies amid post-persecution recovery in the early Church.[6][7] Pope Zosimus (r. 417–418) died on December 26, 418, in Rome from natural causes during his short tenure, which involved asserting papal primacy against Pelagian sympathizers in Gaul and resolving clerical appeals from the provinces.[8][9] Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur (1483–1530), Timurid prince and founder of the Mughal dynasty following his 1526 victory at Panipat, died on December 26, 1530, in Agra at age 47 from natural causes attributed to illness, possibly a fever exacerbated by the era's limited medical interventions; his passing prompted the succession of his son Humayun, who inherited a fragile empire vulnerable to Afghan rivals and internal strife.[10][11]1601–1900
John Wilkes (1725–1797), English radical politician, journalist, and advocate for parliamentary reform, died on December 26, 1797, in London at the age of 72.[12] His campaigns against general warrants and for press freedom, sparked by the 1763 North Briton No. 45 scandal, secured legal precedents like the rejection of seditious libel prosecutions without jury trial, influencing English common law protections for speech.[12] However, Wilkes's repeated electoral disqualifications and reliance on personal charisma over institutional mechanisms demonstrated the empirical constraints of individual radicalism, as his Middlesex victories failed to yield lasting structural reforms amid elite resistance and public disillusionment by the 1790s. Antoine Houdar de la Motte (1672–1731), French playwright, poet, and librettist, died on December 26, 1731, in Paris. His adaptations of classical works, including abbreviated versions of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey arguing for modern superiority over ancient models, contributed to early 18th-century literary debates on neoclassicism versus innovation.[13] De la Motte's collaborations with composers like Campra on operas such as Camille (1706) advanced French lyrical tragedy, though his empirical approach to textual criticism—prioritizing accessibility over fidelity—highlighted tensions in cultural transmission without resolving underlying causal divergences in artistic evolution. Heinrich Schliemann (1822–1890), German archaeologist and self-taught excavator of Bronze Age sites, died on December 26, 1890, in Naples from a cerebral infection following ear surgery.[14] His 1870s digs at Hisarlik (identified as Troy) and Mycenae uncovered artifacts like Priam's Treasure and the Mask of Agamemnon, providing physical corroboration for Homeric narratives and shifting historiography from mythic dismissal to evidence-based validation of oral traditions' historical kernels.[14] Schliemann's passing concluded his field campaigns, which, despite amateur methods and later stratigraphic critiques, catalyzed professional archaeology's emphasis on interdisciplinary verification over speculative reconstruction. Stephen Girard (1750–1831), French-born American financier and philanthropist, died on December 26, 1831, in Philadelphia. His banking acumen during the War of 1812, including loans exceeding $10 million to the U.S. government, stabilized federal credit amid fiscal crises, while his post-mortem bequest founding Girard College for orphans demonstrated private capital's role in public education without state dependency.[15] Girard's estate, valued at $7 million—the largest in U.S. history at the time—underscored causal links between mercantile risk-taking and institutional legacy, though inheritance disputes revealed limits in enforcing donor intent absent robust legal safeguards.1901–present
Harry S. Truman, the 33rd President of the United States from 1945 to 1953, died on December 26, 1972, at age 88 in Kansas City, Missouri, from pneumonia that progressed to multiple organ failure and a coma.[16] [17] His Truman Doctrine of 1947 pledged U.S. support against communist aggression, delivering $400 million in aid to Greece and Turkey and influencing the Marshall Plan's $13 billion in European reconstruction, which contributed to economic recovery and NATO's formation in 1949 to counter Soviet expansion.[18] Comedian and actor Jack Benny died on December 26, 1974, at age 80 in Los Angeles from pancreatic cancer, diagnosed just days earlier after stomach pains; the disease had metastasized undetected.[19] His radio and television programs, running from the 1930s to 1960s, consistently ranked in the top 10, with the TV version averaging 27.5 million weekly viewers at its peak in the 1950s, establishing self-deprecating humor and stinginess as comedic staples.[20] Film director Howard Hawks died on December 26, 1977, at age 81 in Palm Springs, California, from complications of a concussion sustained in a fall over his dog several weeks prior.[21] Known for over 40 films including His Girl Friday (1940) and Rio Bravo (1959), Hawks influenced genres like screwball comedy and Westerns, with his works grossing tens of millions adjusted for inflation and mentoring stars such as Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall. Soul musician Curtis Mayfield died on December 26, 1999, at age 57 in Roswell, Georgia, from complications of type 2 diabetes, including respiratory failure following a 1990 stage accident that paralyzed him from the neck down.[22] His 1972 soundtrack for Super Fly sold over 1 million copies in its first two months, earning a Grammy for Best Instrumental Arrangement, and his socially conscious lyrics on poverty and civil rights shaped funk and soul, with over 20 million records sold lifetime. Primatologist Dian Fossey died on December 26, 1985, at age 53 in her Rwanda cabin, hacked to death with a machete in an unsolved murder likely linked to poachers or research rivals; her body was discovered the next day.[23] Her 18-year study of mountain gorillas documented family structures and behaviors, reducing poaching incidents at Karisoke Research Center from dozens annually to near zero by 1980 through armed patrols, though her confrontational anti-poaching tactics drew criticism for endangering staff. Former U.S. President Gerald Ford died on December 26, 2006, at age 93 in Rancho Mirage, California, from arteriosclerotic cerebrovascular disease and cardiac arrest.[24] [25] As the only unelected president (1974–1977), Ford's pardon of Richard Nixon prevented prolonged national division post-Watergate, while his administration navigated stagflation with unemployment peaking at 9% in 1975 and inflation at 11%, stabilizing via vetoes of 66 spending bills to curb deficits exceeding $50 billion annually. Singer Teena Marie died on December 26, 2010, at age 54 in her Las Vegas home from a grand mal seizure, with autopsy revealing no trauma or drugs but possible contribution from a prior 2004 head injury; her daughter found her.[26] [27] Known as the "Ivory Queen of Soul," her debut Wild and Peaceful (1979) reached No. 2 on R&B charts, selling over 500,000 copies, and collaborations with Rick James yielded hits like "I'm a Sucker for Your Love," amassing millions in sales over three decades. Professional wrestler Jonathan Huber, known as Brodie Lee, died on December 26, 2020, at age 41 from idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, a lung-scarring condition unrelated to COVID-19, after treatment at Mayo Clinic.[28] As AEW World Champion, Lee's "Dark Order" faction drew peak TV ratings of 1.2 million viewers for his title win in 2020, revitalizing storylines and mentoring younger talent in promotions reaching global audiences.Holidays and observances
St. Stephen's Day and Boxing Day
St. Stephen's Day, celebrated on December 26, honors Saint Stephen, the first Christian martyr and one of the seven deacons appointed in the early church, who was stoned to death circa 34 AD after delivering a speech accusing his accusers of resisting the Holy Spirit, as recounted in Acts 7:54–60 of the New Testament.[29][30] The martyrdom, occurring shortly after Jesus's crucifixion, marked the initial recorded persecution of Christians in Jerusalem, with Stephen's death witnessed by figures including Saul (later Paul).[29] The feast day was established in the Western liturgical calendar by the 4th century as the second day of the Christmas octave, reflecting the church's early emphasis on sequential commemoration of key figures in salvation history.[31] In traditional observances, particularly in Catholic and Anglican contexts, the day involves liturgical masses focusing on themes of forgiveness and witness, drawing from Stephen's final prayer for his persecutors.[30] Regional customs include the wren hunt in Celtic-influenced areas like Ireland and parts of Wales, where groups capture and parade a wren—symbolizing the bird's alleged betrayal of Stephen by chirping to reveal his hiding place—before burying it in a ritual procession to collect alms for the poor, a practice documented in folk traditions from at least the 17th century.[32][33] This custom, while declining due to animal welfare concerns, underscores pre-modern agrarian ties to seasonal sacrifice and communal charity, with parallels to ancient solstice rites adapted into Christian practice.[34] Boxing Day, the common secular name for December 26 in Commonwealth nations, derives from 19th-century British customs where employers distributed "Christmas boxes" of money or goods to servants and tradespeople who had worked on Christmas Day, allowing them a holiday to visit families.[35] An earlier ecclesiastical origin traces to medieval church alms boxes, filled with donations for the needy during Advent and opened on St. Stephen's Day—linked to the saint's role in distributing aid (Acts 6)—to disburse contents to the poor, a practice evidenced in parish records and reinforced by Victorian-era charitable norms amid class divisions.[36][37] Though origins remain debated among historians, with no single document definitively coining the term before the 1830s, the holiday evolved from these roots into a public bank holiday formalized in the UK by the Bank Holidays Act of 1871.[36][2] In contemporary Commonwealth countries, Boxing Day retains charitable undertones but emphasizes leisure and commerce, such as post-Christmas sales generating significant economic activity—for instance, Australian retail spending reached an estimated A$1.3 billion in 2024—and sporting events like the Boxing Day Test cricket match in Melbourne, which since 1861 has drawn crowds exceeding 300,000 over five days, boosting local tourism and hospitality.[38] These variations highlight causal persistence of hierarchical social giving in modern secular forms, while prioritizing empirical holiday traditions over later commercial accretions.[36]Kwanzaa
Kwanzaa is a week-long observance from December 26 to January 1, invented in 1966 by Maulana Karenga, then known as Ron Everett, a Black nationalist activist and founder of the US Organization. Karenga developed it in the wake of the 1965 Watts riots in Los Angeles as a non-Christian alternative to Christmas, aiming to foster African American cultural pride and self-determination amid the Black Power movement. The name derives from the Swahili phrase matunda ya kwanza, meaning "first fruits of the harvest," but Kwanzaa lacks roots in any specific traditional African harvest festival; instead, it eclectically borrows symbols and terms from various African cultures and Swahili without a unified historical precedent.[39] The holiday revolves around the Nguzo Saba, or seven principles, each emphasized on successive days:- Umoja (unity): Striving for harmony in family, community, and race.
- Kujichagulia (self-determination): Defining one's own identity and destiny.
- Ujima (collective work and responsibility): Building and maintaining community through shared effort.
- Ujamaa (cooperative economics): Supporting black-owned businesses and economic solidarity.
- Nia (purpose): Committing to community goals.
- Kuumba (creativity): Using skills to enhance cultural legacy.
- Imani (faith): Believing in people, leaders, and the righteousness of struggle.