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Respiratory failure

Respiratory failure is a life-threatening condition in which the lungs cannot adequately perform gas exchange, resulting in insufficient oxygen reaching the bloodstream (hypoxemia) and/or excessive carbon dioxide buildup (hypercapnia).^[1] It is broadly classified into two types: Type 1 (hypoxemic) respiratory failure, characterized by low arterial oxygen levels (PaO₂ < 60 mmHg) with normal or low carbon dioxide levels, often due to impaired oxygenation from conditions like pneumonia or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS); and Type 2 (hypercapnic) respiratory failure, marked by both hypoxemia and elevated carbon dioxide levels (PaCO₂ > 45 mmHg), typically resulting from inadequate ventilation as seen in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbations or neuromuscular disorders.^[1] This failure can manifest acutely, requiring immediate intervention, or chronically, where the body adapts over time but remains at risk for decompensation.^[2] Common causes include underlying lung diseases such as COPD, asthma, or interstitial lung disease; acute infections like pneumonia or COVID-19; trauma or injury to the chest; and non-pulmonary factors like drug overdose, obesity hypoventilation syndrome, or neurological conditions affecting respiratory muscles.^[3] Risk factors encompass smoking, advanced age, and chronic illnesses that compromise lung function, with epidemiology indicating it affects millions annually, particularly in intensive care settings where it is a leading cause of admission.^[1] Symptoms often develop rapidly and include severe shortness of breath (dyspnea), rapid or shallow breathing (tachypnea), confusion or restlessness due to hypoxia, bluish discoloration of the skin or lips (cyanosis), and extreme fatigue.^[2] In severe cases, it may progress to respiratory arrest, coma, or organ failure if untreated.^[4] Diagnosis typically involves arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis to confirm gas exchange abnormalities, alongside imaging like chest X-rays or CT scans to identify underlying pathology, and clinical assessment of vital signs.^[5] Treatment focuses on supportive measures such as supplemental oxygen, non-invasive ventilation (e.g., BiPAP), or mechanical ventilation in critical cases, combined with addressing the root cause through medications, antibiotics, or surgery as needed.^[1] Prognosis varies by type, acuity, and comorbidities, but early recognition and intervention can significantly improve outcomes and prevent long-term complications like pulmonary hypertension.^[3]

Background

Definition

Respiratory failure is defined as an acute impairment of gas exchange in the lungs, resulting in hypoxemia (PaO₂ < 60 mmHg) and/or hypercapnia (PaCO₂ > 50 mmHg) while breathing room air, typically accompanied by clinical manifestations of respiratory distress such as tachypnea, use of accessory muscles, or cyanosis.^[1] This condition arises when the respiratory system fails to maintain adequate oxygenation of the blood or remove sufficient carbon dioxide, leading to life-threatening imbalances if untreated.^[1] Respiratory failure can be classified as acute or chronic based on the tempo of onset and physiological adaptation. Acute respiratory failure develops rapidly, over minutes to hours, often requiring immediate intervention due to abrupt decompensation and lack of compensatory mechanisms.^[6] In contrast, chronic respiratory failure progresses gradually over days to months, allowing the body to adapt through mechanisms like increased bicarbonate retention to buffer acidosis, though exacerbations can still prove fatal.^[6] It is important to distinguish respiratory failure from related conditions like respiratory insufficiency and respiratory arrest. Respiratory insufficiency describes a milder degree of ventilatory impairment that does not reach the arterial blood gas thresholds for failure, often manageable without mechanical support.^[7] Respiratory arrest, however, represents the complete cessation of spontaneous breathing, necessitating immediate cardiopulmonary resuscitation.^[8] Criteria for diagnosis have been refined over time, with guidelines from organizations like the American Thoracic Society emphasizing these blood gas thresholds and clinical context.^[1]

Pathophysiology

Respiratory failure arises from disruptions in the normal mechanisms of pulmonary gas exchange, which rely on precise matching of alveolar ventilation to perfusion (V/Q ratio) and efficient diffusion of gases across the alveolar-capillary membrane. In healthy lungs, the V/Q ratio is approximately 0.8 overall, with regional variations ensuring optimal oxygenation; ventilation delivers oxygen-rich air to alveoli while perfusion supplies deoxygenated blood from the pulmonary arteries, allowing O₂ to bind to hemoglobin and CO₂ to be exhaled. Diffusion occurs passively down partial pressure gradients, with the thin alveolar-capillary barrier (about 0.5–1 μm thick) facilitating rapid equilibration of O₂ and CO₂ within 0.75 seconds of transit time. Arterial oxygen content (CaO₂), which determines oxygen delivery to tissues, is calculated as:

\text{CaO}_2 = (\text{Hb} \times 1.34 \times \text{SaO}_2) + (0.003 \times \text{PaO}_2)

where Hb is hemoglobin concentration, SaO₂ is arterial oxygen saturation, and PaO₂ is arterial partial pressure of oxygen; the bound component dominates, carrying over 97% of oxygen under normal conditions.^[9]^[10] Pathophysiological mechanisms leading to respiratory failure include ventilation-perfusion (V/Q) mismatch, diffusion impairment, hypoventilation, and right-to-left shunting. V/Q mismatch occurs when ventilation and perfusion are imbalanced: low V/Q regions (shunt-like) result from perfused but poorly ventilated alveoli, causing deoxygenated blood to mix with oxygenated blood; high V/Q regions (dead space) involve ventilated but underperfused alveoli, wasting ventilation and contributing to inefficient CO₂ elimination. Diffusion impairment arises from thickening or damage to the alveolar-capillary membrane, such as interstitial edema, which prolongs transit time and reduces gas transfer, particularly for O₂. Hypoventilation reduces alveolar ventilation relative to CO₂ production, while right-to-left shunting bypasses ventilated alveoli entirely, delivering unoxygenated blood directly to systemic circulation.^[11]^[1] Hypoxemia in respiratory failure stems from low inspired oxygen (e.g., high altitude), hypoventilation, diffusion limitation, or shunt, with V/Q mismatch being the most common; unlike hypercapnic states, pure hypoxemia often lacks CO₂ retention because compensatory hyperventilation maintains PaCO₂ until late stages, exacerbating hypoxemia by further reducing PaO₂. Hypercapnia results from alveolar hypoventilation due to increased physiologic dead space (ventilated but non-perfused areas) or reduced minute ventilation, impairing CO₂ removal; the respiratory quotient (RQ), defined as the ratio of CO₂ production to O₂ consumption (RQ = VCO₂/VO₂ ≈ 0.8 under normal mixed-diet conditions), influences alveolar gas composition and highlights mismatches when ventilation fails to match metabolic demands.^[11]^[1]^[12]^[13] At the cellular level, CO₂ retention from hypercapnia causes acid-base imbalance through respiratory acidosis, where elevated PaCO₂ increases carbonic acid formation, lowering blood pH; this is quantified by the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:

\text{pH} = 6.1 + \log\left(\frac{[\text{HCO}_3^-]}{0.03 \times \text{PaCO}_2}\right)

with acute rises in PaCO₂ (e.g., >45 mmHg) shifting the ratio and dropping pH by about 0.08 units per 10 mmHg increase before renal compensation. Respiratory muscle fatigue, often from prolonged high workload in obstructive or restrictive diseases, leads to progressive hypoventilation as diaphragm and intercostal muscles fail, reducing tidal volume and minute ventilation. Central drive failure, involving impaired chemoreceptor response to hypercapnia or hypoxemia (e.g., in opioid overdose or brainstem injury), diminishes neural output to respiratory muscles, exacerbating alveolar underventilation and gas exchange inefficiency.^[14]^[1]^[15]

Classification

Type 1 (Hypoxemic)

Type 1 respiratory failure, also known as hypoxemic respiratory failure, is characterized by a partial pressure of arterial oxygen (PaO₂) below 60 mmHg with a normal or low partial pressure of arterial carbon dioxide (PaCO₂), indicating impaired oxygenation without significant carbon dioxide retention.^[1] This condition primarily arises from disruptions in the lung's ability to oxygenate blood effectively, often due to parenchymal lung diseases that affect gas exchange at the alveolar level.^[16] The primary mechanisms underlying hypoxemia in Type 1 respiratory failure include ventilation-perfusion (V/Q) mismatch, intrapulmonary shunting, and diffusion impairment. V/Q mismatch occurs when ventilation and perfusion are unevenly distributed, such as in regions of the lung with reduced ventilation relative to blood flow, leading to inadequate oxygen uptake.^[11] Shunting involves blood passing through the lungs without being oxygenated, as seen in consolidated or fluid-filled alveoli, and is a dominant factor in severe cases where shunt fractions can exceed 30%, rendering hypoxemia partially refractory to supplemental oxygen.^[17] Diffusion barriers, such as alveolar thickening from inflammation or edema, further hinder oxygen transfer across the alveolar-capillary membrane.^[11] Common etiologies of Type 1 respiratory failure encompass pneumonia, pulmonary edema, and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Pneumonia and cardiogenic or noncardiogenic pulmonary edema cause alveolar filling with fluid or inflammatory exudate, promoting shunting and V/Q mismatch.^[1] ARDS, as defined by the Berlin criteria, features acute onset within one week of a known insult, bilateral opacities on imaging not fully attributable to cardiac failure or fluid overload, and a PaO₂/FiO₂ ratio of less than 300 mmHg with a minimum positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) of 5 cm H₂O.^[18] Clinically, Type 1 respiratory failure often presents with rapid-onset hypoxemia that may improve partially with supplemental oxygen in cases dominated by V/Q mismatch, but becomes refractory when shunting predominates, such as with shunt fractions above 30%, necessitating advanced interventions to maintain oxygenation.^[19] Representative examples include aspiration pneumonitis, where gastric contents inflame the lung parenchyma leading to diffuse alveolar damage and shunting, and pulmonary embolism, which creates low V/Q zones by obstructing pulmonary arteries and impairing regional perfusion matching.^[20]^[21]

Type 2 (Hypercapnic)

Type 2 respiratory failure, also known as hypercapnic respiratory failure, is characterized by arterial hypoxemia (PaO2 < 60 mmHg) combined with hypercapnia (PaCO2 > 50 mmHg), arising from inadequate alveolar ventilation that impairs carbon dioxide elimination.^[6] This form of ventilatory failure contrasts with oxygenation defects by primarily involving pump dysfunction rather than gas exchange abnormalities in the lungs.^[1] The underlying mechanisms center on alveolar hypoventilation due to increased work of breathing, respiratory muscle fatigue, or central hypoventilation. Increased work of breathing occurs when airway resistance rises or lung compliance falls, demanding greater effort from respiratory muscles to achieve adequate tidal volumes. Respiratory muscle fatigue, especially in the diaphragm, ensues when these muscles operate at more than 60% of their maximum capacity for extended durations, leading to progressive weakness and CO2 retention.^[22] Central hypoventilation results from depressed neural drive to breathe, often triggered by sedatives or neurological impairment, further reducing ventilatory output.^[23] Common etiologies encompass exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), where airflow limitation heightens the work of breathing; neuromuscular disorders such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and myasthenia gravis, which weaken muscle contraction; and opioid overdose, which suppresses central respiratory control.^[6] These conditions collectively overwhelm the ventilatory system's ability to match metabolic CO2 production. Physiologically, hypercapnia induces respiratory acidosis, with acute pH decline estimated by the formula \Delta \mathrm{pH} = 0.008 \times \Delta \mathrm{PaCO_2}, where \Delta \mathrm{PaCO_2} represents the rise above 40 mmHg.^[24] In chronic hypercapnia, renal compensation occurs through bicarbonate (HCO3-) retention, raising serum levels by approximately 3.5 mEq/L per 10 mmHg chronic PaCO2 increase to partially restore pH.^[25] Severity can be severe when PaCO2 exceeds 80 mmHg, often with pH <7.2, risking encephalopathy and hemodynamic instability.^[26]

Other Types

Type 3 respiratory failure, also known as perioperative respiratory failure, is characterized by hypoxemia, hypercapnia, or both occurring during the perioperative period due to factors associated with surgery and anesthesia.^[27] This condition often manifests as a subtype of type 1 failure but can involve ventilatory impairment, primarily resulting from lung or alveolar atelectasis caused by reduced functional residual capacity under general anesthesia, as well as risks like aspiration from airway management challenges or patient-related factors such as obesity.^[27] The incidence of perioperative respiratory failure ranges from 5% to 10% in general surgical patients undergoing general anesthesia, with higher rates—up to 40%—observed in cardiothoracic procedures, such as post-cardiac surgery failure where atelectasis and fluid shifts contribute significantly.^[27] This type is typically transient and resolves postoperatively with supportive measures like incentive spirometry and early mobilization.^[27] Type 4 respiratory failure arises secondary to circulatory shock, where increased metabolic oxygen demands overwhelm the cardiopulmonary system's capacity to deliver adequate oxygenation and CO2 elimination, often leading to tissue hypoxia. Common underlying shocks include cardiogenic, where left ventricular dysfunction causes pulmonary edema from fluid overload, and septic shock, which triggers acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) through systemic inflammation and endothelial injury.^[28] In these cases, hypotension—defined as mean arterial pressure (MAP) below 65 mmHg—exacerbates the failure by further impairing oxygen delivery to tissues, creating a multifactorial process involving both respiratory and circulatory derangements.^[28] Examples include sepsis-induced ARDS, where inflammatory cytokines promote alveolar-capillary permeability and non-cardiogenic edema, and cardiogenic shock post-myocardial infarction leading to concurrent hypoxemic failure.^[29] Key distinctions between type 3 and type 4 lie in their etiologies and trajectories: type 3 is primarily anesthesia- and procedure-induced, often self-limiting after surgery, whereas type 4 is driven by systemic circulatory collapse, requiring integrated hemodynamic resuscitation alongside respiratory support.^[27] Recent advancements as of 2025, including enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) protocols, have demonstrated reductions in type 3 incidence through multimodal strategies like prehabilitation, optimized analgesia, and early postoperative mobilization, particularly in lung and thoracic surgeries.^[30] If untreated, both types can progress to established type 1 or type 2 respiratory failure by worsening gas exchange impairments.^[6]

Epidemiology and Risk Factors

Incidence and Prevalence

Respiratory failure represents a significant burden on healthcare systems, with acute cases leading to substantial hospitalizations worldwide. In the United States, approximately 1.15 million adult patients were discharged with a diagnosis of acute respiratory failure in 2017, corresponding to an incidence rate of about 455 cases per 100,000 adults.^[31] Globally, the incidence varies widely due to differences in reporting and underlying conditions, but estimates for acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), a common subset of respiratory failure, indicate around 3 million cases annually, with about 200,000 occurring in high-income countries like the US. Respiratory failure accounts for 20-50% of intensive care unit (ICU) admissions, depending on the population studied, highlighting its role as a leading cause of critical care utilization. Prevalence is notably higher among certain demographics, particularly the elderly. Individuals over 65 years face an elevated risk, with age serving as an independent predictor of incidence and severity; studies show middle-aged and older adults have 1.5 to 2.1 times higher mortality risk compared to younger patients, compounded by comorbidities like chronic lung disease. In the US, data indicate around 200,000 incident cases of ARDS annually, predominantly affecting older adults. Demographic patterns reveal a higher incidence in males, with rates approximately 20% greater than in females, yielding a male-to-female ratio of about 1.5:1, often linked to higher smoking prevalence among men. Smokers overall experience increased susceptibility, though specific quantification varies by region. As of 2020, mortality rates had increased to 6.8 per 100,000 population, but incidence remained relatively stable through 2024 in high-income countries.^[32] Trends in respiratory failure have been influenced by recent events, including the COVID-19 pandemic, which caused a surge in both acute and chronic cases from 2020 to 2022. Post-infection sequelae, such as persistent lung damage, have contributed to a rise in chronic respiratory complications, with up to 15-20% of severe COVID-19 survivors developing long-term issues like fibrosis or reduced lung function. In low-resource settings, mortality from respiratory failure is substantially higher—often exceeding 37% in-hospital—compared to high-income countries, primarily due to limited access to mechanical ventilation and supportive care, exacerbating global disparities. Projections through 2025 suggest stable incidence in high-income nations, but aging populations may drive increases in vulnerable groups.

Risk Factors

Risk factors for respiratory failure can be categorized as non-modifiable and modifiable, with acute precipitants and comorbidities further contributing to susceptibility. Non-modifiable factors include advanced age, male sex, and certain genetic conditions. Adults over 65 years of age face a significantly higher risk of acute respiratory failure, with incidence increasing exponentially due to age-related declines in lung function and immune response.^[33] Male sex has been associated with increased risk in specific contexts, such as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) following critical injury, potentially due to differences in inflammatory responses and hormone profiles.^[34] Genetic predispositions, such as alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, elevate the risk of developing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) that progresses to respiratory failure, often at a younger age than typical COPD.^[35] Modifiable risk factors primarily involve lifestyle and environmental exposures that impair respiratory reserve. Smoking is a leading modifiable risk, substantially increasing the likelihood of COPD and subsequent respiratory failure through cumulative lung damage; even moderate exposure correlates with higher postoperative respiratory complications.^[36] Obesity, defined as a body mass index (BMI) greater than 30 kg/m², contributes to restrictive lung mechanics, reduced functional residual capacity, and higher susceptibility to conditions like obesity hypoventilation syndrome, which can precipitate acute failure.^[37] Chronic lung diseases such as COPD and interstitial lung disease (ILD) markedly heighten risk, with acute exacerbations accounting for over half of hospitalizations in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and associated with poor prognosis, including in-hospital mortality rates around 50%.^[38] Acute precipitants often trigger failure in at-risk individuals and include infections, trauma, and drug overdose. Pneumonia is a major cause, accounting for respiratory failure in approximately 50% of fatal community-acquired cases, particularly in vulnerable populations.^[39] Trauma and drug overdoses compromise respiratory drive or mechanics, leading to rapid decompensation, as seen in severe airway disorders or central nervous system depression.^[6] Environmental factors like urban air pollution contribute an attributable risk of 10-15% for chronic respiratory conditions that predispose to failure, exacerbating inflammation and oxidative stress in polluted areas.^[40] Comorbidities amplify vulnerability by compounding respiratory stress. Heart failure, through left ventricular dysfunction, promotes pulmonary edema and hypoxemic failure, representing a common pathway in cardiogenic cases.^[41] Neuromuscular diseases, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or myasthenia gravis, cause respiratory muscle weakness, resulting in chronic or acute ventilatory failure in a substantial proportion of patients.^[42] Preventive strategies targeting modifiable risks can mitigate incidence. Influenza and pneumococcal vaccinations reduce the risk of severe respiratory infections leading to failure by 20-56% in high-risk groups like the elderly and those with chronic lung disease, addressing gaps in care such as integrated tools like CURB-65 for stratifying pneumonia severity and guiding early intervention.^[43]^[44]

Clinical Presentation

Symptoms

Respiratory failure manifests primarily through subjective symptoms that reflect impaired gas exchange, with dyspnea serving as the most common initial complaint. Patients often describe shortness of breath, which may worsen with exertion or when lying flat (orthopnea), particularly in cases involving pulmonary congestion.^[45]^[46] In hypoxemic respiratory failure (Type 1), symptoms stem from inadequate oxygenation and include air hunger—a profound sensation of insufficient air intake—along with confusion and headaches due to cerebral hypoxia.^[4]^[45] Patients may also report restlessness or anxiety as early indicators of tissue oxygen deprivation. Hypercapnic respiratory failure (Type 2), characterized by carbon dioxide retention, presents with somnolence or excessive daytime sleepiness, blurred vision, and morning headaches resulting from elevated CO2 levels affecting cerebral blood flow.^[4]^[45]^[47] As respiratory failure progresses, symptoms evolve from initial anxiety and restlessness to profound fatigue, obtundation, and potentially loss of consciousness, signaling advanced decompensation and respiratory muscle exhaustion.^[45]^[4] In pediatric patients, particularly infants, manifestations include grunting during expiration and increased work of breathing, which may precede overt failure.^[45] Elderly individuals often exhibit atypical symptoms, such as generalized fatigue without prominent dyspnea, complicating early recognition.^[48]

Physical Examination

The physical examination in respiratory failure focuses on identifying signs of hypoxemia, hypercapnia, and respiratory distress, which guide initial triage and management. Patients often present with tachypnea, defined as a respiratory rate greater than 20 breaths per minute in adults, reflecting compensatory efforts to improve oxygenation.^[49] Use of accessory muscles, such as the sternocleidomastoid, is a hallmark of increased work of breathing and indicates impending respiratory muscle fatigue.^[50] Paradoxical breathing, where the abdomen moves inward during inspiration due to diaphragmatic dysfunction, signals advanced fatigue and is a critical indicator of imminent failure.^[51] Vital signs commonly reveal tachycardia, with heart rates exceeding 100 beats per minute, as a response to hypoxemia and sympathetic activation.^[52] Hypotension may occur in advanced cases, particularly with sepsis or cardiogenic causes, while fever is present if an infectious etiology underlies the failure.^[53] On auscultation, bilateral basilar crackles suggest pulmonary edema in hypoxemic failure, wheezes indicate bronchospasm as in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations leading to hypercapnic failure, and diminished breath sounds point to conditions like pneumothorax.^[54] General signs include central cyanosis when peripheral oxygen saturation falls below 85%, altered mental status with a Glasgow Coma Scale score less than 15 due to cerebral hypoxemia or hypercapnia, and diaphoresis from increased metabolic demand.^[55] Type-specific findings aid differentiation: in type 1 (hypoxemic) failure, bilateral basilar crackles predominate due to alveolar flooding, whereas type 2 (hypercapnic) failure may show bounding pulses from carbon dioxide-induced peripheral vasodilation.^[56]^[57] In sepsis-related respiratory failure, rapid triage incorporates tools like the quick Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (qSOFA), which uses respiratory rate ≥22 breaths/min, altered mentation, and systolic blood pressure ≤100 mmHg to identify high-risk patients outside intensive care settings, with scores ≥2 prompting escalation.^[58]

Diagnosis

Initial Assessment

The initial assessment of respiratory failure begins with the ABCDE approach, a systematic method to evaluate and stabilize the patient by addressing life-threatening issues in order of priority. Airway patency is first assessed by inspecting for obstructions, such as foreign bodies or swelling, and ensuring clear passage through maneuvers like head-tilt chin-lift if no cervical spine injury is suspected; if compromised, immediate intervention such as suctioning or advanced airway support is required. Breathing is then evaluated by observing respiratory rate (normal 12-20 breaths per minute, with tachypnea >24 indicating distress), effort (use of accessory muscles, retractions, or paradoxical breathing), and oxygen saturation via pulse oximetry; inadequate breathing prompts supplemental oxygen or ventilatory support. Circulation follows, checking blood pressure (hypotension <90 mmHg systolic signals shock) and heart rate (tachycardia >100 bpm or bradycardia <60 bpm may reflect compensatory mechanisms or decompensation). Disability (mental status via AVPU or Glasgow Coma Scale) and exposure (full body examination for clues like trauma) complete the sequence, allowing rapid identification of hypoxemia or hypercapnia as the underlying issue.^[59] A focused history is obtained concurrently to guide further evaluation, emphasizing onset (sudden vs. gradual, e.g., acute in pulmonary embolism versus chronic exacerbation in COPD), associated comorbidities (heart failure, neuromuscular disease), and potential exposures (smoking, toxins, infections). The OPQRST framework is particularly useful for characterizing dyspnea: Onset (when did it start?), Provocation/Palliation (what worsens or relieves it, like position or bronchodilators?), Quality (sharp, tight, or wheezing?), Region/Radiation (localized to chest or radiating?), Severity (scale of 1-10), and Time course (constant, intermittent, progressive?). This helps differentiate causes and assess urgency, with rapid onset and unrelieved symptoms suggesting critical pathology.^[60]^[61] Risk stratification employs validated scoring systems to predict poor outcomes and prioritize care. The quick Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (qSOFA) score, calculated from respiratory rate ≥22 breaths/min, altered mentation, and systolic blood pressure ≤100 mmHg, identifies high-risk patients outside the ICU; a score ≥2 points correlates with increased in-hospital mortality (up to 10-20% higher risk in sepsis-associated cases). The National Early Warning Score 2 (NEWS2) further assesses deterioration by aggregating vital signs (respiratory rate, oxygen saturation, blood pressure, heart rate, consciousness, temperature), with scores ≥5 indicating medium risk and ≥7 high risk, prompting escalation; in respiratory failure, it excels at detecting hypercapnic decompensation when adjusted for supplemental oxygen. Modern protocols, such as those from the International Severe Acute Respiratory and Emerging Infection Consortium (ISARIC), integrate these with clinical data for refined prognostication in acute settings.^[62]^[63]^[64] Continuous monitoring is essential during assessment to track response and guide titration. Pulse oximetry provides real-time SpO2 measurement, targeting 94-98% in most patients but 88-92% in those with COPD or chronic hypercapnia to avoid suppressing hypoxic drive and worsening CO2 retention. Capnography monitors end-tidal CO2 (ETCO2), with normal values 35-45 mmHg; rising ETCO2 (>45 mmHg) signals hypoventilation, while low ETCO2 (<35 mmHg) may indicate ventilation-perfusion mismatch, aiding early detection of deterioration. These tools, combined with frequent vital sign checks, enable dynamic adjustment before confirmatory testing.^[65] Triage categorizes respiratory failure as potentially reversible (e.g., acute asthma responsive to bronchodilators) versus irreversible (e.g., end-stage fibrosis), influencing resource allocation; reversible cases prioritize noninvasive interventions, while irreversible ones may require immediate ICU transfer. Physical examination findings, such as wheezing or cyanosis, briefly inform this but are secondary to ABC stabilization. This process ensures timely categorization through prompt recognition.^[66]^[67]

Confirmatory Tests

Arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis serves as the gold standard for confirming respiratory failure by directly assessing gas exchange and acid-base status.^[68] It measures partial pressure of oxygen (PaO₂), partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO₂), pH, and bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) levels in arterial blood, enabling classification into hypoxemic (type 1, PaO₂ < 60 mmHg with normal or low PaCO₂) or hypercapnic (type 2, PaCO₂ > 45 mmHg) failure.^[68] The alveolar-arterial (A-a) oxygen gradient, calculated as (FiO₂ × (P_atm - P_H₂O) - PaCO₂/0.8) - PaO₂, helps quantify ventilation-perfusion mismatch, with values exceeding 20 mmHg considered abnormal in young adults on room air.^[69] Laboratory tests complement ABG by identifying underlying causes and assessing systemic involvement. A complete blood count (CBC) evaluates for leukocytosis suggestive of infection or anemia contributing to hypoxemia.^[70] B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) levels above 100 pg/mL support a cardiac etiology, such as heart failure exacerbating respiratory compromise.^[71] Elevated lactate (>2 mmol/L) indicates tissue hypoperfusion in shock states, while blood cultures are indicated if sepsis is suspected as a precipitant.^[70] Imaging modalities provide structural insights to confirm and characterize respiratory failure. Chest X-ray is routinely used to detect infiltrates, effusions, or pneumothorax, though it may miss early or subtle changes.^[72] Computed tomography (CT), particularly with pulmonary embolism protocol, identifies thromboembolic disease or parenchymal abnormalities not visible on plain films.^[72] Bedside lung ultrasound assesses lung sliding to rule out pneumothorax and evaluates B-lines for interstitial edema or consolidation, offering rapid, radiation-free confirmation in acute settings.^[73] Advanced imaging evaluates contributory factors in complex cases. Echocardiography delineates cardiac contributions, such as right ventricular strain from pulmonary hypertension or left ventricular dysfunction in cardiogenic pulmonary edema.^[74] Ventilation-perfusion (V/Q) scanning is employed for suspected chronic thromboembolic disease, demonstrating mismatched perfusion defects with high sensitivity (96-97%) for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension.^[75] Recent advancements incorporate artificial intelligence (AI) to enhance imaging interpretation for faster acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) diagnosis, a common form of respiratory failure. AI models applied to chest X-rays and CT scans achieve higher accuracy in detecting ARDS patterns, reducing interobserver variability and enabling earlier intervention compared to manual methods.^[76] Multimodal deep learning integrating imaging with clinical data further improves ARDS detection, with studies reporting up to 90% sensitivity in real-time analysis as of 2025.^[77]

Management

Acute Supportive Care

Acute supportive care in respiratory failure focuses on immediate stabilization of oxygenation and ventilation through non-invasive measures to prevent progression to more severe decompensation. Initial interventions prioritize correcting hypoxemia while minimizing risks such as oxygen toxicity or worsening hypercapnia. These strategies are applied in emergency or acute care settings to buy time for definitive treatment of underlying causes. Oxygen therapy is a cornerstone of acute management, titrated to maintain peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO2) between 94% and 98% in most patients with hypoxemic respiratory failure. In cases of hypercapnic respiratory failure, such as in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbations, targets are adjusted to 88-92% to avoid suppressing respiratory drive. Delivery methods include low-flow nasal cannula at 2-6 L/min, which provides fractional inspired oxygen (FiO2) of approximately 24-44%, suitable for mild hypoxemia. High-flow nasal cannula (HFNC) is indicated for moderate hypoxemic respiratory failure, delivering heated, humidified oxygen at flows of 30-60 L/min and FiO2 up to 100%, which reduces work of breathing, improves comfort, and may decrease the need for intubation compared to conventional oxygen therapy.^[78] For more precise control, Venturi masks deliver fixed FiO2 levels from 24% to 60%, reducing variability in inspired oxygen concentration regardless of breathing patterns.^[79]^[80]^[79] Non-invasive ventilation (NIV), including bilevel positive airway pressure (BiPAP) and continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP), is indicated for type 2 (hypercapnic) respiratory failure to improve alveolar ventilation and reduce work of breathing. Typical initial settings for BiPAP start with inspiratory positive airway pressure (IPAP) of 10-12 cmH2O and expiratory positive airway pressure (EPAP) of 4-5 cmH2O, titrated upward to IPAP 15-20 cmH2O and EPAP 5-10 cmH2O based on patient tolerance and gas exchange. CPAP at 5-10 cmH2O may be used if hypercapnia is less severe. In COPD-related acute hypercapnic failure, NIV achieves success rates of 60-80%, defined as avoidance of intubation and improvement in pH and PaCO2, as supported by meta-analyses and clinical guidelines. The 2017 European Respiratory Society/American Thoracic Society guidelines emphasize early NIV application in selected patients to reduce mortality and intubation needs.^[81]^[82] Patient positioning plays a key role in optimizing respiratory mechanics. Elevating the head of the bed to a semi-Fowler position (approximately 45°) facilitates diaphragmatic excursion, reduces abdominal pressure on the lungs, and decreases the work of breathing in spontaneously breathing patients with acute respiratory failure. For severe hypoxemia in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), prone positioning may be considered as a bridge to intubation, improving ventilation-perfusion matching, though its use is typically reserved for cases progressing to mechanical ventilation.^[83] Pharmacologic support targets reversible contributors to respiratory distress. Short-acting bronchodilators, such as nebulized albuterol (2.5-5 mg every 4-6 hours), are administered to relieve bronchospasm in obstructive causes like asthma or COPD exacerbations. In cardiogenic pulmonary edema contributing to respiratory failure, loop diuretics like furosemide (20-40 mg IV) are used to reduce preload and alveolar fluid overload. Sedatives should generally be avoided to prevent respiratory depression, but low-dose anxiolytics (e.g., dexmedetomidine) may be employed if agitation impairs NIV tolerance.^[84]^[84]^[85] Response to these interventions is closely monitored through serial arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis, repeated 30-60 minutes after initiation of oxygen or NIV to assess improvements in pH, PaO2, and PaCO2. Continuous pulse oximetry and clinical signs, such as respiratory rate and mental status, guide adjustments. Failure to improve may necessitate escalation to advanced support.^[86]

Definitive Therapies

Definitive therapies for respiratory failure focus on addressing the underlying etiology to restore adequate gas exchange and prevent progression, typically initiated after initial stabilization. For infectious causes such as community-acquired pneumonia, empiric antibiotic therapy is guided by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and American Thoracic Society (ATS) 2019 guidelines, which recommend a beta-lactam like ceftriaxone combined with a macrolide such as azithromycin for hospitalized non-ICU patients without risk factors for resistant pathogens.^[87] In cases of influenza-associated respiratory failure, antiviral agents like oseltamivir are recommended by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) for hospitalized patients, with initiation as soon as possible to reduce viral replication and complications. In cardiogenic pulmonary edema contributing to respiratory failure, inotropic support with dobutamine is indicated for patients with hypotension and reduced cardiac output, starting at 2-5 mcg/kg/min intravenously to improve contractility while minimizing tachycardia.^[88] For associated cardiogenic shock, vasopressors such as norepinephrine are preferred as first-line therapy to maintain mean arterial pressure above 65 mmHg, often combined with inotropes in refractory cases.^[89] For massive pulmonary embolism causing acute respiratory failure, systemic thrombolysis with alteplase is recommended by American Heart Association guidelines for hemodynamically unstable patients, administered as 100 mg intravenously over 2 hours to rapidly dissolve the clot burden and improve right ventricular function.^[90] In refractory cases of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) not responsive to conventional therapies, veno-venous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VV-ECMO) serves as a rescue intervention; recent 2025 data from the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization registry indicate survival rates exceeding 60% in selected patients with severe hypoxemia.^[91] Opioid-induced respiratory failure requires prompt reversal with naloxone, dosed at 0.4-2 mg intravenously in adults, titrated to restore respiratory drive without precipitating withdrawal.^[92] For eosinophilic etiologies, such as severe asthma exacerbations leading to respiratory failure, targeted biologics like benralizumab (an anti-IL-5 receptor monoclonal antibody) have shown efficacy in reducing eosinophil counts and preventing recurrent exacerbations, as supported by 2024 clinical trials demonstrating faster resolution of acute episodes.^[93] A multidisciplinary approach enhances outcomes, including early referral to an intensive care unit (ICU) for patients with type 1 or type 2 respiratory failure requiring advanced monitoring and intervention, per Society of Critical Care Medicine guidelines.^[94] Enteral nutrition should be initiated within 24-48 hours in hemodynamically stable ICU patients to mitigate catabolism and support recovery, preferentially over parenteral routes to preserve gut integrity.^[95]

Mechanical Ventilation

Mechanical ventilation is indicated in respiratory failure when noninvasive ventilation (NIV) fails or is contraindicated, particularly in cases of severe hypoxemia such as a PaO2/FiO2 ratio less than 200 mmHg, life-threatening respiratory acidosis, or signs of respiratory muscle fatigue including increased respiratory rate, asynchronous breathing patterns, and altered mental status.^[96]^[97] These criteria ensure timely escalation from NIV to invasive support to prevent further deterioration in gas exchange and work of breathing.^[98] Common modes of invasive mechanical ventilation include volume-controlled ventilation (VCV), which delivers a preset tidal volume (typically 6 mL/kg of ideal body weight to minimize lung injury) regardless of airway pressure, and pressure-controlled ventilation (PCV), which delivers a preset inspiratory pressure to achieve variable tidal volumes based on lung compliance.^[99] VCV is preferred in scenarios where consistent tidal volume delivery is prioritized, such as in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), while PCV may offer better patient-ventilator synchrony in heterogeneous lung disease by limiting peak pressures.^[100] Both modes are adjusted to maintain protective lung strategies, with initial settings guided by patient physiology to avoid overdistension or cyclic collapse.^[101] Ventilator settings emphasize lung-protective strategies, with positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) typically set between 5 and 15 cmH2O to recruit collapsed alveoli and improve oxygenation while preventing atelectrauma.^[102] Fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) is titrated to maintain SpO2 between 88% and 95%, ideally keeping FiO2 below 60% to minimize oxygen toxicity.^[103] The ARDSNet protocol, a landmark approach, recommends low tidal volume ventilation at 6 mL/kg ideal body weight, which has been shown to reduce mortality by 22% (from 40% to 31%) compared to traditional higher volumes of 12 mL/kg in patients with ARDS.^[104] Weaning from mechanical ventilation begins once underlying causes of respiratory failure improve, typically assessed via a spontaneous breathing trial (SBT) conducted on minimal support (e.g., CPAP of 5 cmH2O or T-piece).^[105] Readiness is indicated by a rapid shallow breathing index (RSBI) less than 105 breaths per minute per liter, reflecting adequate respiratory muscle strength and low work of breathing.^[106] Successful SBT is followed by evaluation for extubation, including a cuff leak volume greater than 10% of tidal volume to assess for upper airway edema and reduce post-extubation stridor risk.^[105] Gradual reduction in support and daily screening optimize liberation while minimizing reintubation rates. Complications of mechanical ventilation include ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI), encompassing barotrauma from excessive pressures leading to pneumothorax or pneumomediastinum, and volutrauma from overdistension, which exacerbate alveolar damage and inflammation.^[107] Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) is another major risk, occurring in 10-20% of intubated patients due to biofilm formation on endotracheal tubes and microaspiration, prolonging ICU stay and increasing mortality.^[108] Preventive bundles, such as head-of-bed elevation and oral chlorhexidine, are essential to mitigate these issues.^[109] As of 2025, high-frequency oscillatory ventilation (HFOV) has been phased out as a routine therapy for adult ARDS following guidelines that strongly recommend against its use due to lack of survival benefit and potential harm, as evidenced by trials showing no improvement in outcomes and increased hemodynamic instability.^[110] In contrast, neurally adjusted ventilatory assist (NAVA) is emerging as a promising mode for enhancing patient-ventilator synchrony by proportionally assisting breaths based on diaphragmatic electrical activity, potentially reducing asynchrony and weaning duration in select critically ill patients.^[111]^[112]

Prognosis and Complications

Prognostic Factors

The prognosis of respiratory failure varies widely depending on the underlying etiology, patient characteristics, and timeliness of intervention, with overall in-hospital mortality rates ranging from 20% to 40% across diverse cohorts.^[113] In type 1 respiratory failure, often associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), mortality is higher at 35% to 45%, reflecting the severe hypoxemic nature and inflammatory lung injury involved.^[29] Conversely, type 2 respiratory failure, commonly linked to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbations, carries a lower mortality of 10% to 20%, due to potentially more responsive ventilatory support strategies.^[49] Prolonged intensive care unit (ICU) stays exceeding 7 days are associated with roughly doubled mortality risk, primarily from accumulating complications and resource-intensive care demands.^[114] Favorable prognostic factors include early intervention within the first 6 hours of symptom onset, which improves survival by allowing timely reversal of hypoxemia and prevention of progression to multiorgan involvement.^[115] Younger age, particularly under 65 years, correlates with better outcomes, as older patients face heightened vulnerability from reduced physiological reserve.^[116] Additionally, reversible underlying causes, such as bacterial pneumonia, yield superior prognosis compared to irreversible conditions like pulmonary fibrosis, where tissue scarring limits recovery potential.^[117] Adverse prognostic indicators encompass significant comorbidities, which exacerbate organ stress and elevate mortality; for instance, a Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) score greater than 10 is linked to approximately 80% mortality due to widespread dysfunction.^[118] Multiorgan failure, often secondary to sepsis or shock, markedly worsens outcomes, accounting for a substantial portion of deaths beyond isolated respiratory compromise.^[116] Persistent hypoxemia, defined as a PaO2/FiO2 ratio below 150 for more than 48 hours, signals refractory ARDS and is associated with high fatality rates from ongoing alveolar damage.^[119] Prognostic scoring systems provide structured risk assessment in acute settings. The Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II (APACHE II) score, incorporating physiological variables and comorbidities, predicts poor prognosis when exceeding 20, with mortality often surpassing 40% in such cases.^[120] The SOFA score, evaluating six organ systems including respiratory parameters, effectively quantifies dysfunction and forecasts outcomes, with higher values indicating escalating failure risk.^[121] In October 2025, the SOFA-2 score was developed as a data-driven revision, enhancing predictive validity for ICU mortality across organ systems, including respiratory parameters, with scores over 16 correlating to >75% mortality.^[122] Among survivors, long-term morbidity remains prevalent, with approximately 50% experiencing persistent dyspnea at one year post-discharge, impairing daily function and quality of life due to residual lung impairment and muscle weakness.^[123] In the context of post-COVID-19 respiratory failure, a 2025 multicenter study found that 73.6% of COVID-19 ARDS survivors reported not fully recovering, with common impairments including fatigue (42.1%), reduced exercise capacity (peak VO2 21.9 mL/kg/min vs. 25.8 in controls), persistent ground-glass opacities on CT (53.5%), and exercise-induced desaturation (7.14%), underscoring the need for extended follow-up care.^[124]

Complications

Respiratory failure and its management, particularly mechanical ventilation, can lead to acute complications such as ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI). VILI encompasses mechanisms including volutrauma, which results from overdistension of alveoli due to excessive tidal volumes, and atelectrauma, caused by repetitive opening and collapse of lung units in the presence of inadequate positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP).^[125] These injuries exacerbate inflammation and permeability, potentially prolonging ventilation and increasing mortality risk.^[109] Barotrauma represents another acute risk, manifesting as alveolar rupture leading to pneumothorax, with an incidence of approximately 5-10% in mechanically ventilated patients with acute respiratory failure.^[126] Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) further complicates care, occurring in up to 25% of intubated patients, though preventive bundles—such as elevating the head of the bed to 30-45°—can reduce its incidence by promoting drainage and reducing aspiration risk.^[109] Cardiovascular sequelae arise from hypoxia-induced pulmonary vasoconstriction, which increases right ventricular afterload and strain, potentially progressing to acute right heart failure in severe cases like acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).^[127] Arrhythmias, including atrial fibrillation, may also develop due to electrolyte imbalances, hypoxia, or sympathetic activation during respiratory distress.^[128] Treatment-related issues include oxygen toxicity from prolonged exposure to high fractional inspired oxygen (FiO₂ >60% for over 48 hours), which promotes absorption atelectasis by accelerating nitrogen washout and favoring oxygen resorption in poorly ventilated areas.^[109] Non-invasive ventilation (NIV) failure, reported in about 20% of cases in acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, often necessitates urgent intubation and heightens risks of aspiration or hemodynamic instability.^[109] Chronic complications contribute to post-intensive care syndrome (PICS), affecting over 50% of survivors with physical, cognitive, and psychological impairments; posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) occurs in approximately 25%, while cognitive decline persists in up to 40% at one year post-discharge.^[129] Among ARDS survivors, pulmonary fibrosis develops in about 20%, characterized by persistent radiographic opacities and reduced lung function due to unresolved inflammation and remodeling.^[130] Tracheostomy dependence affects 5-10% of prolonged ventilation cases, often linked to underlying neuromuscular or obstructive disease, requiring long-term weaning strategies.^[131] As of 2025, emphasis on delirium prevention has grown, with the ABCDEF bundle—integrating assessments for pain, sedation, delirium screening, exercise, and family engagement—associated with reduced delirium in some studies, though a 2021 meta-analysis found no significant overall effect on delirium prevalence in ICU patients, including those with respiratory failure, thereby aiming to mitigate associated cognitive and functional declines.^[132]^[133] Long-term rehabilitation remains underexplored, yet survivors often require multidisciplinary programs addressing muscle weakness, dyspnea, and quality-of-life impairments to optimize recovery.^[129]

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Dec 18, 2024 · Outline · Life threatening respiratory failure · Failure of noninvasive ventilation · Arterial blood gas abnormalities.
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Indications for ventilation · increasing respiratory rate · an asynchronous respiratory pattern · a change in mentation and level of consciousness · frequent oxygen ...
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Other types of mechanical ventilation modes include controlled mechanical ventilation, which can be volume-limited or pressure-limited, as well as intermittent ...
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Jun 24, 2025 · First, we consider volume-controlled versus pressure-controlled breath strategy, which describes the patterns of ventilator controls and the ...
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Aug 22, 2025 · PCV mode may have slightly lower mortality and may be a preferable ventilator mode in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Further ...
[99]
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Ventilator Weaning - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
A successful trial is usually followed by a cuff leak test and removal of the endotracheal tube, and discontinuation of mechanical ventilation. The cuff leak ...
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Spontaneous Breathing Trial • LITFL • CCC Ventilation
Jul 6, 2024 · Most consistent and powerful predictor · RSBI > 105 min/L predicted failure well, but if used rigidly may slow the weaning process.
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Apr 27, 2023 · Complications of ventilatory induced lung injury include pulmonary edema, barotrauma, worsening hypoxemia resulting in prolongation of ...
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Jul 31, 2024 · Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) affects up to 20% of critically ill patients and induces significant antibiotic prescription pressure.Missing: VILI | Show results with:VILI
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Ventilator Complications - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Ventilator-associated complications commonly increase morbidity and mortality. They may also prolong the duration of mechanical ventilation and the length of ...
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Prognosis of patients with acute respiratory failure and prolonged ...
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[112]
Early intervention of patients at risk for acute respiratory failure and ...
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Survival predictors in elderly patients with acute respiratory distress ...
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[114]
How to identify the prognosis of lung function in patients with severe ...
Endothelial damage prevents normal hypoxia-induced pulmonary ... ARDS or multiple organ failure. The prognosis is worse for elderly patients ...
[115]
Validity of APACHE II and SOFA score in Predicting Prognosis in ...
Mean APACHE II and SOFA scores in non survivors was higher than survivors which indicate good predictor of mortality. Highest mortality of 80% and 86.4% with ...
[116]
Acute respiratory distress syndrome: Prognosis and outcomes in ...
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APACHE II Score - MDCalc
The Apache II Score estimates ICU mortality based on a number of laboratory values and patient signs taking both acute and chronic disease into account.
[118]
SOFA and APACHE II scoring systems for predicting outcome of ...
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[119]
One-Year Outcomes in Survivors of the Acute Respiratory Distress ...
We found that survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome continue to have functional limitations one year after their discharge from the ICU. We still ...
[120]
Long-Term Cardiopulmonary Function After COVID-19-Associated ...
CONCLUSIONS: COVID-19 ARDS survivors exhibit significant long-term impairments in pulmonary function, exercise capacity, and quality of life and abnormal chest ...
[121]
Ventilator-Induced Lung Injury - PMC - PubMed Central
Failure to consider transpulmonary pressure in the mechanically ventilated patient can lead to miscalculating VILI risk. On one end, high airway pressures in ...
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Barotrauma and Mechanical Ventilation - Medscape Reference
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Right-sided heart failure in acute respiratory distress syndrome
This can result in RV dilation, impaired systolic and diastolic function, and ultimately right-sided heart failure, which has been associated with poor clinical ...
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Right Heart Failure - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Nephrotic syndrome. Neurogenic pulmonary edema. Pneumothorax imaging. Pulmonary embolism. Respiratory failure. Venous insufficiency. Viral ...
[125]
Supporting Post-ICU Recovery: A Narrative Review for General ...
Jun 11, 2025 · Additionally, ICU admission is often necessitated by life-threatening conditions, such as respiratory failure, acute respiratory distress ...
[126]
Post-intensive care syndrome and pulmonary fibrosis in patients ...
Apr 21, 2023 · The study is a retrospective analysis of the medical records of adult patients surviving acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and ...
[127]
Long-Term Mechanical Ventilation - PMC - PubMed Central
Acute episodes of respiratory failure in patients with chronic lung disease, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) or interstitial lung disease ( ...
[128]
The ABCDEF Bundle in Critical Care - PMC - NIH
The ABCDEF bundle represents an evidence-based guide for clinicians to approach the organizational changes needed for optimizing ICU patient recovery and ...Missing: oxygen toxicity NIV