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Devils Tower

Devils Tower is a steep-sided igneous monolith composed of phonolite porphyry, rising 867 feet (264 meters) from base to summit above the surrounding terrain in northeastern Wyoming's Black Hills region.^[1]^[2] This formation exhibits the world's largest example of columnar jointing, resulting from the cooling and contraction of molten rock intruded underground approximately 40 million years ago.^[1]^[3] Proclaimed the first U.S. national monument on September 24, 1906, by President Theodore Roosevelt via the Antiquities Act, it protects this unique geologic feature amid the Belle Fourche River valley.^[4] The Tower holds central spiritual importance for at least 20 Native American tribes, serving historically as a site for vision quests, ceremonies, and oral traditions predating European arrival by thousands of years.^[5]^[6] Renowned among climbers for its challenging routes—first ascended via wooden ladder in 1893—it draws annual voluntary closures in June to respect tribal observances, highlighting ongoing tensions between recreational access and cultural reverence.^[7]

Physical Characteristics and Geology

Location and Dimensions

Devils Tower is situated in Crook County, northeastern Wyoming, United States, within Devils Tower National Monument, approximately 28 miles northwest of Sundance along Wyoming Highway 24.^[8] The monument encompasses 1,347 acres surrounding the tower, which protrudes from the surrounding plains near the Belle Fourche River in the Black Hills uplift region.^[9] Its geographic coordinates are approximately 44°35′26″N 104°42′55″W.^[10] The tower measures 867 feet (264 meters) from its base to summit.^[11] It rises 1,267 feet (386 meters) above the Belle Fourche River valley floor.^[11] The summit elevation is 5,112 feet (1,558 meters) above sea level.^[11] At the base, the diameter is approximately 1,000 feet (305 meters), tapering upward to a summit plateau roughly 180 feet (55 meters) east-west by 300 feet (91 meters) north-south, covering about 1.5 acres.^[12]^[3]

Geological Origin and Composition

Devils Tower consists primarily of phonolite porphyry, a fine-grained igneous rock characterized by large phenocrysts of alkali feldspar and other minerals embedded in a groundmass rich in feldspathoids such as nepheline and analcime.^[13]^[3] This rock type formed from silica-poor, alkaline magma, distinguishing it from more common granitic intrusions.^[13] The porphyry exhibits columnar jointing, with hexagonal columns formed as the rock cooled and contracted, a process analogous to that seen in basaltic formations but unique in scale and composition here.^[1] The Tower originated as an intrusive igneous body during the Eocene epoch, approximately 50 million years ago, amid a period of alkaline volcanism associated with the Black Hills uplift.^[1] Magma intruded into overlying sedimentary layers of Spearfish Formation red beds and newer strata, likely forming a laccolith—a mushroom-shaped pluton that domed the surface rocks—or a similar stock.^[14]^[1] Subsequent erosion over millions of years stripped away the softer surrounding sediments and any overlying volcanic cover, exposing the resistant phonolite porphyry core that now rises 867 feet (264 meters) above the Belle Fourche River valley.^[14]^[15] While the laccolithic intrusion model predominates in official assessments, alternative hypotheses persist, including proposals that the Tower represents an eroded volcanic neck, a lava coulée within a phreatomagmatic crater, or a remnant of a lava lake.^[16]^[17] These views stem from interpretations of the rock's texture, lack of associated volcanic ejecta, and regional igneous patterns, but lack consensus due to limited direct evidence of the original emplacement depth or surface expression.^[14] Geochemical analysis confirms the phonolite's intrusive crystallization under subvolcanic conditions, supporting an origin below the paleosurface rather than purely extrusive.^[17]

Etymology and Naming

Historical Naming

The butte was initially recorded on European-American maps as "Bear's Lodge," a direct translation of the Lakota term Mato Tipila, by Lieutenant G. K. Warren during his 1857 expedition to the Black Hills.^[18] This designation reflected indigenous nomenclature associating the formation with bear-related oral traditions, and it appeared consistently as "Bear Lodge" or "Bears Lodge" on most U.S. government and exploratory maps from 1857 until 1901.^[18] The name "Devils Tower" originated in 1875 during a military expedition led by Colonel Richard Irving Dodge, accompanied by geologist Henry Newton, when an interpreter—possibly named Romeo—mistranslated a Native American reference to the site as "Bad God's Tower" or a similar ominous phrase, prompting Dodge to adopt the anglicized version in his field journal.^[19] Dodge's personal antipathy toward indigenous peoples may have contributed to favoring a name evoking menace over the prior neutral translation, though the exact phrasing stemmed from the interpretive error rather than deliberate fabrication.^[19] The term gained traction through Dodge's subsequent publications, which described the formation's imposing presence, shifting public and cartographic preference away from "Bear Lodge" by the early 1900s.^[18] By 1890, the U.S. General Land Office referenced the feature interchangeably as "Devils Tower" and "Bear Lodge Butte" in official surveys, reflecting transitional usage.^[18] The U.S. Board on Geographic Names, established that year to standardize nomenclature, formalized "Devils Tower" without the possessive apostrophe in line with its policy against such forms for natural features, solidifying its dominance.^[18] This culminated in President Theodore Roosevelt's September 24, 1906, proclamation establishing Devils Tower National Monument, which enshrined the name in federal law and rendered prior variants obsolete in official contexts.^[19]

Modern Renaming Proposals and Debates

In 2014, a Lakota Nation spiritual leader submitted a proposal to the United States Board on Geographic Names (BGN) to rename the geologic feature Devils Tower and the nearby populated place Devils Tower, Wyoming, to Bear Lodge, reflecting indigenous terminology such as the Lakota "Mato Tipila" used on historical maps from 1874 to 1901.^[20] In December of that year, the Oglala Sioux Tribe requested that the Secretary of the Interior change the national monument's name to Bear Lodge National Monument, asserting that the term "Devils" offends more than 20 associated tribes who regard the site as sacred.^[20] Proponents of renaming argue that "Devils Tower" stems from a late-19th-century mistranslation during an 1875 military expedition, where an interpreter rendered an indigenous reference to a "bad god" or grizzly bear-related lore as "devil," and that reverting to Bear Lodge honors pre-colonial nomenclature without altering the site's cultural significance.^[18] In June 2024, the Department of the Interior's Reconciliation in Place Names Committee, chaired by Rosebud Sioux Tribe member Howard Dale Valandra, voted to recommend renaming the feature to Bear Lodge, citing sustained tribal advocacy since 1998 and the authority of the Secretary to standardize geographic names.^[21]^[22] Opposition has centered on preserving the name's historical and economic value, with Wyoming officials and residents contending that a change would disrupt tourism reliant on the established brand—recognized nationally since President Theodore Roosevelt's 1906 designation—and risk prioritizing one indigenous translation over diverse tribal variants.^[23]^[22] Senator Cynthia Lummis introduced S. 267 in February 2023 to retain "Devils Tower" and delay BGN action until at least January 2025, followed by her and Senator John Barrasso's reintroduction of similar legislation in January 2025 as part of efforts dating to 1996.^[20]^[23] As of October 2025, no renaming has occurred, with the National Park Service lacking unilateral authority and ongoing bills effectively stalling federal processes; public consultations on the 2024 recommendation were solicited in September 2024, but legislative protections for the original name persist amid unresolved tensions between cultural reverence and practical continuity.^[20]^[23]

Indigenous Associations

Tribal Connections and Oral Traditions

Over two dozen Northern Plains tribes maintain ancestral connections to Devils Tower, including the Arapaho, Cheyenne, Crow, Kiowa, Lakota, and Shoshone, with documented historical uses such as winter camps by the Lakota dating to at least 1816, vision quests, Sun Dances, healing ceremonies, and occasional burials.^[5]^[6] These ties reflect seasonal occupancy for hunting, gathering, and spiritual practices, reinforced by ongoing modern ceremonies where prayer bundles and cloths are placed along trails, underscoring the site's enduring sacred status.^[6]^[5] Tribal oral traditions, transmitted across generations, commonly portray the tower as a protective formation arising from the earth during pursuits by bears, leaving distinctive claw-like striations on its columns; these narratives, varying by tribe yet sharing motifs of divine intervention and transformation, explain the site's geological features through symbolic rather than empirical origins.^[24]^[5] Names like Mato Tipi (Lakota for "Bear Lodge"), "Bear's Tipi" (Arapaho and Crow), and Tso-aa (Kiowa for "Tree Rock") derive from these accounts, emphasizing bears as central figures in creation stories tied to the landscape.^[24]^[6] Specific narratives include the Arapaho account, recorded from elder Sherman Sage in 1932, where two girls find a bison bone that transforms them into bears; one pursues their siblings, prompting a rock to grow skyward for refuge, forming "Bear's Tipi."^[24] The Cheyenne tradition, per storyteller Young-Bird from the Lame Deer Reservation, describes a bear bewitching a woman into a bear form, slain by warriors atop an emerging rock named "Bear Lodge."^[24] Crow oral history, from Ride-The-White-Hip-Horse in 1932, recounts bears chasing two girls saved by a rising rock they claw in frustration, also termed "Bear's Tipi" or "Bear Lodge."^[24] Kiowa lore, documented by I-See-Many-Camp-Fire-Places in 1897, features seven girls fleeing bears on a growing rock, ascending as the Pleiades constellation.^[24] In Lakota tradition, as related by Short Bull in 1932, a warrior conducting rites on Mato Tipila uncovers ancient bear claw marks, affirming the site's role in worship and revelation.^[24] These stories, collected from tribal elders, illustrate cultural reverence without uniform detail, prioritizing spiritual lessons over literal chronology.^[24]^[5]

Evidence of Pre-Columbian Use

Archaeological surveys conducted at Devils Tower National Monument have documented prehistoric human activity dating back to the Late Paleoindian period around 12,000 BCE, primarily in the surrounding high meadows rather than on the Tower itself. The Devils Tower High Meadows Prehistoric Archaeological District, registered on the National Register of Historic Places in 2001, encompasses 14 contributing sites northwest of the Tower, featuring lithic scatters indicative of hunting, tool manufacturing, and short-term camping. These sites yielded projectile points such as Agate Basin (circa 10,000 BCE) and Alberta (circa 8250 BCE), alongside flakes and tools suggesting resource processing near water sources and vantage points.^[25] Further evidence includes obsidian artifacts analyzed via neutron activation, with 19 of 35 specimens tracing to distant sources like Obsidian Cliff in Yellowstone National Park, Mineral Mountain, and locations in Utah and Idaho, pointing to long-distance exchange networks among prehistoric inhabitants. Projectile points from later periods, including Pelican Lake, Besant, and Avonlea types (spanning Late Plains Archaic to Late Prehistoric, approximately 3000 BCE to AD 1500), were recovered, supporting intermittent occupation for subsistence activities like big game hunting. Hearth features and two rock art panels painted with red ochre on nearby granite outcrops provide additional signs of fire use and possible ceremonial practices.^[25]^[26] A 1979 survey by archaeologist Bruce Jones identified early lithic tools in the meadows, while late 1990s evaluations by the University of South Dakota documented at least 70 sites monument-wide (with estimates up to 200 accounting for erosion), 19 of which qualify for National Register eligibility under Criterion D for yielding information on prehistoric lifeways. Recent geophysical surveys, including ground-penetrating radar funded in 2023, detected over 200 subsurface features consistent with prehistoric structures and activity areas, reinforcing patterns of seasonal use by mobile hunter-gatherer groups. Overall, these findings indicate sustained but episodic pre-Columbian utilization of the area for practical and potentially spiritual purposes, though large-scale excavations remain limited due to the site's sacred status to associated tribes.^[25]^[27]

Historical Development

Early European Exploration

The first documented sighting of Devils Tower by European Americans occurred during Captain William F. Raynolds' Yellowstone Expedition in 1859, when members of the party reached the formation while surveying the region for potential wagon roads and military routes westward.^[28] Earlier expeditions, such as Lieutenant G. K. Warren's 1857 survey through the Black Hills, approached the area but likely did not observe the tower due to the expedition's route and terrain constraints.^[29] Subsequent military explorations in the 1870s brought increased attention to the site amid U.S. expansion into the northern Great Plains. George Armstrong Custer's 1874 Black Hills Expedition, prompted by reports of gold, passed near Devils Tower, noting prominent landmarks in the vicinity as part of broader reconnaissance efforts.^[30] This was followed in 1875 by Colonel Richard Irving Dodge's expedition, which traversed the area shortly after Custer's gold discoveries drew settlers and military interest; Dodge's party directly encountered the tower, measuring its prominence and recording detailed observations of its isolated butte rising approximately 867 feet above the surrounding terrain.^[29] Dodge's interpreter rendered the Lakota name Mato Tipi (Bear Lodge) as "Bad God's Tower," which Dodge anglicized to "Devils Tower" in his 1876 publication The Black Hills, emphasizing its striking igneous rock columns and the local indigenous associations with spiritual peril.^[29] These accounts, derived from U.S. Army surveys, marked the transition from incidental observation to formal documentation, facilitating later cartographic inclusion and federal interest, though the expeditions prioritized resource assessment over geological study.^[29]

Federal Designation and Management

President Theodore Roosevelt proclaimed Devils Tower National Monument on September 24, 1906, utilizing the authority granted by the Antiquities Act of June 8, 1906, which empowered the president to protect significant natural, historic, and scientific features on federal lands.^[4]^[31]^[32] This designation marked the first use of the act and established Devils Tower as the inaugural national monument in the United States, encompassing approximately 1,153 acres surrounding the igneous formation to preserve its geological integrity.^[33]^[34] The monument is administered by the National Park Service (NPS), a bureau within the U.S. Department of the Interior, which assumed management responsibilities as part of its mandate to oversee national monuments and parks following the agency's creation in 1916.^[35] NPS implements a General Management Plan to guide resource protection, visitor services, and operational zoning, with updates informed by environmental impact statements, such as the 2002 Final General Management Plan and Development Concept Plan addressing congestion, circulation, and cultural resource preservation.^[36]^[37] Key management regulations include mandatory free permits for climbing activities above the talus slopes, registration with rangers, and prohibitions on drones to minimize disturbance to wildlife and visitors; these measures enforce the monument's enabling legislation and superintendent's compendium, prioritizing ecological and cultural conservation.^[35]^[38] Access remains public with an entrance fee, though parking and facilities are limited, reflecting NPS efforts to balance preservation with recreational use amid increasing visitation.^[39]^[40]

Environmental Features

Climatic Conditions

The climate of Devils Tower National Monument is marked by extreme variability typical of northeast Wyoming's semi-arid continental conditions, with rapid shifts possible throughout the year. Annual average high temperatures stand at 60°F and lows at 28°F, while total precipitation averages 17.2 inches of rain supplemented by 55 inches of snowfall.^[41] Summer months (June to August) bring hot, dry weather with average highs of 79–87°F and lows of 47–52°F, alongside monthly rainfall ranging from 1.5 to 3.2 inches, though severe thunderstorms, hail, and high winds pose risks.^[41] Winters (December to February) are cold and snowy, featuring average highs of 34–40°F and lows of 4–10°F, with frequent light snow accumulation of 8.1–11.4 inches per month and potential for blizzards or white-out conditions.^[41] Record extremes include a high of 108°F in July and a low of -48°F in December, underscoring the potential for sub-zero temperatures and triple-digit heat.^[41] Spring and fall serve as transitional periods with average highs of 45–69°F and lows of 17–38°F, where mixed precipitation and unpredictable shifts demand preparedness for all seasonal elements.^[41]

Flora, Fauna, and Ecosystems

Devils Tower National Monument preserves a segment of the Black Hills ecosystem, featuring ponderosa pine forests amid surrounding mixed-grass prairies and riparian zones along the Belle Fourche River.^[42] This transitional landscape supports diverse habitats, with forests covering higher elevations and prairies dominating lower areas, fostering interactions between woodland and grassland species.^[43] The monument hosts over 500 native and non-native plant species, which stabilize soils, prevent erosion, and serve as primary producers in the food web.^[44] Dominant flora includes Pinus ponderosa (ponderosa pine) in forested stands, alongside shrubs like chokecherry (Prunus virginiana) and serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), which provide food and cover for wildlife.^[43] Prairie areas feature grasses such as little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium) and wildflowers including pasque flower (Pulsatilla ludoviciana), blooming prominently in spring.^[45] Over 50 non-native plants, including invasive species like leafy spurge (Euphorbia virgata) and houndstongue (Cynoglossum officinale), compete with natives and require management to maintain ecological balance.^[46] Mammalian fauna includes white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), mule deer (O. hemionus), and black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus), which are among the most visible residents and form key prey bases.^[47] Other mammals, such as porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum), red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus), and occasional black bears (Ursus americanus), utilize forested habitats, while pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) and coyotes (Canis latrans) roam open prairies.^[48] Avian species diversity encompasses nesting prairie falcons (Falco mexicanus) on the tower's columns, bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) along the river, and ground-nesting species like sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) in adjacent grasslands.^[48] Reptiles such as bullsnakes (Pituophis catenifer sayi) and amphibians including chorus frogs (Pseudacris triseriata) occupy varied microhabitats, with insects like butterflies supporting pollination. Fish in the Belle Fourche River, including channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), contribute to aquatic components.^[48] Ecosystem dynamics reflect the monument's small size (1,347 acres), limiting large predator populations like mountain lions (Puma concolor), though transient individuals occur.^[49] Heavy browsing by deer impacts deciduous woodlands, comprising 18% of the area, potentially altering understory composition.^[50] Overall biodiversity underscores the site's role as a prairie-forest ecotone, with ongoing monitoring tracking species like the 472 documented plants to assess health amid climate variability and invasives.^[51]

Human Engagement

Climbing Practices and Records

The first recorded ascent of Devils Tower occurred on July 4, 1893, when ranchers William Rogers and Willard Ripley constructed a wooden ladder from pegs and rope to reach the summit.^[52] This non-technical method preceded the monument's establishment and relied on the structure's columnar joints for ladder placement.^[53] The inaugural technical climb took place on June 28, 1937, led by Fritz Wiessner with Lawrence Coveney and William House, who employed ropes, pitons, and traditional techniques to summit without fixed ladders.^[54] This ascent marked a shift toward alpine-style climbing on the tower's phonolite porphyry columns, emphasizing crack systems and minimal artificial aids. Subsequent decades saw proliferation of routes, with 19 documented lines by 1964 accommodating 79 parties.^[55] Climbing practices at Devils Tower require mandatory registration with the National Park Service (NPS) for any activity above the talus slopes, ensuring oversight of approximately 5,000 annual ascents.^[56] Participants must adhere to regulations prohibiting new bolts or fixed pitons, gear abandonment, and violations of seasonal closures, including a voluntary June ban honoring Native American ceremonies with over 85% compliance in its inaugural year.^[56]^[57] Routes predominantly feature crack climbing, with multi-pitch efforts spanning 4 to 6 pitches and demanding endurance for heights up to 867 feet.^[58]^[59] Notable records include the oldest verified summit by 91-year-old Bill Weber in 2018, surpassing prior marks like 87-year-old Robert Kelman's 2015 climb.^[60] Speed records highlight Todd Skinner's 18-minute ascent in 1994 via free-solo techniques on established routes.^[61] These feats underscore the tower's enduring appeal for crack specialists, though safety protocols mitigate risks on its exfoliating columns.^[56]

Incidents, Safety, and Regulations

Climbing at Devils Tower National Monument is regulated under federal guidelines outlined in 36 CFR § 7.30, requiring mandatory registration with a park ranger prior to ascending above the talus slopes; registrants must also check out upon descent.^[62] Prohibited activities include leaving gear on the Tower, camping or bivouacking on its surface, using power drills or motorized equipment for bolting, and any form of route modification such as chipping or gluing.^[56] Additionally, since 1995, a voluntary closure of all climbing routes occurs each June to respect the site's sacred status for 20+ Native American tribes, resulting in an average 85% reduction in climbing activity during that month.^[63] Certain routes may also be seasonally closed for peregrine falcon nesting, typically in spring.^[56] Safety is the climber's personal responsibility, as the activity involves inherent risks including rockfall, extreme temperatures exceeding 100°F (38°C), lightning, and sudden storms; climbers are advised to monitor weather forecasts and avoid exposure during thunderstorms.^[56] Helmets are strongly recommended, and most fatalities occur during rappels, necessitating thorough anchor inspections and often the use of two 60-70 meter ropes for descent.^[56] In emergencies, climbers should call 911 or signal for assistance, with park rangers available for rescue coordination but no guarantees of rapid response due to the Tower's isolation.^[64] Over the Tower's more than 100-year climbing history, only seven fatalities have been recorded despite approximately 6,000 ascents annually.^[65] Notable incidents include a 1986 free-solo fall resulting in a fatal head injury, a 1995 unroped 150-foot fall, a 1996 100-foot fall without a helmet on the Durrance Route, a 1999 rappel off the rope end causing a 130-foot plunge, a 2003 350-foot rappel fall near El Cracko Diablo, and a September 22, 2024, rappel accident claiming the life of a 21-year-old climber, leaving their partner temporarily stranded until rescue.^[66] These events underscore rappel errors and lack of protective gear as primary causes, with no fatalities reported between 2003 and 2024 prior to the latest incident.^[65]

Tourism Trends and Economic Contributions

Visitor numbers at Devils Tower National Monument have shown a marked upward trend in recent years, with recreational visits reaching a record 550,000 in 2021, surpassing previous highs driven by post-pandemic travel surges.^[67]^[68] Visitation remained elevated thereafter, totaling 540,890 in 2024, reflecting sustained interest in the site's geological prominence and cultural significance despite seasonal fluctuations, with the majority of arrivals concentrated in summer months.^[69] Through June 2024 alone, 192,682 visitors were recorded, exceeding comparable periods from prior years like 2021.^[70] This growth has prompted National Park Service planning for expanded infrastructure to accommodate future increases, amid broader Wyoming tourism recovery.^[71] Tourism generates substantial economic contributions to surrounding communities in Crook County, Wyoming, primarily through visitor expenditures on lodging, food, and recreation. In 2024, 540,890 visitors spent $41.7 million locally, bolstering the regional economy as part of Wyoming's national park system total of $1.2 billion in spending.^[72] Earlier data indicate consistent impacts, with 499,000 visitors in 2017 contributing $31.1 million in direct spending and $38.7 million in overall economic output, including multiplier effects from supply chains.^[73] Comparable figures for 2023 hovered around $37.5 million, underscoring tourism's role as a key driver in an area with limited diversification, supporting businesses in nearby towns like Hulett and Sundance.^[74] These benefits derive from the monument's draw as a day-trip destination within 60 miles of gateways, though they remain vulnerable to external factors like fuel prices and national travel patterns.^[75]

Cultural and Legal Dimensions

Representations in Media

Devils Tower gained international prominence through its central role in the 1977 science fiction film Close Encounters of the Third Kind, directed by Steven Spielberg. In the narrative, the formation is portrayed as the extraterrestrials' designated site for first contact with humanity, revealed through a musical sequence of five tones. Protagonist Roy Neary, played by Richard Dreyfuss, obsessively recreates the tower's shape from mashed potatoes after UFO sightings, culminating in a mass convergence at the Wyoming landmark for the film's resolution. Actual filming occurred on location at Devils Tower National Monument, elevating its visibility as a symbol of mystery and otherworldly phenomena.^[76]^[77] The film's success, grossing over $300 million worldwide on a $20 million budget, cemented Devils Tower's association with ufology in public imagination, prompting increased tourism and references in subsequent media.^[31] This depiction drew from the site's real-world intrigue, including Native American legends and geological uniqueness, though Spielberg's choice amplified speculative extraterrestrial lore without empirical basis. Documentaries have since explored the tower's factual attributes alongside its cinematic legacy, such as Frank and the Tower (2015), which documents climber Frank Sanders' record-setting ascent and descent via rappel on September 5, 2014, emphasizing human endurance over fiction.^[78] Television representations include educational and exploratory formats, such as the National Geographic series Rock the Park episode "Devils Tower National Monument" (2018), where hosts Jack Steward and Colton Smith undertake a climbing challenge to illustrate the site's 867-foot vertical rise and phonolite porphyry composition. The History Channel's The UnXplained featured "Mystery of Devil's Tower" in 2019, examining geological origins alongside cultural myths and the Close Encounters influence, while avoiding unsubstantiated alien claims. These portrayals prioritize verifiable science and history, contrasting the fictional dramatization that popularized the site.^[79]

Access Controversies and Litigation

In 1995, the National Park Service (NPS) finalized the Climbing Management Plan (CMP) for Devils Tower National Monument following consultations with over 20 Native American tribes who regard the site, known to them as Bear Lodge or Mato Tipila, as sacred for traditional ceremonies, particularly during June.^[56] The plan addressed climbing's impact on these practices by requesting voluntary abstention from all climbing on the Tower during June, prohibiting commercial guiding services and installation of new fixed ropes that month, mandating removal of existing fixed ropes during the period, and enhancing interpretive programs to educate visitors on the site's cultural significance.^[80] These measures aimed to balance recreational access— with over 5,000 annual climbers by the mid-1990s—against tribal concerns without imposing a full mandatory closure, as alternatives like permanent bans were rejected in environmental assessments for lacking sufficient justification under the National Environmental Policy Act.^[56]^[81] The CMP provoked immediate legal challenges from climbing advocates, culminating in Bear Lodge Multiple Use Association v. Babbitt. Filed in 1995 by the Bear Lodge Multiple Use Association—a group of climbers and guides—the suit alleged that the June restrictions violated the Establishment Clause by endorsing Native American religious practices, infringed free speech and equal protection, and exceeded NPS authority under the 1976 General Authorities Act.^[82] The U.S. District Court for the District of Wyoming granted a preliminary injunction against the commercial guiding ban in June 1995, citing potential coercion but upholding the voluntary request as non-coercive accommodation permissible under the Religious Freedom Restoration Act and American Indian Religious Freedom Act.^[83] On summary judgment in 1998, the court ruled the plan constitutional, finding no endorsement of religion since climbers faced no penalties for June ascents and the measures alleviated government-induced burdens on tribal practices without prohibiting climbing outright; the Tenth Circuit affirmed in 1999, emphasizing the voluntary nature and lack of coercion.^[82]^[84] The U.S. Supreme Court denied certiorari in 2000.^[85] The CMP, updated in 2006 to refine education and safety without altering core restrictions, remains in effect as of 2025.^[56] Voluntary June compliance has averaged approximately 85%, reducing climbs that month by thousands compared to pre-1996 levels, with no mandatory enforcement but supported by ranger outreach and tribal consultations.^[86]^[87] NPS reports sustained high adherence, attributing it to climber respect for cultural sensitivities, though isolated non-compliance persists without litigation since the Bear Lodge resolution.^[63] Separate temporary closures occur annually for prairie falcon nesting, unrelated to cultural access issues.^[88]

References

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How the Tower Formed - Devils Tower National Monument (U.S. ...
Apr 24, 2025 · We know that the Tower is formed of a rare igneous rock, phonolite porphyry, and is the largest example of columnar jointing in the world.
[2]
Paleontology of Devils Tower National Monument (U.S. National ...
Apr 23, 2025 · The 867-foot-tall Tower, a gray igneous monolith with a characteristic fluted appearance, can be seen for miles in northeastern Wyoming and has long inspired ...
[3]
NPS Geodiversity Atlas—Devils Tower National Monument, Wyoming
Jun 17, 2024 · Devils Tower is a steep sided igneous monolith recognized worldwide for a spectacular geologic feature known as columnar jointing.
[4]
Frank Mondell, Theodore Roosevelt and Devils Tower National ...
Sep 20, 2023 · Devils Tower in northeastern Wyoming holds the distinction of being the nation's first national monument, established under the Antiquities Act of 1906.
[5]
A Place of Reverence for Native Americans - Devils Tower National ...
Devils Tower is sacred to many Native American tribes, with oral histories, prayer offerings, and a focus on place, not time, in their religion.
[6]
American Indians - Devils Tower - National Park Service
Apr 24, 2025 · Stories and histories shared by tribal members indicate that the Tower was a sacred site - a place for winter camps, vision quests, and summer ...
[7]
Devils Tower Voluntary June Closure: An Opportunity ... - Access Fund
May 7, 2025 · The voluntary closure allows climbers the opportunity to show their respect to the Native people who hold the tower sacred.
[8]
Devils Tower National Monument Field Trip | WyoHistory.org
The base diameter is around 1,000 feet. Devils Tower is located 28 miles northwest of Sundance, Wyo., just off state Highway 24. From Sundance, take U.S. ...Missing: coordinates width
[9]
https://www.nps.gov/deto/index.htm
[10]
No Fly Advisory - Devils Tower National Monument (U.S. National ...
The advisory is centered on Devils Tower, (Lat: 44°35'25.86”N, Long: 104°42'54.57”W) and extends for 2 nautical miles (NM) throughout the year.Missing: longitude coordinates
[11]
Frequently Asked Questions - Devils Tower National Monument ...
Geology. Is Devils Tower an old volcano? No. Geologists agree that Devils Tower is an igneous intrusion; this means it formed underground from molten rock.
[12]
Park Archives: Devils Tower National Monument - NPS History
The diameter of its base is 1,000 feet. Visiting Devils Tower. Access and Seasons The monument is open year round. The entrance is 33 miles northeast of ...
[13]
Geology of Devils Tower National Monument, Wyoming
Devils Tower is a steep-sided mass of igneous rock that rises above the ... It is composed of a crystalline rock, classified as phonolite porphyry, that when
[14]
[PDF] Geology of Devils Tower National Monument Wyoming
The top of the Tower, at an altitude of 5,117 feet, is about 1,270 feet above the Belle Fourche River. The Tower is about 800 feet in diameter at the base.
[15]
Geologic Formations - Devils Tower National Monument (U.S. ...
Apr 24, 2025 · The red cliffs seen in the park are part of a 500 mile ring of red rock that encircles the Black Hills region. This view from the Red Beds ...
[16]
[PDF] Devils Tower National Monument Geologic Resource Evaluation ...
The origin of Devils Tower is presently debated. Some believe the tower is the remnant of a volcanic neck. Others believe the phonolite porphyry that comprises.
[17]
Devils Tower (Wyoming, USA): A lava coulée emplaced into a maar ...
Apr 1, 2015 · The analcime phonolite forming Devils Tower is holocrystalline and coarsely porphyritic with a gray to olive-gray aphanitic and trachytic ...
[18]
About the Name - Devils Tower National Monument (U.S. National ...
Apr 24, 2025 · Most maps from 1857 to 1901 mark this feature as Bear Lodge or Bears Lodge (a translation from a common Lakota name for the Tower, Mato Tipila).
[19]
The Genesis of a Name - National Park Service
Dec 30, 2019 · Col. Richard Dodge is credited (or blamed) with the modern name "Devils Tower," which he first used in an 1875 journal entry. NPS archives ...
[20]
Proposals to Change the Name - Devils Tower National Monument ...
The purpose of the bill is to retain the name Devils Tower for both the geologic feature and the populated place.Missing: debates | Show results with:debates
[21]
Interior name advisers seek to topple 'Devils Tower' - E&E News
Jun 20, 2024 · “More than 20 Tribes with close association to the site find the name 'Devils Tower' to be offensive and support this renaming proposal,” ...
[22]
Federal Committee Recommends Renaming Devils Tower To Bear ...
Jun 24, 2024 · A federal committee has recommended that the Sec. of Interior change the name of Devils Tower to Bear Lodge.
[23]
Lummis and Barrasso reintroduce bill to maintain the name “Devils ...
Jan 10, 2025 · Lummis and Barrasso reintroduce bill to maintain the name “Devils Tower” in multi-decade effort. Wyoming Public Radio | By Hannah Habermann.Missing: 2010-2025 | Show results with:2010-2025
[24]
First Stories - Devils Tower National Monument (U.S. National Park ...
Apr 24, 2025 · First Stories · A group of Arapahos dance in traditional regalia · A giant bear climbing Devils Tower · A procession of people on horseback going ...
[25]
[PDF] DEVILS TOWER NATIONAL MONUMENT HISTORIC RESOURCE ...
Oct 13, 2023 · “Foundation Document,” NPS-Devils Tower National Monument (September 2014), p. 27. “American Indian Tribes with a cultural affiliation with ...
[26]
Evidence from Obsidian Cliffs and Devils Tower, Wyoming
Jul 8, 2015 · In addition to the Obsidian Cliff source, obsidian artifacts from Devils Tower were found to derive from sources in southeastern Idaho (Bear ...
[27]
NPF Grant Enables Archeological Investigation at Devils Tower
Jul 27, 2023 · NPF Grant Enables Archeological Investigation at Devils Tower ... The Tower in the Black Hills of Wyoming is considered sacred by Northern Plains ...Missing: pre- Columbian
[28]
Devils Tower - RootsWeb
The first documented visitors were several members of Captain W. F. Raynold's 1859 Yellowstone Expedition. Sixteen years later, Colonel Richard I. Dodge led a ...
[29]
First Explorers - Devils Tower National Monument (U.S. National ...
Apr 24, 2025 · In 1875, after General Custer's claims of gold in the Black Hills, Colonel Richard Irving Dodge led a new expedition of the area. He described ...
[30]
The Devils Tower -- Wyoming Tales and Trails
Early expeditions, however, included those of G. K. Warren in 1857, W. F. Raynold's expedition of 1859 and that of George A. Custer of 1874. This is not to say ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[31]
Devils Tower National Monument - National Park Foundation
Using the authority of the newly created Antiquities Act, President Theodore Roosevelt proclaimed Devils Tower America's first national monument on September 24 ...
[32]
Devils Tower National Monument proclamation - TR Center
By the authority of the Antiquities Act, President Roosevelt proclaims Devils Tower in Wyoming to be a national monument. Creation Date: 1906-09-24. Creator ...Missing: federal designation history<|separator|>
[33]
Early Conservationists - Devils Tower National Monument (U.S. ...
Aug 11, 2025 · ... Roosevelt proclaimed Devils Tower as the first national monument on September 24, 1906. The acreage set aside was only 1,153 acres, believed ...
[34]
National Monument Facts and Figures
Jan 22, 2025 · Devils Tower National Monument, Devils Tower (#658; 1,152.91 ac) ... Devil Postpile (#1166; 800 ac), Established (FS), Taft, W. CA, NPS. 1911 ...
[35]
Laws & Policies - Devils Tower National Monument (U.S. National ...
The use of remotely piloted aircraft, or drones, inside of Devils Tower National Monument is prohibited. Regulations regarding drones are discussed in the above ...
[36]
Final General Management Plan and Development Concept Plan
Management zoning (see the MANAGEMENT ZONING MAP) specifies the long-term allocation of the land resources within Devils Tower National Monument. Two management ...
[37]
Federal Register/Vol. 67, No. 55/Thursday, March 21, 2002/Notices
Mar 21, 2002 · General Management Plan (FEIS/GMP) for Devils Tower National Monument,. Wyoming. DATES: The Draft EIS/GMP was on public review from July 2 ...
[38]
36 CFR § 7.30 Devils Tower National Monument - LawStack
(a) Climbing. Registration with a park ranger is required prior to any climbing above the talus slopes on Devils Tower. The registrant is also required to ...
[39]
Permits & Reservations - Devils Tower National Monument (U.S. ...
Permits · Access for other park visitors must not be impeded. · Available parking is limited, often crowded and not guaranteed.
[40]
National Monument - Devils Tower Country
Climbers are required to obtain a free permit from the National Park Service before beginning their climb. Failure to obtain a permit is subject to citation and ...
[41]
Weather - Devils Tower National Monument (U.S. National Park ...
Knowing the possible forecast will help you plan, but situational awareness can keep you safe on the ground. Hazardous Weather Conditions. Lat: 44.5907897949219 ...Missing: longitude coordinates
[42]
Natural Features & Ecosystems - Devils Tower National Monument ...
Devils Tower National Monument protects a small portion of the greater Black Hills ecosystem. Described as a forest amidst a sea of prairie.<|separator|>
[43]
Trees and Shrubs - Devils Tower National Monument (U.S. National ...
Ponderosa forests provide habitat for many species, including red squirrels, porcupines, bobcats, nuthatches, woodpeckers, bullsnakes and more. Commercially, ...
[44]
Plants - Devils Tower National Monument (U.S. National Park Service)
There are more than 500 native and non-native plant species. These plants offer homes and food for our wildlife, prevent erosion of our soils, and provide ...Missing: fauna | Show results with:fauna
[45]
Wildflowers - Devils Tower National Monument (U.S. National Park ...
Apr 24, 2025 · The following list includes wildflowers that are commonly seen along the trails and around developed areas of Devils Tower National Monument.
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Nonnative Species - Devils Tower - National Park Service
Biologists have identified over 50 nonnative plant species in the park. Several of these - leafy spurge, houndstongue, common mullein, and some thistles - are ...
[47]
Mammals - Devils Tower - National Park Service
Squirrels, including prairie dogs, are some of the most visible animals at Devils Tower National Monument. A porcupine climbs a tree. Rodents and Shrews.
[48]
Animals - Devils Tower National Monument (U.S. National Park ...
The forests and prairies of Devils Tower National Monument provide habitat for mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, insects, and fish.Mammals · Birds · Fish · Prairie Dogs
[49]
Devil's Tower National Monument
Fun Fact: Devil's Tower is 867 feet from its base to its summit, and its summit is about the size of a football field! More Than Meets the Eye. While the park's ...Missing: composition | Show results with:composition
[50]
Deciduous woodland conservation under heavy deer browsing on ...
Because deciduous woodlands comprise 18% of the land cover on Devils Tower National Monument (DTNM), this natural area is potentially important for the ...Missing: fauna | Show results with:fauna
[51]
Plant Community Monitoring at Devils Tower National Monument
Nov 7, 2019 · The Devils Tower National Monument species list includes 472 plants. In 2018, 152 unique plant species were found on monitoring plots and over ...
[52]
First Climbers - Devils Tower National Monument (U.S. National ...
The first recorded climb of Devils Tower occurred over ten years before its establishment as a national monument. Willard Ripley and William Rogers were two ...
[53]
Devils Tower - NPS History
Aug 24, 2024 · Devils Tower was first climbed in 1893 via a wooden ladder, became a National Monument in 1906, and had its first technical climb in 1937. It ...
[54]
First Technical Climb - Devils Tower National Monument (U.S. ...
Fritz Wiessner, Lawrence Coveney, and William House made the first technical climb on June 28, 1937, using ropes and pitons, without a stake ladder.Missing: records | Show results with:records
[55]
North America, United States, Wyoming, Devil's Tower
A record number of climbers ascended the Devils Tower on a record number of routes during 1964. There were 79 parties of 196 individuals on 19 routes. Ten first ...
[56]
Climbing Information - Devils Tower National Monument (U.S. ...
Regulations · Observe posted route closures; visit the Current Climbing Closure page. · Do not leave gear on the Tower (including ropes, cams, stoppers, etc.).Missing: records | Show results with:records
[57]
[PDF] bear's lodge or devils tower: inter cultural relations, legal pluralism ...
In his 1876 book, The Black Hills, he identifies the name of the Tower as "Devils Tower," explaining that the Indian name for the Tower was ''The Bad God's ...
[58]
Devil's Tower National Monument Final Climbing Management Plan ...
No new bolts or fixed pitons will be allowed on the tower, though replacement of existing bolts and fixed pitons could occur through a registration system (the ...
[59]
A Local Guide's Favorite Routes for Climbing at Devils Tower
Most of the climbs that top out are between 4-6 pitches, requiring climbers to be in shape and have the endurance to climb for a few hundred feet. How long does ...Missing: records | Show results with:records<|separator|>
[60]
91-Year-Old Breaks Devils Tower Climbing Record - Mountain Planet
Dr. Bill Weber of Florida, the obvious answer was to break a record and become the oldest known person ever to have climbed to the summit of Devils Tower.
[61]
One of the fastest climbs of Devils Tower was done in 18 minutes by ...
Mar 17, 2014 · #DevilsTower #FindYourPark. Thursday September 25: Ecosystems of Devils Tower Friday September 26: Creepy Critters Saturday September 27: ...
[62]
36 CFR § 7.30 - Devils Tower National Monument.
§ 7.30 Devils Tower National Monument. (a) Climbing. Registration with a park ranger is required prior to any climbing above the talus slopes on Devils Tower.Missing: practices records
[63]
Voluntary Climbing Closure in June - Devils Tower National ...
Apr 2, 2025 · The 1995 Devils Tower National Monument Climbing Management Plan established a voluntary closure for all climbing routes on the Tower.Missing: ceremonies | Show results with:ceremonies
[64]
Safety - Devils Tower National Monument (U.S. National Park Service)
Apr 24, 2025 · Climbing Devils Tower is inherently dangerous. You are responsible for your own safety while climbing. ... rules and regulations, please see ...
[65]
Climber fatality at Devils Tower National Monument
Sep 23, 2024 · Over the 100 plus year climbing history at the Tower, there have only been seven climbing deaths. While climbing fatalities at Devils Tower are ...
[66]
NPS Incident Reports - Devils Tower National Monument
R.H. was wearing a climbing helmet. There have now been a total of four climbing fatalities on Devils Tower, including three in the last five years. The ...
[67]
Devils Tower Sees Record-breaking Visitation in 2021
Devils Tower Sees Record-breaking Visitation in 2021 ; January, March, April ; 2021--4,438, 2021--10,076, 2021--17,170 ; 1995--3,418, 2016--9,932, 2017--12,715.
[68]
Devils Tower Has Record Visitation Numbers In 2021
Feb 9, 2022 · Devils Tower National Monument reports having more than 550,000 recreational visits in 2021. That's the first time in the park's history ...Missing: 2020-2025 | Show results with:2020-2025<|separator|>
[69]
Devils Tower National Monument slashes hours without explanation
Mar 12, 2025 · The park recorded 540,890 visitations in 2024, a 27% increase over 2020. Public lands advocates have warned that visitors to Wyoming's forests ...
[70]
Devils Tower on pace to have busiest year ever - Buffalo Bulletin
a 4,000-person ...Missing: 2020-2025 | Show results with:2020-2025
[71]
Devils Tower experienced a record 2021, and officials are planning ...
Feb 4, 2022 · Devils Tower experienced a record 2021, and officials are planning for a future of increased tourism | Wyoming Public Media. Stories, Stats, ...
[72]
$$41.7 million spent at Devils Tower in 2024 | News - Buffalo Bulletin
Oct 2, 2025 · A total of 8.1 million visitors enjoyed the sights and sounds of Wyoming's five national parks, with a cumulative benefit to the state economy ...Missing: tourism | Show results with:tourism
[73]
Tourism to Devils Tower Adds $38.7 Million to Local Economy
Devils Tower, WY – A new National Park Service report shows that 499 thousand visitors to Devils Tower in 2017 spent $31.1 million in communities near the park.
[74]
Yellowstone tourism contributes $828 million to local economy, per ...
Aug 28, 2024 · Smaller attractions across Wyoming also saw significant visitor spending. Devil's Tower brought in $37.5 million, and the Fort Laramie Historic ...
[75]
Devils Tower brings money to local economy - Wyoming News Now
Sep 27, 2024 · Visitors to Devils Tower National Monument in Wyoming spent more than $31 million in communities near the park last year.Missing: impact | Show results with:impact
[76]
Close Encounters of the Third Kind and Devils Tower, Wyoming
Devils Tower is a National Monument situated in Wyoming and featured in the climax of the movie Close Encounters of the Third Kind.
[77]
Devils Tower, 'Close Encounters of the Third Kind' - Entertainment
May 17, 2010 · Devils Tower is a 1,000 ft tall cylindrical tower in Wyoming, featured in 'Close Encounters of the Third Kind' and the first U.S. national ...
[78]
Devil's Tower - Films by location - MNTNFILM
Frank and the tower is a documentary about rock climbing that takes place in Devil's Tower. It was directed by Fitz Cahall in 2015 and produced by Duct Tape ...<|separator|>
[79]
"Rock the Park" Devils Tower National Monument (TV Episode 2018)
Devils Tower National Monument: With Colton Smith, Jack Steward. Jack and Colton are in Wyoming to take on the biggest rock climb challenge of their lives ...
[80]
[PDF] Final Climbing Plan/Finding of No Significant Impact, Devils Tower ...
The National Park Service will manage Devils Tower as primarily a crack climbing site in such a way that will be more compatible with the butte's geology, soils ...
[81]
"Draft Climbing Management Plan and Environmental Assessment ...
Recreational climbing at Devils Tower has increased dramatically from 312 climbers in 1973 to over 6,000 per year since 1992. New route development in the last ...
[82]
Bear Lodge Multiple Use Ass'n v. Babbitt, 2 F. Supp. 2d 1448 (D ...
The above-captioned matter comes before the Court on Plaintiffs' appeal of Defendants' Final Climbing Management Plan for Devil's Tower National Monument.Missing: litigation | Show results with:litigation
[83]
BEAR LODGE MULTIPLE USE ASSOCIATION v. Group of ...
To address the various concerns, the National Park Service (NPS) developed a Final Climbing Management Plan for Devils Tower National Monument (FCMP). In ...
[84]
Bear Lodge Multiple Use Ass'n v. Babbitt
Apr 26, 1999 · The FCMP asks rock climbers to voluntarily refrain from climbing on Devils Tower during the month of June out of respect for Native American ...
[85]
Bear Lodge v. Babbitt - Opposition - Department of Justice
Oct 21, 2014 · The question presented is: Whether petitioners, recreational rock climbers who continue to be allowed to climb Devils Tower during June and who ...
[86]
Master Climbing Devils Tower: Routes, Regs & Respect
All individuals intending to climb or scramble above the primary boulder field at Devils Tower must register with the National Park Service (NPS). This ...
[87]
Voluntary June climbing closure in effect for Devils Tower | Local News
Jun 6, 2024 · The voluntary climbing closure has been implemented each June since 1996. As a result, the average number of climbers that choose not to climb ...
[88]
Current Climbing Closures - Devils Tower National Monument (U.S. ...
Apr 24, 2025 · Some climbing routes are temporarily closed during the spring and summer to protect falcon nesting sites, and to protect climbers from adult falcons.