Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Discography

A discography is a detailed catalog or bibliography of sound recordings, typically compiled for a specific musician, composer, performer, record label, or music genre, encompassing details such as release dates, formats (e.g., vinyl, CD, digital), track listings, personnel, and production information.^[1]^[2] It functions as both a historical record and a reference tool, enabling the documentation and study of musical output in the recording industry.^[3] The term "discography" originated in the early 1930s as a portmanteau of "disc" (referring to phonograph records) and "bibliography," with its earliest documented use appearing in 1930 in a phonograph-related publication.^[4] The practice evolved alongside the recording industry, which originated in the late 19th century following Thomas Edison's invention of the phonograph in 1877, with commercial recordings emerging in the 1890s.^[5] In the music industry and academia, discographies support research into cultural history, copyright, and market analysis, while aiding collectors and performers. With the digital era, online platforms have enhanced accessibility, though challenges like data verification remain. Today, discographies preserve the legacy of recorded music amid evolving formats from analog to streaming.^[3]^[2]^[6]^[7]

Definition and Overview

Core Definition

Discography is the systematic cataloging and study of published sound recordings, encompassing details such as the performing artist or ensemble, title of the recording, issuing record label, release date, matrix or take numbers, and physical or digital formats including shellac discs, vinyl records, and compact discs.^[1]^[8] This practice serves as a bibliographic tool tailored to audio media, enabling researchers, collectors, and music historians to trace the production, distribution, and evolution of musical works. Unlike a bibliography, which compiles information on printed books and publications, discography specifically addresses the unique identifiers and metadata of sound recordings, distinguishing audio artifacts from textual ones. It also differs from discology, a broader field examining the technical and cultural aspects of gramophone records and recording technologies.^[9] The term "discography" originated in the 1930s, formed by combining "disc," referring to phonograph records, with "-graphy," modeled after "bibliography," to denote a descriptive cataloging process.^[10] Its earliest documented use appeared in January 1931 in the Phonograph Monthly Review as "A Farrar Discography," compiling recordings by opera singer Geraldine Farrar, though it gained prominence in jazz scholarship through Charles Delaunay's 1936 Hot Discography.^[11] A standard discographical entry typically features numerical identifiers like catalog numbers for commercial releases and matrix numbers for specific pressings or takes, alongside credits for personnel involved and details on recording sessions such as date and location.^[2]^[12] These elements provide essential context for verifying authenticity and understanding production histories without delving into exhaustive listings.

Types and Classifications

Discographies are categorized primarily by their scope and focus, encompassing artist discographies that catalog the complete recorded output of a single performer or group, label discographies that document all releases from a specific record company, and genre discographies that compile recordings within a particular musical style, such as jazz or classical music.^[2] Artist discographies emphasize the evolution of an individual's or band's oeuvre, often including singles, albums, and collaborations, while label discographies provide insights into a company's production history and commercial strategies. Genre discographies, by contrast, aggregate works across multiple artists to trace stylistic developments, as seen in comprehensive jazz compilations that span from early New Orleans styles to modern fusion.^[7]^[13] Specialized classifications organize discographical entries according to specific criteria, including numerical arrangements by catalog or matrix numbers for precise identification of pressings, chronological ordering by release or recording dates to illustrate temporal progression, session-based groupings that cluster tracks from the same recording sessions for analytical depth, and thematic categorizations by composer, era, or musical form to highlight artistic influences.^[14] These approaches facilitate targeted research; for instance, numerical systems aid collectors in verifying editions, while thematic ones support musicological studies of compositional legacies.^[14] Notable examples include the comprehensive artist discography of The Beatles, which details their extensive official releases, including 13 studio albums such as Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967) and numerous compilations, serving as a benchmark for rock documentation. Similarly, the discography of Columbia Records chronicles thousands of issues from its 1890s origins through mid-20th-century LPs, such as the 500 Series albums starting in 1951, illustrating label evolution in formats and genres.^[15] In the digital era, hybrid types have emerged, blending traditional cataloging with interactive and multimedia elements to enhance accessibility and engagement. These include online platforms with searchable databases, visualizations, and user interfaces; for example, an interactive discography of Miles Davis maps his 405 recording sessions and 577 collaborators through dynamic graphics, allowing exploration of his jazz innovations from 1945 to 1991.^[16] Such formats integrate audio clips, timelines, and metadata, transforming static lists into navigable resources for scholars and fans.^[17]

Historical Development

Origins and Early Practices

The roots of discography trace back to the late 19th century, when inventors and early recording companies began producing basic catalogs to document their sound recordings. Thomas Edison's National Phonograph Company issued some of the earliest such lists in the 1890s, detailing wax cylinders that captured spoken recitations, music, and novelty acts for sale to consumers and businesses.^[18] These catalogs served as rudimentary inventories, listing titles, artists, and catalog numbers without the detailed personnel or session information that would later define discographic practice. By the 1920s and 1930s, as shellac 78 rpm discs became the dominant format for commercial recordings, jazz enthusiasts in the United States and Europe started compiling informal lists to track the burgeoning output of "hot jazz" and related styles. These handwritten or typed notations, often shared among collectors and fans through personal networks or jazz clubs, focused on identifying rare or influential sessions amid the era's prolific but poorly documented label practices. Challenges included incomplete matrix numbers, pseudonyms for musicians, and inconsistent release data from companies like OKeh and Gennett, which hindered accurate compilation. The formation of groups like the Hot Club de France in 1932 marked a turning point, as members began systematizing these efforts into more structured references. A milestone came in 1936 with Charles Delaunay's Hot Discography, the first comprehensive printed jazz discography, which cataloged over 20,000 shellac records from 1906 onward, including personnel, dates, and labels. Published initially in French and soon translated, it transitioned enthusiast lists from ephemeral notes to accessible pamphlets and books, emphasizing the shellac era's acoustic and early electrical recordings. Key figures like Brian Rust, who began contributing detailed corrections and expansions to jazz listings in the late 1940s while working in the BBC record library, built on this foundation by pioneering exhaustive, file-based verifications for comprehensive works like his Jazz Records 1897–1942. Early practitioners faced persistent issues with incomplete label archives, but these printed efforts laid the groundwork for discography as a scholarly tool.^[19]^[20]

Evolution in the 20th Century

Following World War II, the recording industry underwent rapid expansion, fueled by innovations in format technology that increased accessibility and output. Columbia Records introduced the 12-inch long-playing (LP) record at 33⅓ rpm in 1948, enabling up to 23 minutes of playback per side with improved fidelity, while RCA Victor launched the 7-inch 45 rpm single in 1949 as a durable alternative for popular singles. These developments replaced the brittle 78 rpm shellac discs, spurring a surge in music production and consumer demand that overwhelmed informal cataloging methods and prompted the formalization of discography as a disciplined practice.^[21]^[22] Discographical societies emerged to foster collaboration among enthusiasts and scholars, standardizing approaches to documentation amid this growth. In the United States, the Association for Recorded Sound Collections (ARSC) was established in 1966 to advance the preservation, study, and discography of sound recordings, providing a platform for sharing research on historical and contemporary releases. In France, the Hot Club de France, founded in 1932 and active through the postwar era, contributed significantly to jazz discography by issuing specialized labels like Swing Records and publishing catalogs that tracked European and American sessions. These organizations helped transition discography from amateur efforts to a professional endeavor, emphasizing session details, matrix numbers, and personnel.^[23] From the 1950s to the 1970s, key publications marked milestones in the field's maturation, particularly as discography extended beyond jazz to encompass emerging genres like rock and pop. Brian Rust's Jazz Records, 1897–1942, first published in 1961 and revised through multiple editions into the 1980s, established a foundational session-based format that cataloged over 20,000 jazz recordings with unprecedented detail on artists, dates, and labels, influencing subsequent works across genres. The expansion into rock and pop was exemplified by All Together Now: The First Complete Beatles Discography, 1961–1975 by Harry Castleman and Walter Podrazik (1976), which systematically documented the band's global releases, variants, and chart performance, reflecting the era's growing commercial complexity.^[24]^[25] Institutions such as libraries and record labels further supported standardization by archiving materials and developing consistent metadata practices. The Library of Congress's Recorded Sound Research Center, opened in 1979, centralized preservation efforts and contributed to discographical accuracy through its vast holdings of over 3 million items, including early cylinders and discs, while collaborating on national catalogs to ensure reliable attribution and access. Record labels like RCA and Columbia aided this process by releasing official session logs and reissue annotations, bridging commercial data with scholarly needs.^[26] In the late 20th century, the advent of the compact disc (CD) in 1982 transformed reissues and retrospective discographies, as labels digitized back catalogs for superior clarity and longevity, often adding bonus tracks or remasters. This shift, with CD sales surpassing vinyl by 1988, necessitated updated discographies to account for new matrix variants, international editions, and enhanced audio formats, revitalizing interest in historical recordings while challenging discographers to track proliferating versions.^[27]

Methods and Practices

Cataloging Techniques

Cataloging techniques in discography involve meticulous processes to gather, verify, and organize data on sound recordings, ensuring accuracy in documenting artists, sessions, and releases. Data collection begins with physical examination of media, particularly for pre-LP eras, where inspecting runout grooves reveals matrix numbers—unique identifiers etched during mastering that indicate the recording session, take, and pressing plant.^[28] These numbers, often accompanied by handwritten engineer marks, allow catalogers to trace originals from reissues or alternates. Cross-referencing archival session logs from record labels provides essential details like recording dates, locations, and personnel involved, reconstructing unissued or obscure tracks.^[29] In cases of incomplete documentation, interviewing surviving musicians, engineers, or label staff supplements primary sources, clarifying ambiguities in group compositions or performance histories.^[30] Verification techniques emphasize rigorous scrutiny to resolve discrepancies common in historical recordings. Distinguishing between takes—alternate versions from the same session—relies primarily on aural analysis, where discographers listen repeatedly for variations in phrasing, tempo, or improvisation, as seen in jazz works like Charlie Parker's Dial sessions.^[31] Modern aids include audio waveform and spectrogram analysis to detect edits, splices, or dubbing artifacts, confirming authenticity or identifying reprocessed material.^[32] Handling pseudonyms, prevalent in early jazz and blues to evade contracts or union rules, requires cross-referencing credits across labels; discographies track these aliases systematically to attribute performances correctly, as in analyses of 1920s-1940s recordings where groups reappeared under fictitious names.^[33] Alternate pressings are differentiated by matrix variants, label matrices, and etching differences, preventing conflation of regional issues or later compilations.^[34] Organizational approaches prioritize structured accessibility, typically employing hierarchical indexing by primary artist (alphabetized by surname or group name), followed by recording date or title for chronological or thematic sequencing.^[35] This method, refined in tools like the BRIAN relational database software, facilitates navigation of an artist's output while accommodating collaborations via sub-entries. Comprehensive discographies often include errata sections to address inaccuracies in predecessor works, such as erroneous personnel listings or misdated sessions, promoting iterative refinement.^[36] While digital tools like Discogs enable initial data entry through crowdsourced submissions and standardized fields, manual verification remains paramount; catalogers must audit entries against originals via listening and archival checks to mitigate user errors or unverified claims.^[37] This hybrid approach balances efficiency with scholarly precision, underscoring discography's role as a corrective historical tool.

Standards and Formats

Discographies adhere to several key international standards to ensure consistent identification and cataloging of sound recordings. The International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) provides guidelines for numbering systems, including the International Standard Recording Code (ISRC), a unique 12-character alphanumeric code assigned to individual sound recordings to facilitate global tracking and rights management.^[38] Similarly, the IFPI's Global Release Identifier (GRid) standard assigns a unique identifier to entire music releases, structured as a Uniform Resource Name (URN) to avoid misinterpretation and support interoperability across digital platforms.^[39] For metadata in digital catalogs, ISO standards such as ISO 3901 underpin the ISRC framework, while broader schemas like those in ISO/IEC 14496 (MPEG-4) enable structured description of audio content, including titles, artists, and release dates, promoting compatibility in online databases. Common formats for presenting discographies emphasize clarity and retrievability, often employing tabular layouts to organize essential details. These typically include columns for release date, record label, catalog number, and track listings—such as sides A and B for vinyl records—to allow systematic comparison of editions.^[34] For bibliographic citations, styles like the Chicago Manual of Style recommend treating discographies as specialized bibliographies, with entries formatted to include performer, title, label, catalog number, and format (e.g., LP or CD), often listed separately from main references to highlight audio-specific details.^[40] International variations in discographic conventions reflect regional recording practices, particularly in matrix numbering systems used to identify master discs during production. In the United States, matrix numbers often follow label-specific sequences with embedded plant codes (e.g., "TML" for Terre Haute Manufacturing), while European systems, such as those from Columbia Records, employ distinct numerical progressions for domestic versus international masters, leading to discrepancies in cross-border cataloging.^[41] The Association for Recorded Sound Collections (ARSC) plays a pivotal role in addressing these variations by advocating for uniform preservation standards and awarding excellence in discographic research, thereby fostering consistency across global collections.^[42] The evolution of discography formats has transitioned from printed indices, which relied on bound volumes with indexed entries for manual reference, to digital XML-based schemas that enable machine-readable interoperability. Early 20th-century discographies used simple textual lists in books, but contemporary standards incorporate extensible markup languages like XML to structure metadata, allowing automated querying and integration with databases such as those compliant with the International Association of Sound Archives (IASA) guidelines.^[43] This shift supports enhanced searchability and data exchange in online environments, reducing errors in cross-referencing historical recordings.

Key Resources and Publications

Print and Book Resources

Print and book resources have long served as foundational tools in discography, providing detailed catalogs of recordings that predate widespread digital access and enabling scholars to trace the evolution of recorded music through comprehensive, verifiable listings. These works often compile matrix numbers, release dates, personnel, and label information, drawing from archival research, label files, and collector inputs to create enduring references that withstand the test of time despite the static nature of print formats.^[44] Among the landmark publications, R. D. Darrell's The Gramophone Shop Encyclopedia of Recorded Music (1936) stands out as an early comprehensive guide, cataloging over 10,000 recordings across genres with entries organized by performer and including critical annotations on sound quality and repertoire significance. This volume, published by the Gramophone Shop in New York, was instrumental in standardizing early discographic practices for classical and popular music alike. Similarly, John Bolig's multi-volume Victor Discography series, culminating in updates through the 2010s including the 2017 electronic editions of works like The Victor Black Label Discography, meticulously documents Victor's historical output from 1900 onward, incorporating matrix data and session details derived from company ledgers to correct earlier inaccuracies in recording histories.^[45] Genre-specific print resources have further enriched the field by focusing on niche repertoires. In jazz, Brian Rust's Jazz and Ragtime Records, 1897-1942 (first edition 1961, with revised editions through 2002) offers an exhaustive index of over 50,000 sessions, emphasizing personnel and alternate takes while serving as a benchmark for subsequent jazz scholarship. For classical music, Francis F. Clough and G. J. Cuming's The World's Encyclopedia of Recorded Music (1952, with a 1957 supplement and 1970 reprint) provides a systematic listing of Western art music recordings up to 1950, arranged by composer and performer to facilitate research into historical performances. In blues, Les Fancourt and Bob McGrath's The Blues Discography, 1943-1970 (second edition 1996) catalogs post-war blues releases on major labels, highlighting regional styles and artist migrations with entries on over 20,000 tracks.^[44]^[46] Notable authors have driven advancements through specialized contributions. Tom Lord's The Jazz Discography (31 print volumes, 1994-2000) extends Rust's work into the modern era, indexing more than 250,000 jazz sessions with global scope and including blues-influenced and avant-garde entries for a holistic view of improvised music. Michel Ruppli, a prolific compiler of label histories, produced detailed discographies for R&B and soul imprints, such as The Decca Labels: A Discography (1996, four volumes) and Atlantic Records: A Discography (1979), which trace sessionographies for artists like Ray Charles and Aretha Franklin using original master logs.^[47]^[48] Publishing trends from the 1970s to 1990s saw academic presses like Scarecrow Press and Greenwood Press emerge as key players in discographic output, with Scarecrow's Studies in Jazz series (launched 1982) issuing over 100 volumes of artist and label bibliodiscographies by the 2000s, fostering rigorous peer-reviewed scholarship. Greenwood similarly specialized in comprehensive label surveys, releasing Ruppli's works on Prestige, Mercury, and others during this period to meet demand from musicologists. However, the static format of print posed challenges for updates, as new reissues and archival discoveries often required costly supplements or full revisions, leading to gaps in coverage compared to the agility of digital formats that emerged later.^[49]^[50]

Digital and Online Resources

Digital and online resources have revolutionized discography by providing dynamic, searchable platforms that aggregate vast amounts of music release data, often contributed by users or curated by institutions. These tools enable researchers, collectors, and enthusiasts to access detailed catalogs of recordings, including metadata on artists, labels, formats, and release dates, far surpassing the limitations of static print materials. Unlike traditional bibliographies, digital discographies frequently incorporate multimedia elements such as audio previews and images, fostering greater interactivity and global collaboration. One of the most prominent user-generated databases is Discogs, founded in 2000, which serves as a comprehensive repository for music releases across genres and eras. As of 2025, Discogs catalogs millions of releases, with users contributing detailed entries on vinyl, CDs, and digital formats, supported by an API that facilitates data extraction for third-party applications. Similarly, AllMusic offers an integrated discography alongside reviews and biographical information, encompassing over 3 million album entries and 30 million tracks, allowing users to explore artist timelines and genre classifications through advanced search filters. Institutional digital resources provide authoritative, curated access to historical recordings. The British Library Sound Archive maintains an online catalog of over 6.5 million sound recordings, including commercial discs and archival materials, accessible via its Explore the British Library platform for scholarly research. The Discography of American Historical Recordings (DAHR) project, launched in the early 2010s by the University of California, Santa Barbara, offers free access to data on more than 450,000 master recordings from the 78 rpm era (roughly 1890–1940s), drawing from labels like Victor and Columbia to document early American music history. Collaborative platforms further enhance user involvement in discographic efforts. Rate Your Music (RYM), established in 2000, relies on community contributions to build a vast database of over 6.6 million releases as of March 2025, where users rate, review, and tag entries to create personalized charts and recommendations. SecondHandSongs focuses on cover versions and adaptations, maintaining a database of approximately 718,000 covers, 89,000 originals, and 134,000 artists as of 2025, enabling users to trace song lineages across performers and eras. Many of these platforms support APIs for seamless data integration into other tools, such as Discogs' RESTful API, which provides JSON-formatted details on releases and artists for developers building music apps or analytics software. Key advantages of digital discographies over print counterparts include real-time updates to reflect new discoveries or reissues, advanced searchability by criteria like catalog number or matrix, and embedded multimedia like audio samples, which enhance verification and contextual understanding for users worldwide.

Significance and Challenges

Role in Music Research

Discographies serve as essential tools in musicology by enabling scholars to trace the evolution of musical influences and styles across genres. For instance, comprehensive catalogs like The Jazz Discography, which documents over 266,000 recording sessions and 1.7 million tunes from more than a century of jazz history, allow researchers to map artist collaborations, stylistic developments, and the dissemination of improvisational techniques, revealing how figures such as Louis Armstrong influenced subsequent generations.^[47] Similarly, these resources facilitate the authentication of rare recordings by cross-referencing matrix numbers, session dates, and personnel against original label archives, ensuring the verification of historical masters that might otherwise be misattributed or lost to counterfeits.^[51] In terms of cultural impact, discographies play a vital role in documenting underrepresented genres, particularly in ethnomusicology, where they preserve and analyze non-Western musical traditions. Collections such as Ethnomusicology: Global Field Recordings provide detailed inventories of thousands of audio field recordings from regions like West Africa and Southeast Asia, aiding scholars in examining cultural identities, rituals, and social norms through preserved sound artifacts that might otherwise fade from collective memory.^[52] Additionally, discographies contribute to legal contexts, such as copyright disputes over master recordings; in the 2025 Salt-N-Pepa case against Universal Music Group, detailed discographic evidence of ownership transfers from Next Plateau Records was central to claims regarding control of 1990s hip-hop tracks.^[53] Discographies hold significant educational value as reference tools in academic settings, supporting in-depth studies of music history. The Discography of American Historical Recordings (DAHR), for example, catalogs over 450,000 masters from the 78rpm era, enabling educators and students to explore early 20th-century American music, including jazz, blues, and classical works, through searchable data on performers, labels, and streaming access to 85,000 digitized tracks.^[51] Interdisciplinary connections further underscore the role of discographies in archival science and data preservation, where they function as structured metadata systems to safeguard audio heritage. DAHR exemplifies this by integrating original documents from archives like Sony Music with digital indexing, promoting long-term accessibility and preventing the degradation of cultural records through collaborative preservation efforts with institutions such as the Library of Congress.^[51]

Contemporary Issues

In contemporary discographical work, data accuracy remains a significant challenge, particularly in user-generated online databases such as Discogs, where crowdsourced contributions often introduce errors like incorrect track listings, misattributed credits, or inconsistent formatting. These inaccuracies arise from the lack of centralized moderation, leading to persistent issues that undermine the reliability of the database for researchers and collectors. For instance, a study on descriptive metadata in the music industry highlights how such user-driven errors propagate across platforms, complicating verification and requiring ongoing manual corrections.^[54] Piracy and bootleg listings further exacerbate these problems by infiltrating official catalogs, often blurring the lines between authorized releases and unauthorized copies. Bootlegs, including live recordings and remixes produced without permission, can flood databases, distorting sales data, pricing histories, and release chronologies in resources like Discogs. A case study on bootlegging in the music industry notes that while bootlegs sometimes serve as promotional tools, they frequently lead to legal disputes and the need for retroactive removals, which erase valuable archival data and hinder comprehensive cataloging. For example, Discogs' 2017 crackdown on bootleg sales removed thousands of listings, preserving historical entries but eliminating marketplace metrics essential for tracking rarity and value.^[55]^[56] Digital preservation efforts face additional hurdles in the streaming era, where platforms like Spotify prioritize algorithmic recommendations over detailed metadata, resulting in the loss of critical information such as session details, alternate takes, or production notes. This metadata erosion affects discographical integrity, as streaming services often aggregate tracks without preserving original release contexts, leading to incomplete or homogenized catalogs that obscure historical nuances. The New York Times reports that genres like classical music suffer disproportionately, with Schubert and Puccini works "lost in the metadata" due to poor tagging that favors pop hits in search and playlist algorithms. Moreover, poor metadata contributes to an estimated $100 million in annual royalty losses industry-wide, as misidentified tracks evade proper attribution and revenue tracking.^[57]^[58] Artificial intelligence offers a promising countermeasure for automated cataloging, enabling rapid tagging of genres, moods, instruments, and tempos to fill metadata gaps efficiently. Tools like Cyanite.ai demonstrate this potential by processing audio files to generate accurate tags and similarity searches, reducing curation time by up to 55% and boosting licensing opportunities for music catalogs. However, AI implementation must address biases in training data to avoid perpetuating inaccuracies in underrepresented genres. Accessibility gaps persist in discographical resources, with non-Western music severely underrepresented due to Western-centric database priorities and limited contributions from global sources. Library guides and research highlight how databases like Discogs and MusicBrainz focus predominantly on Euro-American recordings, marginalizing traditions from Africa, Asia, and Indigenous communities. Cross-cultural music studies further emphasize ethical issues in representation, where colonial legacies contribute to sparse documentation of non-Western repertoires.^[59]^[60] Copyright barriers compound these gaps by restricting full digitization of recordings, as evidenced by a 2023 lawsuit against the Internet Archive's Great 78 Project, which sought to preserve pre-1964 vinyl but faced infringement claims from major labels and was settled in September 2025. The Council on Library and Information Resources outlines how U.S. copyright laws, extended to 95 years for sound recordings, create monopolies that delay public access and hinder comprehensive digital archives. In 2023, record companies sued the Archive for digitizing over 5,000 obsolete tracks, arguing unauthorized reproduction despite fair use defenses for preservation. Over 600 musicians urged labels to drop the case, underscoring tensions between protection and cultural heritage.^[61]^[62]^[63]^[64] Looking to future trends, blockchain technology is emerging as a tool for provenance tracking in music discographies, providing immutable ledgers to verify authenticity and ownership histories of recordings. A 2025 study proposes blockchain-based systems for audio content authentication, mitigating risks like counterfeiting by logging creation, distribution, and transfer details on decentralized networks. Record labels are exploring blockchain databases to streamline international royalty tracking and combat piracy, as outlined in analyses of decentralized music ecosystems.^[65]^[66] Integration with non-fungible tokens (NFTs) represents another post-2020 development for rare recordings, allowing artists and labels to tokenize exclusive assets like limited-edition tracks or archival masters on blockchains. Following the 2022 crypto market crash, NFTs have shifted toward practical applications, with Sony Music launching collections on its Soneium blockchain in 2025 to distribute limited-edition NFTs for artists like Sunny B. 1991, enhancing fan engagement and provenance verification. Billboard reports that while NFT trading volumes fell 19% in 2024, initiatives by Universal Music Group and others continue to use them for superfans, selling out editions of rare live recordings at vinyl-comparable prices.^[67]^[68]

References

[1]
DISCOGRAPHY Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
Oct 29, 2025 · 1. a descriptive list of recordings by category, composer, performer, or date of release; an Elvis Presley discography. 2. the history of recorded music.Missing: industry | Show results with:industry
[2]
Discographies | MusRef | BYU Library
Discography is a relatively new form of bibliography that specifically concentrates on sound recordings.
[3]
American Discography Project History
The American Discography Project (ADP) has a long history of conceptualization and a few efforts at realization, dating back decades.
[4]
discography, n. meanings, etymology and more | Oxford English ...
The earliest known use of the noun discography is in the 1930s. OED's earliest evidence for discography is from 1930, in Phonogr. Monthly. discography is formed ...
[5]
Discography - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
American English tends to use it in the musical recording sense (1888); originally of phonograph records, recently of compact discs. Advertisement
[6]
Discographies - Music - Research Guides at UC Davis
Jun 20, 2025 · Used by researchers, musicologists, and general music fans, DAHR had its genesis in 1964 as the Encyclopedic Discography of Victor Recordings, a ...
[7]
Discographies and Recordings - Basic Music Research Tools
A guide to the art and science of discography. Includes information about the purposes, functions, and creation of discographies, a brief history of the field, ...
[8]
DISCOGRAPHY definition in American English - Collins Dictionary
1. the systematic cataloging of phonograph records. 2. a list of the recordings of a particular performer, composer, composition, etc.Missing: industry | Show results with:industry
[9]
https://www.dictionary.com/browse/discology
[10]
discography noun - Oxford Learner's Dictionaries
Word Origin1930s: from disc + -graphy, on the pattern of biography. See discography in the Oxford Advanced American Dictionary. Check pronunciation: discography ...
[11]
Introduction To Discography - Phil Schaap Jazz
Jun 17, 2014 · ... Jazz scholars. The term Discography was coined by French scholar and critic Charles Delaunay, the pioneer in creating this library science ...
[12]
Discographies and Reference Books - Institute of Jazz Studies
Aug 19, 2024 · Within each artist entry, sessions are arranged chronologically. Each entry generally includes: recording date, place of recording, album ...
[13]
Jazz Discography - Rutgers University Libraries
The most comprehensive general jazz discography. Includes information on over 200000 jazz recording sessions from 1896 to the present.<|control11|><|separator|>
[14]
Standards for Bibliographies of Discographies - jstor
chronologically by dates of recording sessions or issue dates; (3) numerically by label or matrix numbers; and (4) classified by musical form, media ...
[15]
Columbia Album Discography (1951-55)
Oct 11, 2015 · The Columbia 500 Series of 12" albums began with black labels and a GL- prefix. This lasted for the first 24 issues, or until the albums issued on May 1, 1953.
[16]
Miles Davis' Entire Discography Presented in a Stylish Interactive ...
Mar 2, 2015 · A huge online interactive discography tries to make sense of Davis's storied career by visualizing each of the 577 artists he collaborated with over 405 ...
[17]
MusicBrainz - the open music encyclopedia
MusicBrainz is an open music encyclopedia that collects music metadata and makes it available to the public.MusicBrainz Database · MusicBrainz Identifier · Beginners Guide · AudioRangerMissing: interactive | Show results with:interactive
[18]
Guide to Discographical Research: Record Company Catalogs
Aug 1, 2025 · Dating from as early as the 1890s, these materials were donated by record collectors, record dealers, or by record companies themselves.
[19]
[Epperson Collection] Hot discography / Charles Delaunay. - 001
Creator, Delaunay, Charles ; Title, [Epperson Collection] Hot discography / Charles Delaunay. ; Publisher, Paris : Hot Jazz ; Date, 1938. ; Description, 408 p.; 19 ...Missing: 1932 | Show results with:1932
[20]
BRIAN Who? — Brian Rust - Jazz Discography
Known as the father of modern discography, Brian Rust was born in London, England on March 19, 1922. He worked for the BBC record library until 1960.Missing: pioneer | Show results with:pioneer
[21]
Music recording - Digital, Multi-Track, Audio | Britannica
Sep 22, 2025 · By 1950 a pattern had been set: 12-inch LPs for classical works and popular albums, 45s for individual popular songs. Extended-play 45s also ...
[22]
LP and 45 RPM Records - Engineering and Technology History Wiki
Sep 17, 2015 · The long playing (LP) record and the 45-rpm disc were two different approaches to high fidelity music, introduced by two different companies in the late 1940s.
[23]
A Short History of the Hot Club of France
The Hot Club of France, founded in Paris in 1932, aimed to spread jazz, organized listening clubs, and launched "Swing Records" and "Jazz Hot".
[24]
Who is Brian Rust? - Jazz Discography
Known as the father of modern discography, Brian Rust was born in London, England on March 19, 1922. He worked for the BBC record library until 1960.
[25]
Together Now: The First Complete Beatles Discography, 1961-1975
All Together Now: The First Complete Beatles Discography, 1961-1975. Front Cover. Harry Castleman, Walter J. Podrazik. Ballantine Books, 1976 - Popular ...
[26]
[PDF] The Library of Congress National Recording Preservation Plan
The National Recording Preservation Board was established at the Library of Congress by the National Recording Preservation Act of.
[27]
How the compact disc lost its shine | Music | The Guardian
May 28, 2015 · The compact disc became “the fastest-growing home entertainment product in history”. CD sales overtook vinyl in 1988 and cassettes in 1991.<|separator|>
[28]
[PDF] Brian Rust's Guide to Discography
By the 1930s, recordings from the first decades of the 20th century—typically. “hot" jazz, opera, and classical music—were becoming recognized as important.
[29]
Mainspring Press e-books online Archives - 78 rpm Records ...
Sep 17, 2025 · ... session logs. The Mainspring Press Discography Series employs these materials and methods to reconstruct the output of numerous early record ...
[30]
J-DISC: An Online Jazz Discography
J-DISC will be a fully searchable online database with editing and commentary by noted jazz scholars. It will take full advantage of digital communications ...Missing: verification | Show results with:verification
[31]
Compilation and Display of Solo Information in Jazz Discography
Jan 2, 2018 · A discography with solo information serves as a comprehensive listening guide that indicates when the artists are featured and in what context.Missing: numerical thematic
[32]
Aural Analysis - EARS - ElectroAcoustic Resource Site - Huma-Num
Aural analysis is a means of identifying general aspects as well as specific detail of a given (recorded) work. It normally involves repeated listening for ...<|separator|>
[33]
[PDF] Why Pseudonyms? Deception as Identity Preservation Among Jazz ...
The discography also allows one to track a recording group for any pseudonym it may have appeared under. Given that pseudonyms occur at the level of recordings, ...
[34]
Database Guidelines 4. Label / Catalog Number - Discogs Support
May 25, 2018 · Usually, the matrix number is inscribed in the run out groove of a record or in the center of a CD. Note that other information can be ...
[35]
Documentation Introduction - Jazz Discography
BRIAN is a relational database application for compiling standard discography information. It is named after Brian Rust, who perfected the chronological ...
[36]
[PDF] Giving Discographers Their Due - Semantic Scholar
A case could be made that Charles Delaunay, whom Epperson rightly credits with being the first to adopt the matrix number as a primary identifier of recordings ...Missing: techniques | Show results with:techniques
[37]
Quick Start Guide For New Contributors - Discogs Support
May 8, 2018 · 1. Get a copy of the release in front of you · 2. Check your release doesn't already exist in the Database · 3. Open the Add Release page (AKA the ...
[38]
[PDF] International Standard Recording Code (ISRC) Handbook | IFPI
The rules in this document on re-mastering shall be used to determine whether the recording differs from the final release. A.9.3 Different versions are created ...Missing: discographies | Show results with:discographies
[39]
[PDF] The GRid Handbook A Users' Guide to the implementation of ... - IFPI
It is strongly recommended that the release number element is constructed in such a way that a third party will not be tempted to read meaning into the release ...Missing: discographies | Show results with:discographies
[40]
Audiovisual Recordings and Other Multimedia - Purdue OWL
This resource explains how to cite film, television, and other audiovisual materials. Citations for such recorded media usually include some or all of the ...
[41]
[PDF] Matrix and Catalog Numbers in G&S Discography - Russian Records
Columbia apparently used different matrix number systems for their European and. American recordings. The reader is referred to the Brooks ...Missing: conventions | Show results with:conventions
[42]
Association for Recorded Sound Collections - Home
The Association for Recorded Sound Collections promotes the preservation and study of sound recordings—in all formats and from all periods and genres—by ...ARSC Conference · About ARSC · ARSC Journal · ARSC Bulletin
[43]
3.6 Design – Encoding and Schemas
3.6.3 To summarise the above relationships, an XML Schema or DTD describes an XML structure that marks up textual content in the format of an XML encoded file.Missing: printed | Show results with:printed<|control11|><|separator|>
[44]
Bolig Discographies
Discography of American Historical Recordings. Browse. Matrixes · Discs · Names ... Downloadable PDF. [more...] Bluebird Label Discography December 19th, 2017, ...
[45]
The World's Encyclopedia of Recorded Music. Supplement
Author, Francis F. Clough ; Compiled by, Francis F. Clough, G. J. Cuming ; Publisher, Sidgwick and Jackson, 1957 ; Original from, the New York Public Library.
[46]
The Jazz Discography | Tom Lord – The World's Largest Catalog of ...
Feb 20, 2025 · The Jazz Discography (TJD) is the world's largest and most complete source of information about jazz records and jazz recording sessions.TJD Online Sign InTJD-Online: LoginThe Jazz Discography CD-ROMMusician ListAbout Us
[47]
The Decca labels : a discography : Ruppli, Michel - Internet Archive
Jun 20, 2018 · 1. The California sessions -- v. · 2. The eastern & southern sessions (1934-1942) -- v. · 3. The eastern sessions (1943-1956) -- v. · 4. The ...Missing: R&B | Show results with:R&B
[48]
Specialized Discographies: Part 1 - Chicago Scholarship Online
Oct 7, 2013 · Discography was one of the earliest, in 1942, but it lasted only a couple of years before being absorbed into Jazz Music (itself renamed Jazz ...
[49]
History of the Collection | Ed Berger collection
In 1990 Berger collaborated with Teddy Reig to publish Reig's autobiography Reminiscing in Tempo: The Life and Times of a Jazz Hustler (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow ...
[50]
Discography of American Historical Recordings - Site - Discography ...
Welcome to the Discography of American Historical Recordings (DAHR), a database of master recordings made by American record companies during the 78rpm era.Basic Search · Search Discs · Matrix/Title Search · Search Names
[51]
Ethnomusicology: Global Field Recordings - Adam Matthew Digital
Ethnomusicology approaches the study of world music from various perspectives, including, but not limited to, anthropology, music, religion, spirituality ...
[52]
Salt-N-Pepa Pushes It to the Courtroom in UMG Copyright Battle ...
Jun 6, 2025 · In the 1990s and early 2000s, a series of corporate transactions saw Next Plateau Records, Inc.'s discography be acquired by London Records, ...
[53]
(PDF) Descriptive Metadata in the Music Industry: Why It Is Broken ...
This extensive report examines an ongoing problem with descriptive metadata in the music industry. Stakeholders agree that there is a problem with ...
[54]
The Effects of Piracy Upon the Music Industry: a Case Study of ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Indeed, bootlegs act as a promotional tool and often an indicator of demand, which often leads to successful subsequent official releases. ...
[55]
Do bootlegs matter? What Discogs’ new crackdown means ...
Aug 30, 2017 · Once a listing is removed from the site, all of the pricing, wantlist and collection history is lost, though Discogs apparently keep archival ...
[56]
In Streaming Age, Classical Music Gets Lost in the Metadata
Jun 23, 2019 · The algorithms of Spotify, Apple and Amazon are carefully engineered to steer listeners to pop hits, and Schubert and Puccini can get lost in the metadata.
[57]
Release-Ready: Why Metadata Makes or Breaks Your Digital ...
Sep 8, 2025 · Each DSP has specific requirements for the metadata it accepts. These standards ensure the platform can correctly index and showcase releases ...Release-Ready: Why Metadata... · Why Metadata Matters For Dsp... · Best Practices For Metadata...Missing: ISO discography
[58]
Anti-Colonial Strategies in Cross-cultural Music Science Research
THIS PAPER PRESENTS A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF ethical and methodological issues within cross-cultural music science research, including issues around community ...
[59]
Out of Context #2: Modern Development of Non-Western Music
Feb 26, 2020 · “Out of Context” is a 10-part series that addresses the topic of cultural appropriation as it intersects with both Western European-based ...
[60]
Copyright Issues Relevant to the Creation of a Digital Archive
This paper describes copyright rights and exceptions and highlights issues potentially involved in the creation of a nonprofit digital archive.
[61]
Facing the music: Internet Archive accused of illegally digitizing ...
May 18, 2024 · Efforts by the nonprofit Internet Archive to preserve such old recordings are being challenged by record companies that claim the effort to digitize the music
[62]
Hundreds of musicians call on music companies to drop the Internet ...
Dec 13, 2024 · More than 600 musicians and artists have come to the defense of the Internet Archive in a legal case brought in 2023 by a group of music ...
[63]
https://omdia.tech.informa.com/om128288/hundreds-of-musicians-call-on-music-companies-to-drop-the-internet-archive-copyright-case
[64]
[PDF] Blockchain: a new opportunity for record labels
Block- chain technology offers an opportunity to develop an internationally available decentralised database for use by record labels and music pub- lishers to ...
[65]
Music NFTs Aren't Dead — They're Just Becoming Far More Practical
Feb 14, 2025 · Music NFTs aren't dead. Here's how companies, artists and fans are using Web3 now following the crash of the speculative NFT era.
[66]
https://musicbusinessresearch.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/volume-7-no-1-april-2018-gough_final.pdf