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Compact disc

The Compact Disc (CD) is a storage medium consisting of a 12-centimeter-diameter with a thin reflective aluminum layer, on which is encoded as a spiral track of microscopic pits and lands readable by a low-powered beam to retrieve stored information such as audio, video, or computer . Developed jointly by and starting in , the CD format was finalized in through their collaborative "" , emphasizing high-fidelity playback with a capacity for up to 74 minutes of uninterrupted sound on a single side. The origins of the CD trace back to ' early 1970s experiments with optical video discs, evolving into a dedicated audio project by 1974, while pursued parallel advancements in techniques from its PCM audio systems. A pivotal formed in 1979, driven by mutual goals to replace analog formats like vinyl records and cassettes with a durable, dust-resistant alternative; prototypes were demonstrated that year, leading to commercial launches in and in October 1982, followed by the in 1983. Initial CD players, such as ' CD100 and 's CDP-101, retailed for around $900–$1,000, but prices fell rapidly, enabling widespread adoption by the mid-1980s. Technically, CDs employ (PCM) for audio digitization at a 44.1 kHz sampling rate and 16-bit resolution, combined with cross-interleaved Reed-Solomon coding (CIRC) for error correction and (EFM) to optimize data density on the disc's 1.2-millimeter-thick surface. The laser pickup tracks the spiral at a constant linear velocity of about 1.2–1.4 meters per second, converting reflected light variations into that a player's reconstructs into audible , achieving a exceeding 90 for near-perfect fidelity. Beyond audio CDs (CD-DA), the format expanded to include for data storage up to 650–700 MB, for recordable media using organic dye layers, and for rewritable phase-change alloys, all maintaining with original players. The CD profoundly transformed the music industry, supplanting cassettes as the dominant format by the early and driving global to a peak of approximately 2.4 billion units annually in 2000, thanks to its skip-proof playback, compact portability, and enhanced that appealed to audiophiles and casual listeners alike. Its introduction spurred innovations in and compression, laying groundwork for later technologies like files and streaming, though physical CD sales have since declined with the rise of online platforms. Despite this, the CD remains a key archival medium, with billions produced and ongoing use in and data backup applications.

History

Origins and prototypes

The origins of the compact disc trace back to early concepts of laser-based optical recording for audio in the 1960s. In 1965, American physicist James T. Russell, working at the Battelle Memorial Institute, conceived a system to record digital audio on a photosensitive medium using a laser, aiming to create a durable, noise-free alternative to vinyl records. This involved converting analog audio signals to pulse-code modulation (PCM) digital format, optically exposing a film with a focused light spot smaller than 0.01 mm to achieve high data density exceeding 10^6 bits per square inch, and reading back the data via a scanning light detector to reconstruct the signal. Russell filed his first patent application in 1966, which was granted in 1970 as US Patent 3,501,586 for an "Analog to Digital to Optical Photographic Recording and Playback System," supporting spiral or rectangular track formats on photographic film for long-lifetime audio-visual storage. He developed initial prototypes in the early 1970s, including a 1973 video demonstration using a helium-neon laser on glass plates coated with photo-sensitive material, incorporating synchronization codes that influenced later digital disc standards. Philips and Sony later licensed Russell's patents in the early 1980s to cover aspects of digital optical recording in the CD format. In the early 1970s, Research Laboratories in , , advanced technology through prototypes building on experiments. Under technical director Lou F. Ottens, who had previously invented the compact cassette, initiated the Video Long Play (VLP) project in 1969, demonstrating a 30 cm analog -scanned for video and audio in 1972 that used a gas for contactless playback of programs and via . By 1974, adapted this precursor for , combining optical readout with PCM encoding to store high-fidelity sound on smaller s, achieving initial playback of analog audio records converted to digital format by December of that year. Further experiments in 1976 shifted the Audio Long Play (ALP) prototype fully to digital PCM, led by researchers Toon van Alem and Loek Boonstra, to enhance sound quality and enable error handling, resulting in a functional "" audio prototype by early 1979 that demonstrated 11.5 cm diameter playback of digital music. These efforts addressed the limitations of analog s by prioritizing audio-specific digital storage on substrates read by . Sony's parallel developments in the mid-1970s focused on PCM audio encoding and trials to achieve superior sound reproduction. Building on expertise in from PCM adapters for video recorders, Sony engineers under Toshitada Doi explored s for audio, demonstrating a PCM-encoded -readable in 1976 that used a 30 cm for extended playback, emphasizing high-resolution 16-bit encoding at sampling rates suitable for . These trials, conducted at Sony's Research Laboratory, involved early experiments with semiconductor s to read pits on reflective surfaces, aiming to surpass analog fidelity while fitting consumer formats. By 1978, Sony showcased a system capable of two-and-a-half hours of playback, incorporating initial error detection to mitigate readout inaccuracies from surface imperfections. Key technical challenges in these prototypes centered on reliable amid imperfections like dust, scratches, and manufacturing defects, necessitating innovations in error correction and reading mechanisms. Early systems struggled with precise focusing and tracking on spinning discs, as variations in pit depth and spacing could disrupt the servo controls that maintained the beam's 1-2 micron spot size on the 0.5 micron-wide tracks; Philips and overcame this by developing astigmatism-based focusing and three-beam tracking to ensure stable detection from pits (low ) and lands (high ). For error correction, introduced the Cross-Interleaved Reed-Solomon Code (CIRC) in late 1970s prototypes, a multilayer scheme that interleaved parity symbols across data blocks to correct burst errors up to 3,500 bits and detect larger ones, enabling playback resilience equivalent to 2,000 skips per disc without audible artifacts. These solutions, rooted in mid-1970s trials, balanced data density with robustness, paving the way for standardized discs.

Standardization and early development

In 1979, Philips and Sony initiated a collaborative effort to standardize the compact disc (CD) format, drawing on Philips' expertise in video disc manufacturing and Sony's advancements in digital audio encoding. Philips, with its focus on optical video storage, proposed adapting laser disc technology for audio applications, while Sony emphasized high-fidelity digital audio derived from pulse-code modulation (PCM) systems used in professional recording. This partnership resolved early disputes over format priorities—Philips advocating for a versatile medium capable of video extensions, and Sony prioritizing audio purity—ultimately agreeing to develop an audio-focused standard first, with potential for future multimedia adaptations. The collaboration culminated in the formation of the "Red Book" standard in 1980, a comprehensive specification document jointly published by Philips and Sony that defined the Compact Disc Digital Audio (CD-DA) system. This standard specified a playing time of 74 to 80 minutes per disc to accommodate full-length classical recordings, such as Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, and adopted a 44.1 kHz sampling rate with 16-bit linear quantization for high-quality stereo audio. Key technical decisions included a spiral track pitch of 1.6 μm to optimize data density while ensuring reliable laser tracking, pit dimensions approximately 125 nm deep, 500 nm wide, and varying from 850 nm to 3.5 μm in length to encode binary data via reflective variations, and Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation (EFM) for channel encoding to minimize errors from disc imperfections. These choices balanced Philips' manufacturing efficiencies with Sony's audio performance requirements, following six intensive meetings between August 1979 and June 1980 that reconciled differences in error correction (adopting Sony's Cross-Interleaved Reed-Solomon Code, or CIRC) and modulation schemes. Internal prototypes tested these specifications, building on Philips' 1978 "Pinkeltje" player and Sony's earlier audio demonstrators, with iterative refinements to achieve stable playback. A pivotal public demonstration occurred on April 15, 1981, at a press conference in , , organized by conductor , where a 74-minute played a complete recording of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony to showcase the format's fidelity and duration capabilities. This event, attended by journalists and industry figures, validated the Red Book's viability and paved the way for commercial production.

Commercial launch and adoption

The commercial launch of the compact disc began in on October 1, 1982, with Billy Joel's album 52nd Street as the first title released, marking the debut of in format based on the Philips-Sony standard. The , the inaugural , accompanied this release at a list price of approximately 168,000 yen (equivalent to about $730 USD at the time), positioning it as a premium product for audiophiles. Discs themselves were priced around $20–$25 each, reflecting the novelty and limited production scale. The format expanded to and on March 14, 1983, with initial availability limited to high-end electronics stores and a catalog of 16 titles from CBS Records, primarily classical and . Early adoption was driven by the CD's superior —offering digital fidelity without the surface noise or degradation of records and cassette tapes—along with its durability against scratches and dust, and the convenience of random track access without manual rewinding or flipping. These advantages appealed to enthusiasts seeking a more reliable alternative to analog media, despite the high cost of players, which in the often exceeded $900. By 1983, the industry hailed the arrival as a pivotal moment, with sales accelerating as manufacturing ramped up and more titles became available. In some markets, such as and parts of , CD unit sales began surpassing cassette tapes by the late , fueled by dropping prices and broader distribution. This early growth laid the foundation for the format's dominance in , transforming consumer expectations for playback.

Expansion and peak popularity

Following the initial success of audio CDs in the late 1980s, the format expanded rapidly into data and multimedia applications, diversifying its applications and solidifying its role in consumer electronics. In 1985, Philips and Sony introduced the Yellow Book standard for CD-ROM, adapting the 12-cm optical disc to store up to 650-700 MB of computer data—over 450 times the capacity of contemporary floppy disks—while maintaining compatibility with existing CD players through added drives. This innovation enabled the distribution of software, encyclopedias, and databases on pre-pressed discs, significantly boosting personal computer adoption by providing reliable, high-capacity storage that enhanced PC utility for both professional and home users during the late 1980s and 1990s. The proliferation continued with multimedia extensions, notably the Video CD (VCD) launched in 1993 by , , Matsushita, and , which used compression to deliver approximately 74-80 minutes of standard-definition video and audio per disc. VCDs became a staple in home entertainment, particularly in Central and and the , where affordable players and discs offered a durable, compact alternative to tapes, enabling widespread access to movies and music videos without the degradation of analog media. These variants, alongside and other interactive formats, transformed the compact disc into a versatile platform for entertainment and information, bridging audio playback with emerging delivery. By the late , the compact disc reached its zenith in popularity, dominating sales and markets. Audio CD shipments globally exceeded 1 billion units annually starting in 1992, peaking at 2.455 billion in 2000, while capturing over 80% of the recorded market share worldwide by that year as cassettes and faded. This era marked a profound cultural shift from analog to consumption, with CDs offering superior , , and portability that encouraged collectors to rebuild libraries and integrated seamlessly into portable players and car stereos, redefining listening habits. The format's impact was recognized with the Technical Grammy Award presented to and in 1998 for their contributions to recording technology.

Decline and revival

The decline of the compact disc began in the late 1990s and accelerated through the 2000s, primarily triggered by the emergence of file-sharing services like in 1999, which enabled widespread unauthorized music distribution. This was compounded by the launch of Apple's in 2001, which popularized portable digital music players, and the subsequent rise of legal digital downloads via platforms like , shifting consumer preference away from . Streaming services, including Spotify's U.S. debut in 2011, further eroded demand by offering on-demand access without ownership. In the United States, CD album shipments peaked at 942.5 million units in 2000 but plummeted to 225.8 million by 2010 and fell below 50 million annually by the late , reflecting a 95% overall decline from the peak. Major manufacturers responded to the downturn by curtailing production; for instance, closed its CD manufacturing plant in , in 2011, laying off 300 employees as physical media demand waned. By 2025, the had largely phased out CD players from new vehicles, with major brands like , , and eliminating them from standard infotainment systems in favor of digital interfaces, leaving only niche models from Subaru and as holdouts. Signs of revival emerged in the amid growing interest in physical formats. U.S. CD shipments rose 1.5% year-over-year to 32.9 million units in , generating $541 million in revenue, a modest 0.7% increase. This uptick was driven by among and Gen Z consumers seeking tangible ownership in an era of streaming dominance, as well as superfans purchasing to directly support artists through higher margins on physical sales compared to streams. Affordable , often $5–$10 per disc versus $25–$40 for , made CDs an accessible entry point, while ongoing vinyl production shortages and escalating costs redirected some collectors to the format. Into 2025, the revival gained momentum with increased reissues of classic albums targeting collector markets, where limited-edition packaging and bonus content appealed to enthusiasts. Rumors of price-fixing surfaced, as major labels consistently priced deluxe CD reissues at $19.98 despite low manufacturing costs under $1.50 per unit, fueling speculation amid the hype. CDs also maintained persistent utility in archival data storage, valued for their write-once permanence and longevity of up to 25 years in controlled environments, serving niche applications in cold storage where digital alternatives like hard drives degrade faster.

Physical details

Construction and materials

The standard compact disc (CD) consists of a 1.2 mm thick injection-molded that forms the base, with a spiral track of microscopic pits molded into its top surface. This provides structural integrity and transparency for penetration during playback. Over the pitted surface, a thin reflective layer of aluminum, typically 50-100 nm thick, is sputtered to enable , enhancing readability. A protective layer of acrylic , approximately 10-20 μm thick, is then applied over the aluminum to shield it from oxidation, dust, and minor abrasions. Data on a CD is encoded in the form of pits and lands (the flat areas between pits) along a single continuous spiral track that begins at an inner radius of 25 and extends outward to an outer radius of 58 , allowing for approximately 5.7 billion bits of on a 120 . These s measure about 0.5 μm in width and 0.125 μm in depth, with lengths varying from roughly 0.83 μm to 3 μm to represent through transitions between and . The track pitch, or spacing between adjacent turns of the spiral, is at 1.6 μm to ensure precise tracking without . Playback relies on a semiconductor emitting at a of 780 in the near-infrared , which passes through the clear substrate from below and reflects off the aluminum layer. Variations in reflection intensity—caused by the interacting differently with pits and lands—are detected by a to decode the . Pressed CDs exhibit high durability, with an expected of 50 to 100 years under recommended conditions such as temperatures less than 23°C and relative of 20-50%, though actual longevity can vary based on manufacturing quality and environmental exposure. Resistance to scratches and surface defects is bolstered by the Cross-Interleaved Reed-Solomon Code (CIRC) error correction system, which can interpolate and correct errors from defects up to 2.5 mm in length, such as fingerprints or light abrasions, without audible or visible data loss in most cases. The coating further contributes to scratch resistance by providing a hard, smooth barrier, though severe damage penetrating to the reflective layer can overwhelm error correction capabilities.

Sizes, shapes, and variants

The standard compact disc measures 120 mm in diameter and 1.2 mm in thickness, capable of holding 74 to minutes of audio or 650 to 700 of . Variants include smaller formats designed for specific applications. Mini-CDs, with an 80 mm diameter, store approximately 20 minutes of audio or 185 of and were developed for portable devices. These 3-inch discs, often used in early portable CD players, require adapters for standard tray-loading mechanisms to ensure compatibility. CDs adopt a rectangular measuring roughly mm by 68 mm, maintaining a central recording area similar to mini-CDs while facilitating promotional or business uses; their non-circular form limits compatibility with some slot-loading drives. Specialized manufacturing variants enhance optical beyond standard dimensions. The SHM-CD (Super High Material CD), introduced in 2007 by and , employs a high-transparency resin originally developed for LCD screens as its . This material reduces and improves penetration at the 780 nm wavelength, minimizing read errors and yielding clearer sound reproduction with higher resolution and reduced distortion. SHM-CDs adhere to the 120 mm standard size and specifications, ensuring playback on any conventional . Data integrity in these discs is assessed through error rate measurements focused on pit geometry. Testing involves metrics such as Block Error Rate (BLER), which quantifies errors per second, and , the variation in pit and land edge positions; elevated rates indicate degradation in pit shape that compromises readability. Smaller variants like mini-CDs and shapes exhibit heightened vulnerability to edge damage, as scratches or impacts near the perimeter can more readily affect the outer data tracks due to reduced surface area.

Formats and standards

Audio formats

The Red Book standard, established by and , defines the core audio format for compact discs as (CD-DA), utilizing two-channel (PCM) with 16-bit depth and a 44.1 kHz sampling rate to capture audio with a frequency response up to 20 kHz. This format stores audio data in sectors of 2,352 bytes each, read at a constant linear velocity yielding 75 sectors per second, which equates to approximately 4,500 sectors per minute and supports a total capacity of 74 minutes of playback or 650 MB on a standard 120 mm disc. The design prioritizes high-fidelity reproduction while ensuring compatibility across players through robust error correction via Cross-Interleaved Reed-Solomon Code (CIRC). To address demands for higher resolution, and introduced the (SACD) in 2002 as a disc format, featuring a conventional layer for with existing CD players alongside a high-density layer encoded in (DSD). DSD employs 1-bit at a 2.8224 MHz sampling rate—64 times that of CD-DA—achieving a frequency bandwidth from DC to 100 kHz and a exceeding 120 dB, which supports both and multi-channel (up to 5.1 surround) audio reproduction. SACD discs maintain the physical dimensions of standard CDs but utilize a translucent recording layer to enable dual-layer construction without altering playback mechanics. In the 1990s, Philips extended the Red Book framework with CD-MIDI, an optional subcode channel format that embeds Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) sequencer data parallel to the primary PCM audio tracks, allowing compatible hardware to generate and synchronize synthesized music alongside or instead of pre-recorded sound. This enables dynamic playback variations, such as timbre changes or accompaniment generation, while preserving full audio CD compatibility for non-MIDI devices.

Data and video formats

The format, specified in standard of 1988, adapts the compact disc for , providing up to 650 capacity on a standard 74-minute disc. It includes two operating modes: Mode 1, which incorporates error correction codes and the for reliable storage of software and text data across multiple operating systems; and Mode 2, which omits some error correction to allow interleaved audio, video, and other multimedia alongside data. This structure made CD-ROM a foundational medium for distributing applications, databases, and encyclopedias in the late and 1990s. The (VCD) standard, detailed in of 1993 and developed by , , , and , brings video to compact discs for home playback. It uses Mode 2, Form 2 of the CD-ROM XA extension to store compressed video at 352×240 resolution () or 352×288 (PAL), paired with Layer II audio, enabling approximately 74 minutes of VHS-equivalent content per disc. VCD gained popularity in and developing markets as an affordable alternative to , supporting playback on modified CD players or dedicated hardware. Super Video CD (SVCD), developed in the late as an enhancement to VCD primarily for the market, employs video compression to deliver superior quality within the same disc constraints. It targets 480×480 resolution () or 480×576 (PAL) with bitrates up to 2,600 kbps for video—nearly double VCD's—alongside Layer II audio at 224 kbps, allowing about 40–60 minutes of near-DVD quality footage per disc while maintaining backward compatibility with VCD players. This format improved color fidelity and motion handling but saw limited global adoption due to the rise of DVD. Kodak's Photo CD system, announced in , digitizes photographic prints, negatives, or slides onto compact discs for archival and display purposes. Images are scanned at high resolution (up to 2,048×3,072 pixels for ) and stored in the proprietary Kodak PhotoYCC color space, a variant optimized for photographic reproduction with extended for negatives. Each disc holds up to 100 images across six progressive resolutions, from thumbnail (128×192) to full (2,048×3,072), enabling flexible viewing on computers using compatible software, such as Kodak's plug-ins or third-party applications, or on Kodak's dedicated players.

Interactive and enhanced formats

The Compact Disc Interactive (CD-i), specified in the Green Book standard, was co-developed by and in as a platform enabling interactive applications such as video playback, educational content, and on dedicated . This format extended the data mode by integrating audio, text, graphics, and , allowing users to navigate content via a controller connected to a television. CD-i players featured a 16/32-bit 68070 running at 15.5 MHz, 1 MB of , and a single-speed (1x) CD drive to support real-time interactivity without buffering delays. In 1991, introduced CD-i Ready, a hybrid format that embedded interactive tracks within the pre-gap pause sectors before the first audio track on a standard CD, enabling playback of both music and hidden elements like biographies, videos, and mini-games when used with a compatible CD-i player and TV setup. This design ensured compatibility with conventional audio CD players, which would skip the pre-gap data and play only the audio portion, while CD-i systems could access the interactive content for enhanced user experiences tied to the music. The Enhanced Music CD, also known as CD+ or CD-Extra and defined in the standard, was established by and in May 1995 to combine a primary audio session with a secondary session on a single disc, allowing CD-ROM drives to deliver supplementary interactive elements such as , artist videos, photos, or web links alongside standard audio playback. Unlike earlier mixed-mode discs, this multisession approach separated audio (following specs) from (Yellow Book compliant) to prevent , with the audio session read first by all players and the data session accessible only on computers for user-driven exploration. VinylDisc, introduced in the mid-2000s by the firm Optimal , represented a novel hybrid format bonding a standard layer on one side with playable grooves on the opposite surface, enabling approximately three minutes of analog audio from the while offering full digital capacity for extended playback. This design catered to audiophiles seeking a fusion of analog warmth and digital convenience in a single 12 cm , though production remained limited due to manufacturing complexities.

Manufacturing and economics

Production process

The production of read-only compact discs (CDs) begins with the mastering process, where , typically in Disc Description Protocol (DDP) format, is used to create a glass master disc. A clean, polished glass substrate, approximately 240 mm in diameter, is coated with a thin layer of material via spin-coating and then baked to stabilize it. A high-precision laser beam recorder (LBR), often using an argon-ion or laser with a around 351-488 nm, exposes the photoresist in a spiral , creating a pattern of pits and lands that represent the ; pit lengths range from 0.833 to 3.056 micrometers, corresponding to the CD's error correction and encoding standards. The exposed photoresist is then developed chemically, revealing the etched pattern on the glass master, which serves as the template for replication. Next, electroforming produces durable metal stampers from the glass master. The master is first metallized with a thin conductive layer, such as silver or , via or chemical deposition in a environment. This layer is then immersed in an electroforming bath containing nickel sulfamate, , and nickel chloride solutions, where an deposits a thick nickel layer (typically 300 micrometers) onto the master over several hours, forming a negative image of the pits and lands. The father stamper is separated from the , polished, and punched to the standard 130 mm ; additional steps may create and stampers to increase capacity, with each stamper capable of molding thousands of discs. This process ensures in replicating the microscopic features, though yields for stampers historically ranged from 60-80% due to manual handling sensitivities. The replication stage involves injection molding to form the polycarbonate substrate. Multiple stampers are mounted in an industrial , where polycarbonate pellets are melted at approximately 300-330°C and injected under (around 60 tons clamping force) into the cavity for 1-2 seconds, pressing the molten against the stamper to imprint the . The is maintained at about 85-120°C to control cooling, solidifying the 1.2 mm thick in 2-4 seconds before ejection. This cycle repeats rapidly, enabling high-volume output. Following molding, the disc's pitted surface is metallized by a reflective aluminum layer (50-100 nm thick) in a using ions and high-voltage discharge, enhancing reflectivity for reading. Finally, protective and labeling steps complete the disc, accompanied by rigorous quality control. A thin layer of acrylic lacquer is spin-coated onto the aluminum surface at high speed (up to 3000 rpm) to protect against oxidation and scratches, then cured with light; this layer is typically 5-10 micrometers thick. Labels are applied via or offset methods using UV-curable inks in CMYK colors, dried instantly under UV lamps. involves 100% for defects like bubbles or warpage using vision systems, plus electronic testing on a sample basis (about 1 in 1000 discs) in simulated players to verify and error rates below the CD standard's Reed-Solomon correction threshold. Modern facilities achieve yields exceeding 99%, minimizing waste through inline monitoring and process automation. The resulting disc structure—polycarbonate substrate, aluminum reflector, and lacquer overcoat—enables reliable optical readout.

Cost, pricing, and market trends

The manufacturing cost of compact discs has decreased substantially since their introduction, driven by and advancements in production technology. In the , the cost to manufacture a single CD ranged from $3 to $4 per unit due to limited facilities and high initial setup expenses. By the , costs had stabilized around $4.50 per unit for smaller runs but began declining with expanded global capacity. In 2025, bulk production costs have fallen to $0.50–$1.00 per disc, reflecting optimized processes and high-volume output from specialized plants. Retail prices for have followed a downward trajectory as production efficiencies improved and market competition intensified. At launch in , CDs typically retailed for $15–$20, positioning them as a premium alternative to and cassettes. During the 1990s, as the format gained dominance, prices settled at $10–$15 for standard albums, supported by widespread adoption and reduced manufacturing overheads. By 2025, amid a nostalgic revival, average retail prices range from $5–$10, particularly for reissues and collector editions, though premium releases can exceed this. Global CD production reached its zenith in 2000, with approximately 2.455 billion units shipped worldwide, fueled by the format's peak popularity in audio and data applications. Production volumes have since contracted sharply; 2025 estimates place annual output at 400–500 million units, concentrated on audio reissues, archival releases, and niche markets like . Key economic factors shaping the CD industry include a pronounced shift in the to , where low-cost labor and robust infrastructure have consolidated . Firms such as Replication Asia and PrimeDisc in now dominate global output, enabling cost reductions through efficient, high-capacity facilities. The proliferation of digital streaming has further influenced pricing by eroding demand for , prompting manufacturers and labels to lower prices to sustain sales among dedicated collectors and in emerging markets. This dynamic contributed to a 6.1% decline in CD revenues in 2024, part of broader physical format trends totaling $4.8 billion globally.

Recordable and rewritable media

Recordable CDs

Recordable CDs, designated as (Compact Disc-Recordable), represent a write-once format introduced to enable permanent data recording on compact discs compatible with existing CD playback systems. The foundational standard for CD-R was established in the Orange Book Part II, published by and in November 1990, which specifies the Compact Disc Write Once (CD-WO) system for creating pits through laser-induced changes in a recording layer. At the core of CD-R technology is an organic layer, typically , , or azo-based, applied over a with a pre-grooved spiral . During the , a high-power (operating at 775–800 nm and 4–8 mW optimum ) pulses to heat and deform specific areas of the dye, rendering them opaque and non-reflective to simulate the pits and lands of a standard pressed CD; this or melting effect ensures the recorded disc maintains reflectivity levels above 65% for . The process uses constant linear velocity (CLV) control, with the laser modulated via an (n-1) strategy to form pits of varying lengths, optimized through an initial (OPC) procedure to minimize below 30 ns. CD-R discs support recording speeds from 1x (1.2–1.4 m/s linear velocity) up to 52x, depending on the media and drive capabilities, with standard capacities of 650 (equivalent to 74 minutes of audio) or 700 (80 minutes) in the 120 diameter format. These discs are commonly applied for data backup, software distribution, and personal music , allowing users to create custom audio CDs or store files in format. Compatibility with conventional CD-DA players and ROM drives is achieved via the Absolute Time In Pregroove (ATIP) system, which embeds addressing, timing, and media type information (at 3150 bits/sec using biphase-mark modulation) in the wobble of the pregroove, enabling seamless navigation without dedicated hardware changes. Durability of CD-R media varies by dye type and storage conditions, with accelerated aging studies estimating life expectancies exceeding 30 years for most formulations under controlled environments (e.g., 40°C and 40% relative humidity), though dyes may degrade faster than variants. primarily results from exposure, which breaks down the organic and increases error rates, or from humidity-induced oxidation; proper storage in opaque jewel cases away from direct sunlight and temperature fluctuations can extend usability to 50–100 years or more.

Rewritable CDs

Rewritable compact discs, known as , were standardized in Part III, published in 1996 by and , which defines the format for erasable and rewritable optical media compatible with existing CD systems. The core technology relies on a phase-change recording layer composed of a alloy, typically Ag-In-Sb-Te, where heating induces reversible transitions between crystalline (reflective) and amorphous (less reflective) states to form and erase pits representing . This allows multiple write-erase cycles, typically up to 1,000 times per disc, enabling data overwriting without permanent alteration, unlike the organic dye-based mechanism in discs. CD-RW discs operate at writing speeds ranging from 1x to 10x, corresponding to approximately 0.15 MB/s to 1.5 MB/s, which is generally slower than contemporary CD-R speeds that reached up to 52x due to the more precise required for phase transitions. Their reflectivity, measured at 15-25% in the recorded state, is lower than the 40-70% of standard CDs or , necessitating MultiRead-compliant drives for broad ; older CD audio players often struggle with playback because their lasers expect higher reflection levels. Primarily, CD-RW discs serve applications requiring iterative data handling, such as temporary backups, , and test authoring for production, where frequent revisions are common. They function as an intermediate solution between volatile online memory and permanent archival media, supporting data capacities of 650-700 MB per disc for tasks like transporting files or versioning content. Despite these advantages, CD-RW media exhibit limitations including a shorter practical lifespan of 5-10 years for unrecorded discs under normal conditions, attributed to material degradation in the phase-change layer, compared to longer durations for . Additionally, their higher production complexity results in elevated costs, historically around $1-2 per disc versus $0.20 for equivalents in the early , limiting widespread adoption for non-rewritable needs.

Copy protection and security

The original Compact Disc (CD) format, particularly for audio (CD-DA), included no built-in digital copy protection, as the standard focused on playback fidelity rather than restricting duplication. However, to mitigate concerns over home copying, the (RIAA), along with and , developed the Serial Copy Management System (SCMS) in 1987. SCMS operates at the digital interface level, using subcode bits in protocols like and AES/EBU to permit one generation of digital copies from a protected source (e.g., a commercial CD to a digital recorder) while flagging copies to prevent further digital duplication. This system became mandatory for (DAT) recorders and was widely adopted in CD players and recorders by the early 1990s, though it did not affect analog copying. As personal computers and drives proliferated in the late 1990s, record labels introduced proprietary technologies on pressed audio CDs to impede and exact duplication. These schemes often exploited differences between audio CD players (which use robust error correction) and drives (which require precise data reads). A notable example is Cactus Data Shield (), developed by Midbar Technologies (acquired by Macrovision in 2001), which embeds intentional and non-standard sectors that audio players can tolerate via cross-interleaved Reed-Solomon coding (CIRC) but cause extraction errors in software like Exact Audio Copy. was used on millions of CDs from labels like and Warner starting around 2000, though it could interfere with legitimate uses such as playback on computers or car stereos. Other systems included SunnComm's MediaMax, which installed software to limit burns, and Sony's XCP, both aimed at restricting copies to a few per disc. These protections led to significant controversies, most prominently the 2005 Sony BMG rootkit scandal. Sony's XCP and MediaMax implementations on over 20 million CDs secretly installed software on Windows PCs upon insertion, hiding the protection files, monitoring user behavior, and blocking unauthorized copying—without disclosure or user consent. The created exploitable security vulnerabilities, allowing malware to evade detection and potentially compromising system stability. Following public backlash, lawsuits from the (EFF) and others, and investigations by authorities including the U.S. , Sony BMG recalled affected titles, offered exchanges for unprotected CDs, and paid settlements exceeding $100 million. The incident accelerated the abandonment of disc-based schemes, shifting industry focus toward (DRM) in downloads and streaming. For data storage formats like , security typically relies on application-level encryption (e.g., via extensions or software like CSS for video CDs) rather than format-inherent protections, allowing flexible implementation for confidentiality and .

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