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Discourses of Epictetus

The Discourses (Greek: Διαλέξεις, Dialéxeis) is a foundational work of philosophy consisting of informal lectures delivered by the Greek philosopher in the early second century and transcribed by his student of around 108 . Originally comprising at least eight books, only four survive, presenting Epictetus's practical teachings on ethical self-mastery, rational living, and alignment with nature. Written in , the everyday language of the time, the text captures the conversational style of Epictetus's school in , , emphasizing principles over abstract theory. Epictetus (c. 50–135 CE), born a slave to in , (modern-day ), endured physical disability from a cruel master but was eventually manumitted and studied under the in . Exiled by Emperor Domitian c. 89 CE along with other philosophers, he established a renowned school in , where he taught until old age, influencing students including , a Roman historian and military commander. , who attended lectures from approximately 104 to 107 CE, recorded the Discourses not as verbatim transcripts but as faithful representations of 's oral teachings, though debates persist on whether himself authored any writings. The content of the Discourses centers on applied Stoicism, urging readers to distinguish between what is under human control—such as judgments, desires, and intentions (prohairesis, or volition)—and externals like , , or reputation, which are indifferent to true happiness (eudaimonia). Structured as dialogues and responses to students' questions, the books address everyday challenges, including handling adversity, maintaining tranquility, and fulfilling social roles with integrity, often through to foster self-examination. Key doctrines include the proper use of (chrēsis tōn phantasiōn), emotional regulation, and the three "topoi" or fields of study: desires and aversions, duties and impulses, and assent to impressions. A related work, the Encheiridion (), serves as Arrian's concise summary of these ideas, distilling the Discourses into practical maxims. Philosophically, the Discourses resystematize earlier Stoic thought from Zeno and Chrysippus into an accessible, moralistic framework, prioritizing personal ethical development and kinship with the divine rational order over metaphysical speculation. Its emphasis on resilience and as the path to has profoundly shaped Western ethics, inspiring later figures like the in his and enduring as a core text for modern .

Composition and Historical Context

Title and Dating

The original Greek title of the work is Ἐπικτήτου διατριβαί (Epiktētou diatribai), commonly rendered in English as the Discourses of , with diatribai denoting "informal talks," "lectures," or "discourses" to reflect the conversational and extemporaneous nature of the recorded teachings. This title underscores the text's origins as a compilation of Epictetus' oral instructions delivered in a setting, rather than a formally composed . Scholars date the composition of the Discourses to around 104–108 , a timeline inferred from Arrian's role as the transcriber during his studies under and his subsequent public career milestones, such as his suffect consulship around 130 and proconsulship in from 131 to 137 ; dates are approximate, with scholarly estimates varying slightly. Internal evidence further supports this period, as the text references events and figures from the reign of Emperor (r. 98–117 ), including allusions to his coinage, indicating the lectures occurred before Trajan's death in 117 . Distinct from the Discourses, the Encheiridion () represents a later, abbreviated summary of ' teachings, likely compiled by as a practical distillation of the fuller lectures rather than a direct excerpt. This shorter work, consisting of 53 chapters, prioritizes ethical guidelines for daily application, drawing selectively from the Discourses while omitting much of their dialogic depth.

Authorship and Writing Process

The Discourses of Epictetus were compiled by , a prominent Roman historian and philosopher who studied under in around 104–108 CE. As one of ' most dedicated pupils, took on the role of transcriber, capturing the philosopher's oral teachings in without significant editorial alterations or publication during ' lifetime. This effort preserved ' distinctive conversational style, which emphasized practical ethics through dialogues and responses to students' questions. Arrian's transcription process involved selective from ' lectures over several years of attendance, spanning approximately 104–108 , rather than producing a comprehensive or verbatim record of all sessions. He attended informally structured talks in , jotting down key excerpts that captured the essence and impact of ' instruction, but omitted much material to focus on what seemed most instructive. This approach resulted in an incomplete collection, originally organized into eight books, of which only four survive today, reflecting Arrian's personal judgment on utility rather than a systematic archive. Epictetus himself composed no written works and likely lacked formal , relying entirely on to disseminate his as a former enslaved person turned teacher. In his dedicatory to Gellius, underscores the fidelity of his notes to ' spoken words, stating that he recorded them "as they were spoken" in simple language without personal additions, though acknowledging the limitations of memory-based transcription over full capture. This , addressed around 108 , explains the Discourses' informal nature and 's reluctance to publish without ' consent, emphasizing their value in conveying the philosopher's unpolished, direct voice to inspire in readers.

Setting and Original Audience

Following his exile from by around 89–93 CE, established a philosophical school in , a coastal city in , northwestern , which served as a vital communications and administrative center on the . This relocation was part of a broader banishing philosophers from the , reflecting the tense political climate under Domitian's rule that targeted intellectual dissent. The school became a hub for the post-exile community, drawing those displaced or inspired by the philosophical purges in . Epictetus' lectures took place in an informal, semi-public setting within his modest home, emphasizing direct, conversational exchanges rather than formal presentations. This intimate environment, suited to a philosopher known for his from a lame leg, fostered accessibility and personal engagement, aligning with the practical orientation of his teachings. The original audience consisted primarily of Greek-speaking students, including local nobles and elite visitors from the world, such as the historian Flavius of , who attended around 104–108 CE and later transcribed the lectures comprising the Discourses. These attendees, often upper-class individuals seeking ethical guidance, represented a diverse yet privileged group influenced by the networks disrupted by the exile.

Content and Philosophical Themes

Overall Structure

The Discourses of Epictetus are organized into four books containing a total of 107 chapters in standard editions. Book 1 consists of 30 chapters, Book 2 of 26 chapters, Book 3 of 26 chapters, and Book 4 of 25 chapters. This division reflects Arrian's arrangement of ' oral teachings into thematic groupings, though the books do not follow a rigid topical progression but rather capture a sequence of lectures delivered over time. The work employs a style, presenting as directly engaging with his students through lively conversations, rhetorical questions, and vivid illustrations drawn from everyday situations such as athletic training, family disputes, or public performances. He frequently invokes myths, historical figures, and analogies—like comparing the soul to a citadel under siege—to make abstract principles accessible and urgent. This conversational format mimics the , emphasizing interactive reasoning over systematic treatise, and creates an immersive sense of attending ' school in . Arrian explicitly describes the Discourses as selected excerpts from his notes on Epictetus' lectures, chosen for their philosophical value rather than as a complete transcription of every session. He emphasizes that these records preserve only what he deemed most essential, underscoring the text's incomplete nature as a curated rather than exhaustive account. The Enchiridion, compiled by , functions as a concise distillation of core ideas from the Discourses.

The Three Topoi

In the Discourses, divides philosophical training into three interconnected , or fields of study, which adapt the traditional partition of into , , and to emphasize practical application. The first topos, corresponding to physics, involves understanding the nature and through desires and aversions, training individuals to align their emotional responses with the rational order of the governed by divine reason. The second topos, aligned with , concerns impulses to act and proper conduct, ensuring that actions conform to this natural order for virtuous living. The third topos, linked to , focuses on assent and reasoning, guarding against hasty judgments and deceptions in impressions to maintain clear thought. These topoi are interdependent, forming a holistic where of physics informs ethical behavior by revealing the laws of that guide moral choices, while ensures the clarity needed to apply both effectively. stresses that without a grasp of the cosmos's rational structure, one cannot properly direct desires or actions, as ethical lapses often stem from misunderstandings of natural necessities. Conversely, serves as the tool to verify derived from physical and ethical insights, preventing errors that disrupt harmonious living. This integration underscores philosophy not as abstract but as a unified for self-transformation. Epictetus prioritizes practical ethics as the primary application of the topoi, viewing the study of as a way of life oriented toward through daily exercises rather than speculative inquiry. For instance, in Discourses 1.12, he illustrates how understanding natural laws—such as the inevitability of change in the —guides choices by teaching of events beyond one's control, thereby fostering tranquility and . Another example appears in Discourses 2.6, where aligning impulses with universal nature means welcoming outcomes like if they accord with , transforming potential ethical dilemmas into opportunities for rational . Through such textual examples, demonstrates the topoi's role in cultivating a life of integrity and resilience.

Dichotomy of Control

The dichotomy of control, a foundational ethical doctrine in Epictetus' philosophy, delineates between what is "up to us" (eph' hēmin in Greek, often translated as within our power or prohairesis, the faculty of choice) and what is not. According to Epictetus, what is up to us encompasses our judgments about impressions, desires, aversions, and intentions to act, as these stem from the rational faculty that the gods have uniquely placed under human control. In contrast, externals such as the body, health, wealth, reputation, and social status lie beyond our direct control, being subject to external circumstances and divine order. This distinction is vividly articulated in the opening of the Discourses, where Epictetus asserts that only the proper use of impressions—our rational response to the world—remains unimpeded, while all else can be hindered by fate or others. The practical implications of this doctrine emphasize achieving inner freedom and tranquility by directing efforts solely toward what is up to us, thereby insulating the self from disturbance by externals. illustrates this through the example of responding to or : when a messenger informs Paconius Agrippinus of his impending trial under , he calmly continues shaving and remarks, "Go on, I won't hinder the ," refusing to let external judgment disrupt his composure; upon learning of his banishment, he simply notes, "Very well, but then we shall not take lunch here," maintaining without adding unnecessary distress. Similarly, in facing physical affliction or , one should focus on voluntary assent rather than futile resistance, as lamenting the uncontrollable only compounds suffering. By internalizing this focus, individuals cultivate autonomy, transforming potential adversities into opportunities for virtuous action within their . This doctrine relates closely to the concept of (indifferents), where externals hold no intrinsic but become significant based on how they are used in alignment with reason. clarifies that while things like or are indifferent in themselves—"the materials of action are indifferent, but the use we make of them is not indifferent" (Discourses 2.5.4)—true good resides in the rational employment of these through what is up to us, ensuring ethical integrity regardless of outcomes. Thus, indifferents serve as neutral arenas for exercising , reinforcing the as a tool for progress rather than mere resignation.

Living According to Universal Nature

In ' philosophy, universal nature, or , is conceived as a rational and ordered governed by , the principle of reason that permeates all things. Humans, as rational beings, share in this , which distinguishes them from and enables them to comprehend and align with the universe's inherent structure. This shared reason is not merely cognitive but directive, guiding individuals to interpret and act in ways that reflect the 's rational harmony. The ethical duty arising from this concept requires humans to live in harmony with nature by embracing their assigned roles within the social and cosmic order, such as those of parent, citizen, or member of a household, while avoiding actions that disrupt this balance. For instance, as a citizen, one must prioritize the well-being of the whole community over personal gain, cooperating with others to maintain mutual usefulness and fidelity. Similarly, in familial roles like parent or child, ethical conduct involves obedience, esteem for shared possessions, and refraining from harm or revilement, all rooted in the rational use of one's faculties to fulfill these positions virtuously. This alignment ensures that one's volition, or prohairesis, operates without contradiction to the nature of things, fostering inner tranquility. Epictetus illustrates this principle through the metaphor of life as a theatrical play, where individuals are who must perform their roles as scripted by the author, focusing on excellence in execution rather than complaining about the part assigned. In Discourses 1.29, he urges calm attentiveness to the performance, criticizing those who react fearfully or superficially to external cues, much like truant slaves distracted during a . This example underscores the need to accept one's circumstances rationally, using to respond appropriately without seeking to alter the unalterable script of nature. Such personal responses connect to the broader emphasis on what is "up to us," though the focus here remains on cosmic alignment.

Divine Providence

In Epictetus' philosophy, (pronoia) refers to the rational and benevolent governance of the universe by , who designs an orderly where all events contribute to the overall good, even those that appear adverse to individuals. This conception posits that the world operates according to a divine plan infused with reason (), ensuring that nothing occurs without purpose, as , the supreme rational deity, oversees creation with perfect wisdom and care. For instance, illustrates this through natural processes, such as how grass transforms into milk and then cheese to nourish animals, demonstrating providence's intricate provision for all beings. Harsh events, such as illness or loss, fit within this providential framework as necessary elements that serve a greater , challenging humans to recognize their in the divine order rather than resist it. emphasizes that such trials are not random but purposeful, akin to roles assigned in a or athletic contest, where participants accept their parts to fulfill the event's design. His own —lameness resulting from abuse during enslavement—exemplifies this, as he teaches of bodily impediments without allowing them to disrupt inner rational , viewing them as aligned with Zeus's will. Humans respond to providence by cultivating trust and willing acceptance of fate, aligning their volition () with the divine reason to achieve tranquility. This involves assenting to externals as ordained while exercising freedom over internals, such as judgments and desires, which remain "up to us" even under Zeus's governance. By harmonizing personal will with universal nature's rational order, individuals participate in the providential plan, offering gratitude and praise to the divine architect rather than complaint.

The Cynic Sage Ideal

In the Discourses, presents the sage as an exemplary figure of virtue, embodying a king-like authority derived not from external power or wealth, but from radical self-sufficiency (autarkeia). This ideal possesses complete , relying solely on their rational faculty to navigate life without dependence on possessions, , or material comforts, which describes as the true basis for ruling oneself and, by extension, influencing others through moral example. Central to this portrayal is the 's deliberate of conventional ties, including possessions, family, and societal norms, in pursuit of unvarnished truth and alignment with nature. insists that the sage must forgo a home, spouse, or children, embracing voluntary and simplicity to demonstrate that true happiness lies in alone, free from the illusions of externals like or . This serves as a public declaration of indifference to what lies beyond one's control, adapting the ancient tradition of —whom venerates as a divine sent to expose —into a framework where such reinforces the between internals (judgments and choices) and externals (circumstances). For instance, the Cynic's symbolizes this mission: not merely a walking aid, but a of perpetual readiness for , travel, and endurance, marking the sage's commitment to a wandering life dedicated to philosophical truth over comfort. Epictetus further depicts the Cynic sage as a bold public critic and teacher, functioning as Zeus's messenger to humanity by openly rebuking vices and guiding others toward genuine . Unlike ordinary philosophers bound by social obligations, the Cynic endures ridicule, beatings, and hardships—such as sleeping rough or begging—without resentment, viewing them as divine training to prove their and inspire emulation. This role demands Herculean effort, as Epictetus warns, transforming personal trials into teachable moments that highlight the sage's mastery over and their service to universal reason.

Textual Transmission and Editions

Surviving Manuscripts

The Discourses of Epictetus, recorded by Arrian in the early 2nd century AD, survive through a medieval manuscript tradition that preserved only four of the original eight books, with the text transmitted via Byzantine copies dating from the 11th to the 15th centuries. These handwritten codices form the foundation for all modern editions, as no earlier papyri or fragments have been discovered. The archetype of the tradition is the 11th- or 12th-century Bodleian MS. Misc. Graec. 251 (often denoted as S), housed in the Bodleian Library at Oxford and identified by scholar Heinrich Schenkl as the closest to the lost exemplar from which all surviving copies derive. This single archetype ensured the work's endurance through the Middle Ages but also propagated scribal errors across derivatives, which offer minimal independent value for textual reconstruction. The Bodleian (S) exhibits notable textual issues, including a rendering parts of Book 1, Chapter 18 illegible, highlighting the incomplete nature of the transmission. Beyond the loss of Books 5–8, specific gaps appear within the surviving books, such as an erasure of approximately 110 letters in Book 1, Chapter 6, and omissions in Book 1, Chapter 18, and Book 2, Chapter 13, which scholars reconstruct through conjecture or comparison across derivative codices. Book 4, in particular, contains several lacunae, with abrupt breaks and missing sections evident in S, attributed to scribal damage or abbreviation during copying. Scholarly analysis reveals widespread textual corruptions, as the copies are riddled with scribal errors ranging from misreadings and omissions to phonetic confusions in , compounded by the informal, style of Arrian's notes. Editors like Jacob Schweighäuser (1799–1800) and Schenkl have cataloged hundreds of such corruptions, often correcting them via emendations informed by parallel texts or linguistic parallels; for instance, the Bodleian (S) is described as particularly error-prone, requiring extensive . Interpolations also occur, including later additions that expand or clarify passages, such as glosses mistaken for original content, which modern critics excise to restore Arrian's fidelity to ' lectures. Arrian's prefaces, including his dedicatory to Lucius Gellius, appear inconsistently across the manuscripts, present in some copies of S but omitted or abbreviated in others. This , which disclaims any authorial polish and emphasizes the stenographic capture of ' words, aids in authenticating the text but has itself been subject to minor interpolations in transmission. These prefaces underscore the Discourses' origin as unedited lecture notes, influencing editorial approaches to variants.

Early Printed Editions

The first printed edition of the Discourses of Epictetus was published in in 1535, edited by Vettore Trincavelli, and represented the of the text in . This edition, however, was based on a particularly faulty medieval that introduced numerous errors into the text. A significant improvement came with the 1560 edition prepared by in , which offered a more accurate rendering with Latin translation and commentary, marking an early effort in the Humanist tradition to refine texts through philological scrutiny, though still relying on inferior sources. The first edition to incorporate the high-quality archetype—the 11th/12th-century Bodleian (MS Auct. T. ii. 13, or Misc. Graec. 251)—was that of Schweighäuser in 1799–1800, establishing a more reliable textual basis for future scholarship. In the , critical scholarship advanced further with Heinrich Schenkl's editions, including a major in 1894 and a more accessible minor edition in 1898, which drew on the Bodleian manuscript to produce the standard Greek text still referenced today. Schenkl's work, revised in a second edition in 1916, emphasized collation and emendation to resolve lingering corruptions from earlier prints. These editions often paired the Discourses with the , highlighting thematic parallels and aiding comparative study. The advent of printed editions during the Renaissance fueled a broader Humanist revival of Stoicism, as scholars integrated Epictetus into curricula that emphasized ethical philosophy and moral self-examination, influencing thinkers across Europe. By the early 17th century, translations into Latin, French, Italian, and other languages had proliferated, embedding Epictetus in the intellectual landscape of the period.

Modern Translations and Accessibility

The first major English translation of the Discourses of Epictetus was completed by in 1758, rendering the full work from the original and establishing a foundation for subsequent English editions, though its eighteenth-century prose is now considered archaic. George Long's 1862 translation, based on earlier printed editions, provided a more literal and accessible rendering that entered the and continues to be reprinted widely for its clarity and fidelity to the text. For contemporary readers, Robin Hard's 2008 translation, published by with an and notes by Christopher Gill, offers a philosophically precise and readable version, emphasizing 's practical ethics while including the and fragments for contextual depth. Among non-English translations, Johannes Leunclavius's Latin version of 1560, produced in Switzerland, was an early scholarly effort to make the Discourses available to Renaissance humanists, drawing directly from Greek manuscripts and influencing later European interpretations. In French, Émile Bréhier's 1901 translation integrated the Discourses into broader studies of Stoicism, providing a scholarly apparatus that highlighted connections to Hellenistic philosophy. Modern accessibility has been enhanced through bilingual editions and digital resources. The Loeb Classical Library's 1928 edition, translated by W. A. Oldfather, presents the Greek text alongside an English version, facilitating comparison and academic study. Open-source initiatives like the offer George Long's translation in a searchable format, promoting free public access to the work derived from early printed texts.

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