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Double-Cross System

The Double-Cross System, also known as the XX System, was a highly successful counter-espionage and deception operation conducted by the British Security Service (), in which captured German spies were turned into double agents to feed misleading information to about Allied military plans and activities. Initiated in early 1940 amid the threat of invasion, the system evolved from 's initial efforts to identify and neutralize enemy agents landing in , transforming a defensive counter-intelligence measure into an offensive network that controlled virtually all within the . By the end of the war, had captured over 115 agents, with only one notable exception who committed before apprehension, allowing the to "turn" the majority and integrate them into coordinated efforts. The operation was formally organized under the Twenty Committee (named for the Roman numeral XX, signifying double-cross), established in January 1941 and chaired by Oxford historian J.C. Masterman, with participation from , the Secret Intelligence Service (), and other Allied intelligence bodies to ensure strategic alignment. Over 120 double agents were managed through this framework, operating from secret locations and using transmitters to send fabricated reports that reinforced German misconceptions about Allied intentions. Among the most notable figures was Agent Garbo, the codename for Juan Pujol García, a Spanish anti-fascist who volunteered to MI5 in 1942 after initially deceiving the Germans into believing he was a pro-Nazi spy based in Britain; he created an elaborate fictional network of 27 sub-agents to amplify the deception. Garbo's efforts were pivotal in Operation Fortitude, a 1944 deception campaign that convinced German commanders the Normandy D-Day landings on June 6 were merely a feint, prompting them to hold back reinforcements—including 21 divisions—in the Pas de Calais region for weeks after the invasion. For his contributions, Garbo received the Iron Cross from Germany in July 1944 and an MBE from Britain later that year, though his role remained classified until the 1970s. The Double-Cross System's broader impact was profound, disrupting German intelligence gathering, bolstering the success of key Allied operations like the Normandy invasion, and contributing to the overall deception strategy that shortened the war in ; it was dismantled in 1945 as the conflict ended, with its methods influencing post-war intelligence practices.

Background and Establishment

Origins and Context

Prior to the outbreak of , British intelligence, particularly , expressed significant concerns over potential German espionage activities orchestrated by the , Germany's service, which had been expanding its networks across in the . These worries intensified as diplomatic tensions escalated, with anticipating infiltration attempts to gather intelligence on British military preparations and vulnerabilities. The declaration of war on September 3, 1939, marked the beginning of active operations against , including the first known landings of German agents on British soil as early as September 1940, often arriving by sea or parachute. MI5's counter-espionage efforts, led by B Division under , relied heavily on to detect and capture these intruders; this included the establishment of detection vans to monitor illicit transmissions and early breakthroughs in at , where Government Code and Cypher School teams began exploiting weaknesses in German communications to track agent activities. Between September and November 1940, MI5 successfully apprehended 21 German spies dispatched by the , preventing them from establishing an effective network. The fall of in June 1940 and the subsequent left isolated and facing an imminent threat of German invasion under , heightening the strategic imperative for counter-espionage measures that could not only neutralize spies but also deceive the enemy about Allied intentions. In response, formalized its Double-Cross (XX) policy in the summer of 1940, shifting from mere arrests and executions to systematically turning captured agents into double agents who would feed false information back to the , thereby protecting genuine British operations and sowing confusion in German intelligence assessments. This approach was later coordinated through the Twenty Committee, established in January 1941 to oversee the growing network.

Formation of the Twenty Committee

The Double-Cross System, which had informally managed captured German agents since the early days of , was formalized organizationally in January 1941 when the British Security Service () established the Twenty Committee to oversee its operations. This committee, chaired by historian and recruit , brought together representatives from MI5's B1(a) section (responsible for counter-espionage), the Secret Intelligence Service (), and military intelligence branches to centralize decision-making. The formation was catalyzed by the increasing number of early agent captures, necessitating a structured approach to prevent operational overlaps and security breaches. The 's name derived from the Roman numeral , representing both the number twenty—chosen to masquerade it as a routine subcommittee amid numerous wartime bodies—and the "double-cross" concept of turning enemy spies against their handlers. Its mandate focused on coordinating the handling of double agents, approving all messages transmitted to to ensure consistency and plausibility, and integrating these efforts with broader Allied deception strategies coordinated by the London Controlling Section (). Under Masterman's , the committee emphasized rigorous to maintain the agents' credibility with the , the military service. Internally, the Twenty Committee navigated complex dynamics, including heated debates over the viability of individual agents—assessing whether they could convincingly deceive the Germans without arousing suspicion—and the implementation of stringent security protocols to isolate suspects during and prevent leaks. These discussions often weighed the risks of execution against long-term operational value, prioritizing the system's secrecy. A key element of its effectiveness was close collaboration with codebreakers at , whose decryption of traffic provided vital intelligence on enemy expectations, allowing the committee to tailor deceptions for maximum authenticity and impact. This partnership ensured that agent reports aligned with intercepted German queries, bolstering the overall integrity of the Double-Cross operations.

Early Agents and Development

Initial Captures and Turnings

The Double-Cross System began operationally with the capture and turning of , codenamed , in September 1939 shortly after the outbreak of war. A Welsh businessman who had previously contacted German intelligence during pre-war travels, Owens was arrested by upon Britain's due to his known connections. Under interrogation, he agreed to serve as Britain's first , providing notional information to mislead the Germans while receiving financial incentives and protection from prosecution. In 1940, as German invasion fears intensified, the dispatched several agents by sea and parachute, marking the system's expansion through captures. The first equipped with a transmitter was Gösta Caroli, codenamed Summer, a recruit who landed by dinghy near in September 1940 but was quickly discovered unconscious in a ditch by a farm worker. His accomplice, Wulf Schmidt (later codenamed ), parachuted into in September 1940 and was captured soon after when locals reported suspicious activity. These early landings highlighted vulnerabilities, with using radio direction-finding to locate transmitters. To underscore the risks of non-cooperation, executed a small number of unturned agents as examples, though most opted for collaboration over facing the death penalty under the Treachery Act. Captured agents were transported to , MI5's secretive interrogation facility at Latchmere House in , led by Robin "Tin Eye" Stephens. There, rigorous questioning broke down resistance, often combining psychological pressure with offers of substantial payments—up to thousands of pounds—and guarantees of safety. Willing agents were trained to send fabricated "notional" messages via to their handlers, simulating ongoing while revealing no real intelligence. Snow's initial transmissions in late and Summer's first broadcast in late 1940 represented the system's pioneering deceptions, feeding on British defenses to build German confidence in the network. Significant challenges arose in maintaining credibility and agent compliance. faced the risk of detection through inconsistencies in traffic, prompting loyalty tests like controlled escapes or monitored contacts. Integration with decrypts of Enigma-encrypted communications allowed validation of responses, ensuring deceptions aligned with German expectations—such as confirming receipt of false reports on RAF strength in 1940. Doubts about Snow's reliability led to temporary suspensions, but successes mounted. By mid-1941, controlled approximately 15 to 20 double agents, with oversight formalized under the Twenty Committee from January of that year to coordinate operations.

Building the Agent Network

Following the early captures of German agents in 1940, the Double-Cross System expanded its roster from approximately 15 agents in 1941 to over 100 by 1944, incorporating both real and fabricated individuals to bolster operational credibility. This growth was driven by recruitment strategies that included capturing and turning agents arriving via parachute drops, such as those in summer 1940 and key cases like in March 1941, as well as in December 1942. Volunteer turnings of ideologically amenable individuals, often from neutral countries, further augmented the network; for instance, recruits like entered through such channels, providing access to broader intelligence streams. To fill gaps and simulate a robust infrastructure, created fabricated or "notional" agents, including imaginary sub-agents under real double agents to inflate perceived scale— managed a dozen or more such fictional contacts, while others developed extensive virtual networks. Training and security protocols emphasized strict isolation to prevent leaks and maintain control, with agents housed in guarded facilities like for interrogation and oversight, and later Camp WX for long-term management. Psychological handling was central, led by skilled case officers such as Tommy Harris, who built rapport and ensured agent stability through empathetic yet firm oversight, particularly with complex personalities requiring sustained motivation. Contingency plans mitigated risks of exposure, including protocols to retrieve compromised equipment, stage plausible denials, and adapt operations—such as forming the 212 Committee in August 1944 to handle post-invasion scenarios—while avoiding actions that could irrevocably damage an agent's cover. A pivotal development occurred in 1942, when the system transitioned from passive counter-espionage to proactive , enabling agents to feed targeted misinformation on Allied intentions, as seen in early plans like Plan IV for misleading assessments of RAF targets. This shift was supported by integration with the (SOE), which provided equipment and coordination for deception-linked sabotage efforts, such as Plan Bunbury, enhancing the network's utility in broader Allied strategies without compromising core security.

Methods of Operation

Agent Handling and Control

The management of double agents in the Double-Cross System relied on dedicated case officers, often referred to as handlers, who were assigned to oversee individual agents' activities. These officers, such as who managed the high-value agent Garbo, maintained close contact by posing as contacts when necessary, conducting regular debriefings to extract operational intelligence, and fabricating plausible narratives for transmission to German controllers. To sustain agent morale, handlers provided psychological support, financial incentives, and assurances of protection, ensuring long-term cooperation amid the high-stakes environment of . High-level decisions on agent deployment were approved by the Twenty Committee, which coordinated across , , and other agencies. Security protocols were paramount to prevent leaks and maintain operational integrity, with strict compartmentalization limiting knowledge of the full network to essential personnel only. Agents were housed in secure locations, such as Latchmere House (also known as ), where initial interrogations and turnings occurred under controlled conditions to minimize escape risks or external contact. Non-cooperation was met with severe consequences, including threats of execution under wartime laws, though such measures were rarely invoked as most agents were persuaded through incentives rather than coercion. These safeguards ensured the system's secrecy and the agents' isolation from genuine German influence. The effectiveness of each double agent, termed their "currency" or believability in the eyes of the , was rigorously evaluated through analysis of German responses to transmitted information. assessed this via intercepted communications, including decrypts from , which revealed whether reports were accepted or queried, allowing handlers to adjust narratives for sustained credibility. For instance, positive feedback from German controllers, such as promotions or requests for more details, confirmed an agent's value, while inconsistencies prompted recalibration to avoid suspicion. This ongoing evaluation prevented the network's compromise and maximized deception potential. Ethical considerations in agent handling balanced the imperatives of wartime deception against individual welfare, with prioritizing agent safety to foster reliable performance. Handlers monitored for signs of psychological strain during debriefs, offering relocation or support to mitigate risks from their dual loyalties. Post-war, double agents received protections under the , which bound them to lifelong silence on their roles, often accompanied by new identities and financial aid to shield them from reprisals or public scrutiny. This framework underscored the system's commitment to humane management within the constraints of .

Communication and Deception Techniques

The Double-Cross System relied heavily on wireless transmissions for real-time communication between double agents and their German controllers in the . Captured German radios were repurposed by British handlers, with transmission schedules carefully replicated to match Abwehr protocols, including specific frequencies and message formats originating from the base station. These protocols were discerned through early decrypts of Abwehr Enigma-encrypted messages by codebreakers, allowing to ensure authenticity and avoid arousing suspicion. To minimize detection risks from British direction-finding equipment, agents employed short, coded bursts of transmission when feasible, though much of the traffic involved standard pencil-and-paper ciphers overlaid on radio signals. For agents without access to wireless sets or in regions where radio use was impractical, secret writing served as a primary backup method, often concealed within innocuous letters or documents. Invisible inks, developed and refined by MI5's technical experts, were applied to everyday , such as postcards or business letters, which were then posted to neutral addresses like postboxes in or for forwarding to German handlers. Dead drops—prearranged locations for exchanging materials without direct contact—were occasionally used to pass these written messages or small packages, though they were less common due to the operational risks in controlled environments. Microdots, tiny photographic reductions of text embedded in printed matter, represented an advanced variant but were employed sparingly in the system, primarily for high-volume data transfer when inks proved insufficient. Message crafting formed the core of the deception, where case officers blended verifiable "chicken feed"—accurate but harmless details like weather reports or minor troop movements—with fabricated tailored to each agent's . For instance, messages from a notional operative might incorporate verbose, ideologically charged to mimic , drawing from reference materials like travel guides to add plausible local color. This mixture ensured credibility over time; chicken feed was often derived from open sources or delayed intelligence to appear fresh, while targeted strategic objectives without contradicting known facts. Validation came through decrypts of German traffic, which revealed whether the accepted and relayed the information upward, confirming the agents' ongoing viability—such as when intercepted signals showed German belief in fabricated reports. Deception principles emphasized building sustained narratives rather than isolated lies, creating elaborate "notional" sub-networks of fictional subordinates to amplify an agent's reach and explain inconsistencies. These long-term stories, sometimes spanning years, were paced with deliberate timing to influence German decision-making, such as withholding key details until they aligned with broader Allied plans. By constructing these layered deceptions, the system not only fed false intelligence but also manipulated Abwehr officers psychologically, fostering trust through consistent "successes" and controlled "failures" that reinforced the illusion of a robust espionage web.

Major Deception Operations

Operation Fortitude and D-Day

was a critical deception operation orchestrated by the Allies during , with the Double-Cross System playing a central role in misleading German intelligence about the location and timing of the invasion on D-Day, June 6, 1944. The operation consisted of two main components: Fortitude North, which fabricated a threat of invasion against and , and Fortitude South, which emphasized a primary assault on the Pas de Calais region across from , the shortest crossing point to France. Double-Cross agents, controlled by MI5's Twenty Committee, provided fabricated intelligence through wireless transmissions and couriers to reinforce these illusions, convincing the Germans that the were merely a diversion. Planning for Fortitude began in mid-1943 under the London Controlling Section, with Double-Cross agents building their credibility through accurate reports on lesser matters to ensure their deceptions were trusted by the and German High Command. Fortitude North involved agents like those simulating British Fourth Army activities in , suggesting an invasion force of over 100,000 troops aimed at , while Fortitude South centered on the notional (FUSAG), a phantom army of 150,000 men under General stationed in southeast . The star agent in Fortitude South was , codenamed Garbo, a Spanish who created a fictional network of 27 sub-agents to report on FUSAG's preparations, troop movements, and plans, sending over 500 radio messages from January to June 1944. Garbo's communications, managed by case officer , used secret ink letters and coded wireless traffic to depict Pas de Calais as the main target, with as a involving limited forces. As D-Day approached, Garbo's warnings escalated the deception; on , 1944, he attempted to alert his handlers to an imminent "real" invasion at but faced transmission delays, which inadvertently heightened suspicions of as a preliminary action. Three days after the landings, on June 9, Garbo transmitted a pivotal message asserting that was a diversionary tactic, with the bulk of FUSAG forces still poised for , prompting to withhold key reserves, including the Fifteenth Army with two armored and 19 infantry divisions. The Double-Cross network, including agents like () and Bronx (Elvira Chaudoir), corroborated these reports with details on fictional delays and army sizes, maintaining the ruse through July and August 1944 even after the bridgehead was secured. The success of Fortitude, bolstered by Double-Cross deceptions, delayed German reinforcements to by up to seven weeks, allowing Allied forces to establish a foothold and potentially saving thousands of lives. Garbo's efforts were so convincing that the Germans rewarded him with the on July 29, 1944, and approximately US$340,000 (equivalent to about £84,000 at the time) in payments for his "accurate" intelligence, unaware of his double role; he later received the () in December 1944. This operation exemplified the Double-Cross System's integration of agent control and communication techniques to shape enemy strategy at a pivotal moment.

V-Weapons Campaign

The Double-Cross System played a pivotal role in countering the German offensive, known as the second Blitz, by employing controlled agents to mislead the enemy about the effectiveness of their V-1 flying bombs and V-2 rockets. Beginning in late , British intelligence planners recognized the potential threat of these weapons and integrated deception strategies into broader defensive efforts, aiming to divert attacks from densely populated areas like . This involved London-based double agents, who fed fabricated reports to their German handlers, exaggerating the damage inflicted while suggesting inaccuracies in targeting that prompted recalibrations toward less critical rural sites. Key agents such as Garbo (Juan Pujol García) and Tate (Norman Krohn) were instrumental in this campaign, transmitting messages that portrayed London as more resilient than it was, with overstated casualty figures and descriptions of notional mass evacuations to the countryside. For instance, in June and July 1944, following the initial V-1 barrages, these agents reported that bombs were landing short of their intended marks, encouraging the Germans to adjust aim points northward and eastward, away from . Their dispatches were carefully timed to coincide with Bomber Command raids on V-weapon launch sites in occupied , reinforcing the illusion of vulnerability in targeted areas while masking the true impact. The deception techniques relied on partial truths, blending verifiable with invented details to maintain credibility; agents claimed, for example, that certain strikes had caused shutdowns and , leading to believe their weapons were achieving strategic disruption despite the misinformation. Executed through 1944 and into early 1945, this operation extended the system's earlier successes by focusing on defensive misdirection rather than invasion feints. The overall impact was to spread V-1 attacks over a wider area, reducing their concentration on , though post-war analyses, including a 2019 study, indicate the deception had limited practical effect, particularly on V-2 targeting, and its exact contribution remains debated. German assessments, influenced by these reports, accepted the deceptions as genuine feedback, continuing to refine their weapons based on the false provided.

Operations Beyond the UK

The Double-Cross System extended its counter-espionage and deception efforts beyond the to Allied territories in the Mediterranean and Iberian regions, adapting core UK methods of agent control and to support broader military objectives. These operations, often coordinated through the Mediterranean Double-Cross System, focused on securing Allied advances in and the Mediterranean theater by misleading German intelligence about invasion plans and troop movements. In the , s played a key role in feeding false intelligence to the during critical campaigns. For instance, Renato Levi, operating from between 1942 and 1943, created a fictional spy network that disseminated misleading reports on Allied intentions in , contributing to the success of operations like . Operations in the similarly targeted German perceptions of Mediterranean threats. Double agent , codenamed , was active in during the early 1940s, where he relayed controlled disinformation to his handlers about potential Allied incursions into and , thereby influencing German assessments of vulnerabilities in the region and reducing pressure on actual Allied staging areas. These overseas efforts faced significant coordination challenges, including jurisdictional tensions between , , and the American (). initially resisted granting full control over double agents in 1943, concerned about exposing the British Double-Cross network or compromising decrypts, which necessitated oversight by the Anglo-American 61 Group and slowed operational tempo. Adaptation to non-UK environments proved difficult due to logistical constraints, such as unreliable communication lines and the need for localized handler teams, limiting the scale of these operations compared to the more centralized UK efforts. Key events in 1943-1944 highlighted the system's contributions abroad, particularly in supporting the (Operation Husky) through deception sub-plans like , where double agents transmitted false indicators of landings in and to mislead defenses. However, the overseas network remained smaller and less extensive than its UK counterpart, hampered by supply issues and the demands of active combat zones.

Agents and Outcomes

Notable Double Agents

, codenamed Garbo, was a Spanish businessman and chicken farmer born in 1912 in , who developed a strong aversion to after reluctantly participating in the on both sides without firing a shot. Motivated by his admiration for and hatred of , he approached British intelligence again in 1942 after being recruited by the Germans and initially rejected by the British in 1941, becoming one of the most effective double agents in the Double-Cross System by fabricating an elaborate network of 27 fictional sub-agents to feed to the . His handler, officer , formed a close and productive partnership with him, co-authoring over 315 detailed letters and messages that maintained his credibility with the Germans. Garbo's personal risks were acute; in , he went into hiding in after a near-exposure incident that threatened his cover and life. Post-war, he was awarded the Member of the (MBE) on 25 November 1944 for his services and the (First Class) by Germany in July 1944, the only person decorated at such high levels by both sides; fearing for his family's safety, he faked his death in 1948, relocated to , and lived anonymously running a bookstore and gift shop until his real death in 1988. Duško Popov, codenamed , was a charismatic Yugoslav , lawyer, and businessman born in 1912 to a wealthy Serbian family, known for his love of gambling, fast cars, and high-society liaisons, which he leveraged in his work. Recruited by the in 1940, he quickly turned to the and was integrated into the Double-Cross System, operating primarily from neutral and the to pass fabricated intelligence while gathering real insights for the Allies. In 1941, during a mission to , Popov delivered to the FBI a containing German queries about Pearl Harbor's defenses—paralleling potential attack plans—but U.S. authorities dismissed the warnings, a failure he later attributed to FBI Director Hoover's skepticism. His handlers valued his flair but monitored his risks closely; in 1943, he confronted his controller in over operational frustrations, nearly blowing his cover and facing execution if discovered. The codename derived from his oversight of two sub-agents or possibly his romantic entanglements, reflecting his adventurous personality. After the war, Popov received citizenship and an , retired to where he maintained a low profile, published his memoir Spy/Counterspy in 1974, and died in 1981; he is widely believed to have inspired Fleming's character due to his suave exploits observed in casinos. Roman Czerniawski, known as Armand in his network and codenamed Brutus in the Double-Cross System, was a captain born in 1910 in what is now , who graduated from Warsaw's and fled to after Poland's 1939 defeat, where he founded Interallié, the first organized Allied network in occupied . Arrested by the in November 1941 after a betrayal by a colleague, he turned himself in to authorities in 1942 upon escaping to the , joining the Double-Cross System as a double agent focused on misleading German predictions of Allied invasions. Under the pseudonym "Chopin," he collaborated with MI5 handlers and a to transmit deceptive reports that were highly influential, including those reviewed by Hitler himself during . Czerniawski's egotistical and dramatic personality strained some relationships, but his commitment was evident in the risks he took to shield his Interallié network members from reprisals, potentially saving numerous lives amid threats to his family and contacts. Post-war, he settled quietly in with his wife, authored The Big Network in 1961 detailing his experiences, and died in 1985, buried in Newark Cemetery, . Eddie Chapman, codenamed Zigzag, was a notorious British safecracker and criminal born in 1914, who led a "jelly gang" using explosives for high-profile robberies and lived a playboy lifestyle in London's Soho before fleeing to the Channel Islands in 1939. Imprisoned in Jersey for burglary when the Germans occupied the island in 1940, he volunteered to spy for the Abwehr in 1941 and was parachuted into Britain in December 1942, where he immediately surrendered to MI5 and was turned into a Double-Cross agent despite initial doubts over his loyalty due to his criminal background. His expertise with explosives proved invaluable; in January 1943, he staged a fake sabotage attack on the De Havilland aircraft factory under MI5 supervision to bolster his German credentials, later traveling to occupied Europe to relay further deceptions. Handlers like Nicholas Montagu navigated Chapman's mixed loyalties and thrill-seeking nature, which included womanizing and cons, but deemed him reliable against the Nazis after rigorous vetting. Awarded the Iron Cross (Second Class) by Germany in 1943, he returned to Britain in June 1944 and survived the war unscathed. Post-war, Chapman published three autobiographical books (The Eddie Chapman Story in 1953, The Real Eddie Chapman in 1966, and others), continued minor criminal activities like gold smuggling without returning to prison, and died in 1997.

Overall Impact and Legacy

The Double-Cross System achieved remarkable wartime success by September 1944, when British intelligence had captured and turned every German agent operating in the , effectively controlling the entirety of the 's espionage network in the country. This control allowed to feed a steady stream of to , with key double agents like Garbo transmitting entirely fabricated reports that were nonetheless fully accepted by German handlers, as verified through decrypts of over 140,000 messages. No successful German espionage operations penetrated Britain after 1941, preventing any meaningful intelligence gains for the Axis and enabling the Allies to manipulate enemy strategy without compromise. The system's contributions were pivotal in major operations, including , where convinced the Germans that the were a diversion, delaying the redeployment of seven divisions for two weeks and aiding the D-Day success; similarly, false reports on V-weapon impacts shifted German targeting eastward, reducing strikes on by mid-February 1945. Post-war, the Double-Cross System remained classified until the 1970s, when declassification permitted the release of J.C. Masterman's seminal 1972 account, The Double-Cross System in the War of 1939 to 1945, which detailed how MI5 had "actively ran and controlled the German espionage system" through the Twenty Committee. Masterman's book, originally an internal report, highlighted the ethical safeguards for agents, including protections against exposure, and confirmed the operation's integrity with no major flaws uncovered in subsequent reviews. The system's techniques influenced Cold War-era intelligence, serving as a model for deception operations in agencies like the CIA, where double-agent handling drew directly from British precedents established during World War II. The legacy of the Double-Cross System endures as a cornerstone of modern , demonstrating the efficacy of turning enemy assets to sow strategic confusion and underscoring the value of integration in deception efforts. Public awareness remained limited until the , with broader revelations emerging through works like Ben Macintyre's 2012 Double Cross: The True Story of the D-Day Spies, which popularized the operation's role in Allied victories and its cultural resonance in narratives. Recent analyses, including those by intelligence historians, affirm its unparalleled success in neutralizing threats without detection, establishing it as a for ethical and effective spy management in democratic nations.

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