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Dreaming Machine

The Dreaming Machine (Japanese: Yume-Miru Kikai, 夢みる機械) is an unfinished Japanese animated science fiction adventure film written and originally directed by Satoshi Kon.^[1] The story centers on a world where humans have gone extinct, following the adventures of robots as they navigate survival and discovery in a fantastical, post-apocalyptic setting presented as a road movie.^[2]^[3] Intended as a family-friendly tale with no human characters, it explores themes of robot autonomy and folklore-inspired narratives in a futuristic context, designed to appeal to children while offering depth for adult viewers familiar with Kon's psychological style.^[4]^[3] Production on the film began in 2007 at Madhouse studio, with Kon developing the original concept following the release of his 2006 hit Paprika.^[4] It was publicly announced at the Tokyo International Anime Fair in March 2008, alongside the release of the first conceptual artwork depicting robotic characters.^[4] Key staff included producer Masao Maruyama, character designer Yoshimi Itazu, and animation contributions from MAPPA, with approximately 600 of the planned 1,500 shots completed by the time work paused.^[1]^[5] A tentative release was targeted for 2011, marking it as Kon's fifth feature-length directorial effort after Perfect Blue (1997), Millennium Actress (2001), Tokyo Godfathers (2003), and Paprika.^[2] The project was abruptly halted in August 2010 when Kon died of pancreatic cancer at age 46, leaving the film about 40% complete.^[6] Madhouse initially postponed production and expressed intent to resume, but efforts stalled due to the challenge of replicating Kon's unique vision without his direct involvement.^[7] In 2017, producer Maruyama confirmed ongoing difficulties, and by 2018, he stated definitively that the film would remain uncompleted and unreleased, as no successor director could adequately fulfill Kon's intent.^[8]^[5] Despite its unfinished status, The Dreaming Machine holds significant cultural interest as Kon's final creative endeavor, reflecting his evolution toward more accessible, whimsical storytelling after his renowned works on reality and illusion.^[9] Surviving materials, including storyboards, character designs, and background art, have been showcased in documentaries like Satoshi Kon: The Illusionist (2021) and exhibitions, preserving glimpses of its robot-centric world and adventurous tone.^[10] The project's legacy underscores the irreplaceable nature of Kon's directorial voice in anime, influencing discussions on posthumous completions in the industry.^[9]

Background and Conception

Satoshi Kon's Vision

Satoshi Kon envisioned Dreaming Machine as his fifth feature film, marking a deliberate shift toward a family-friendly fantasy-adventure aimed at younger audiences, in contrast to the adult-oriented psychological thrillers like Perfect Blue (1997) and Paprika (2006) that defined his earlier career.^[3]^[11] In a 2008 interview, Kon described the project as "a fantasy-adventure targeted at younger audiences," while emphasizing its appeal to fans of his prior works through layered storytelling.^[3] This pivot reflected his desire to explore uplifting narratives accessible to children, featuring no human characters and centering on the adventures of three robots—red, blue, and yellow—who navigate a post-human world.^[12]^[13] Kon described the story as a "future folklore story," evoking timeless tales of discovery set against a futuristic backdrop.^[14] His concept of "the future's future" envisioned a speculative world beyond conventional sci-fi tropes, where the near-future era of advanced technology had collapsed, leaving robots to inherit and reimagine a ruined landscape.^[14] Central to this was the dream-like machinery, serving as a metaphor for imagination and the generation of purpose through life experiences, as Kon noted in his project proposal that "purpose is born by living."^[14] In interviews from 2008 to 2010, Kon elaborated on the film's tone as uplifting and adventurous, with the robots' journey framed as a "road movie" in a dream-infused robotic society, retaining his signature visual surrealism to blend whimsy with deeper philosophical undertones.^[3]^[13] He expressed enthusiasm for audiences to "enjoy the adventures of robots who survived even after their parents—human beings—had become extinct," positioning the story as an original tale of resilience and creativity for a new generation.^[13] This approach allowed Kon to maintain his thematic interest in dreams and reality while adapting it to a lighter, more exploratory format.^[15]

Project Origins

The Dreaming Machine, known in Japanese as Yume-Miru Kikai, was announced in early 2008 as Satoshi Kon's fifth feature film and intended follow-up to his 2006 release Paprika.^[16] In a March 2008 report, the project was described as a fantasy-adventure centered on robots, marking Kon's shift toward content suitable for family audiences.^[16] By August 2008, Kon elaborated in an interview that the film would feature no human characters, only robots, in a "road movie" narrative aimed at both children and his established adult viewers.^[3] Development began in April 2007 with Kon handling the screenplay himself, producing initial outlines that established the story's retrofuturistic post-apocalyptic setting.^[14] The production was tied to Madhouse studio, where Kon had collaborated on prior works, under producer Masao Maruyama, who envisioned key elements like the three protagonist robots colored red, blue, and yellow.^[12] By 2009, storyboarding had advanced significantly, drawing from Kon's personal notebooks that included sketches of a drowned skyscraper world inhabited by whimsical machines and mid-century-inspired hover vehicles.^[14] These early visuals captured the core premise: a dystopian yet playful future where extinct humans leave behind robots on a quest for the "Land of Electricity," exploring themes of purpose through adventure.^[14] Funding discussions involved Japanese investors through Madhouse, with initial budget estimates aligning with Kon's previous mid-range features, though exact figures were not publicly detailed.^[12] The project aimed for a release in 2011 or 2012, reflecting the studio's production pace.^[12]

Narrative and Themes

Plot Outline

Dreaming Machine follows the journey of a young robot protagonist, Robin, in a retrofuturistic post-apocalyptic world where humanity has vanished, leaving behind a landscape of decaying 1960s-inspired architecture maintained by autonomous robots. The high-level plot arc centers on Robin's discovery of companionship and purpose in a partially submerged skyscraper paradise, propelling him and his allies into adventures across vast, electricity-starved realms to revive creativity and energy in their stagnant society.^[14] Details are based on Kon's script, interviews, and production documents.^[17] Based on Satoshi Kon's script, key plot beats include the machine's activation through Robin's interaction with Ririco, a nurturing robot companion who awakens his latent functions; subsequent encounters with surreal dream-like entities manifested as rogue automatons and environmental hazards; and a climactic confrontation with a authoritarian collective suppressing unrestricted access to energy sources, threatening the robots' existential freedom.^[17] The narrative unfolds as a three-act fantasy-adventure structure. Act 1 establishes the world in the isolated "paradise of electricity," where Robin exists in solitude until Ririco's arrival disrupts the status quo, leading to their expulsion via a catastrophic flood. Act 2 delves into explorations of dream-infused landscapes, as the group—now joined by the protective King robot—navigates perils while Robin evolves by assimilating parts from defeated foes. Act 3 culminates in the restoration of imagination's power, as the protagonists harness energy sources to challenge the oppressors and ignite a new era of robotic ingenuity.^[14] Character motivations, like Ririco's drive for nurturing and King's loyalty, propel these plot developments without overshadowing the adventure's momentum.^[3]

Characters and Development

The central protagonist of Dreaming Machine is Robin, a small yellow robot initially depicted as headless and nameless, inhabiting a solitary paradise within a towering skyscraper in a post-human world.^[14] Robin's backstory emphasizes his isolation and latent potential for self-discovery, evolving from a childlike figure into a young adult through acquiring physical parts and emotional wisdom during a transformative journey.^[18] This growth arc symbolizes maturation and the awakening of creativity in a stifled environment, propelling the narrative forward as Robin seeks purpose beyond mechanical existence.^[14] Supporting the protagonist is Ririco, a red, nanny-type robot designed with a cuddly, toy-like appearance, built originally to care for children but displaced to the paradise setting.^[14] As the intelligent leader of the group, Ririco kickstarts the adventure by providing Robin with a head and a name, embodying a maternal or guiding role reminiscent of Kon's earlier character Paprika in her assertiveness and insight.^[18] Her development involves transitioning from caretaker to active participant in the quest, highlighting themes of adaptation and empowerment among obsolete machines.^[14] Completing the core trio is King, a large, loyal blue combat robot who joins Robin and Ririco on their road-movie-style odyssey across the megacity.^[3] King serves as the protective muscle, with his backstory tied to wartime or defensive functions in the society's rigid structure, evolving through loyalty to foster a sense of camaraderie and shared rebellion against conformity.^[18] Character designs originated from Satoshi Kon's early sketches, featuring a mid-century retrofuturistic aesthetic to evoke nostalgia amid futuristic decay, with fluid, expressive animations planned to convey the robots' emerging emotions and dreams.^[14] These visuals, refined by designer Yoshimi Itazu, drew from doll-like inspirations for Ririco to emphasize tactile warmth, while Robin and King's forms allowed for dynamic transformations underscoring their personal growth.^[14]

Thematic Elements

The central theme of Dreaming Machine revolves around the tension between dreams—conceived as life goals and aspirations—and a mechanized reality dominated by robotic existence in a post-human world. According to production notes from Madhouse, the story explores "the concept of life itself generating dreams and objectives," portraying how continued existence can foster purpose and meaning even in artificial beings.^[19] This motif underscores technology's dual potential: it can suppress creativity by confining entities to programmed routines in a barren, electricity-scarce dystopia, or amplify it through emergent self-discovery, as seen in the protagonists' journey to find individual objectives.^[14] Recurring motifs evoke childhood wonder amid dystopian decay, with "dream machines"—the robots themselves—symbolizing fragments of lost human innocence in a ruined future. The narrative follows robot characters like Ririco and her creation Robin traversing gutted space-age ruins, including a once-vibrant skyscraper paradise now submerged, highlighting a retrofuturistic world abandoned by humanity.^[14] This setting contrasts playful adventure elements, such as a "road movie" for robots, with the desolation of scarce resources, evoking a sense of rediscovering joy and curiosity in an otherwise lifeless landscape.^[3] Kon's intended messages incorporate environmental themes through catastrophic events like a tsunami that displaces the characters from their initial paradise, critiquing ecological collapse that leads to societal downfall.^[20] Innovation emerges as a hopeful counterpoint, with the script emphasizing that "purpose is born by living… if you keep living, purpose and meaning will be born later," suggesting technology's role in sustaining creative evolution beyond initial design.^[14] These ideas extend to critiques of consumerist societies via contrasts between the dream-like remnants of human excess—hovercars and towering structures—and the stark, resource-deprived reality, implying overreliance on material progress erodes deeper aspirations.^[14] The project connects to Kon's broader oeuvre by adapting recurring themes of identity and perception to a younger audience, resolving with optimistic tones rather than the psychological ambiguity of earlier works like Paprika. While previous films blurred reality and fiction, Dreaming Machine shifts toward a heartwarming science fiction tale for all ages, where robotic protagonists' growth mirrors human-like self-realization in a hopeful arc.^[19] This evolution reflects Kon's aim for a family-oriented fantasy-adventure, infusing dark undertones with accessible wonder.^[3]

Production History

Pre-Production Process

The pre-production of Dreaming Machine commenced in the late 2000s following the 2006 release of Paprika, with Satoshi Kon leading the scriptwriting efforts from 2007 until his death in 2010. The screenplay focused on a fantasy-adventure narrative featuring three robots—Ririco (a small, leader-like red robot), Robin (a small yellow robot), and King (a large, loyal blue robot)—on a "road movie"-style journey through a world devoid of humans, confronting an "electric monster" antagonist. Kon aimed to craft a story accessible to children while incorporating surreal elements for broader appeal, as he noted in a 2008 interview: "It will be an adventure story that even older audiences can appreciate."^[3]^[15] Kon and his core team, including art director Nobutaka Ike, advanced to storyboarding during this phase, with Kon personally completing detailed boards for significant portions of the film, emphasizing key sequences such as fluid transitions between the robots' mechanical reality and dream-like realms. These storyboards captured the project's distinctive visual style, blending Kon's signature psychological depth with lighter adventure motifs. Promotional materials released in 2009 showcased early storyboard excerpts and character designs, highlighting the meticulous preparatory work.^[15] World-building was a central aspect of pre-production, involving the conceptualization of a retrofuturistic setting that merged a sprawling, mechanical cityscape—complete with transparent tubes, towering skyscrapers, and hover vehicles—with ethereal dream domains populated by fantastical elements. Concept art developed by the team illustrated these environments, including intricate mechanical landscapes and otherworldly creatures that enhanced the story's blend of adventure and surrealism, drawing from Kon's vision of a "future's future" unbound by human perspectives.^[15]^[14] Concurrently, composer Susumu Hirasawa, a longtime collaborator, began contributing to the soundtrack with a whimsical, techno-infused score; the film's title derived from his 1990 song "Dreaming Machine," and he planned to incorporate tracks like "Sailboat 108" for pivotal scenes, such as a dance sequence among the robots. Hirasawa later reflected on Kon's deep fandom of his music as a key influence on this early involvement. Madhouse studio facilitated these artistic preparations through resource allocation and team coordination.^[12]^[15]

Studio Involvement

Madhouse served as the primary animation studio for Dreaming Machine, drawing on its established collaboration with director Satoshi Kon from prior projects including Millennium Actress (2001).^[19] The studio handled key aspects of production, such as storyboarding and initial animation, with Masao Maruyama listed as producer.^[1] Following Kon's death in August 2010, Madhouse announced plans to continue the project using his directorial notes and tapes, appointing Yoshimi Itazu as associate director and co-animation director alongside Toshiyuki Inoue.^[19] In 2011, Maruyama departed Madhouse to establish MAPPA, an independent studio focused on creative animation projects.^[21] MAPPA is credited alongside Madhouse as an animation production company for Dreaming Machine, reflecting Maruyama's intent to potentially complete the film under his new venture.^[1] This involvement facilitated efforts to resume pre-production tasks, though financial constraints ultimately stalled progress.^[22] By 2015, Maruyama indicated the project remained in limbo at MAPPA due to challenges in securing funding and a suitable successor director.

Cancellation and Aftermath

Reasons for Unfinished Status

Satoshi Kon received a diagnosis of terminal pancreatic cancer on May 18, 2010, leading to a rapid decline in his health that ultimately halted his direct involvement in Dreaming Machine.^[23] Despite his condition, Kon continued refining the script and storyboards until shortly before his death on August 24, 2010, at the age of 46, leaving the project substantially advanced in those areas with approximately 600 animated shots completed.^[24]^[12] Following Kon's passing, Madhouse initially announced plans to resume production in November 2010 under acting director Yoshimi Itazu, but internal challenges soon emerged.^[25] The studio expressed reluctance to proceed without Kon's irreplaceable vision, as producer Masao Maruyama noted that replacing him would risk transforming the film into something unrecognizable as Kon's work.^[12] This hesitation was compounded by broader economic pressures in Japan's anime industry, which had been strained since the 2008 global recession through reduced advertising revenues and shrinking production budgets.^[26] In August 2011, Maruyama officially confirmed at Otakon that production had been shelved due to insufficient funding at Madhouse, with only about 600 of the planned 1,500 shots completed before the halt.^[27] These financial constraints, intertwined with the creative void left by Kon, prevented further progress on the project.^[28]

Legacy and Cultural Impact

Despite its unfinished status, Dreaming Machine has sustained significant fan and critical interest, fueled by the release of concept art and partial production materials that have sparked widespread speculation about potential narrative outcomes. Tribute exhibitions have showcased early concept designs and story outlines, prompting discussions on alternate completions of Kon's visionary robot-centric tale. The 2015 anthology Dream Fossil: The Complete Stories of Satoshi Kon collects his early short stories from the 1980s, offering insight into his thematic development.^[29] Leaked character designs and storyboard snippets, documented on archival sites, have similarly ignited "what if" debates among animation enthusiasts, highlighting the film's enduring allure as a lost masterpiece. The project's conceptual framework has left echoes in subsequent anime, particularly in explorations of dream-like technologies and virtual realms, with creators attributing inspirational debt to Kon's ideas. Makoto Shinkai has acknowledged general influence from Kon's work in interviews.^[30] Similarly, Mamoru Hosoda has credited Kon for expanding anime's narrative boundaries in industry retrospectives.^[31] Archival efforts have played a key role in preserving Dreaming Machine's legacy, with Madhouse and collaborators releasing portions of storyboards and animation cels through retrospectives to honor Kon's vision. A 2020 article in Little White Lies explored the project's history and surviving storyboards, while broader tributes like the Japan Information & Culture Center's 2022 streaming series included documentary segments on Kon's materials, making them accessible for study.^[11]^[32] Online communities have supplemented these with fan-curated reconstructions of sequences based on public-domain assets, fostering a collaborative appreciation of Kon's incomplete work.^[33] Beyond specific artifacts, Dreaming Machine symbolizes the vulnerabilities of auteur-driven anime production, inspiring industry-wide reflections on posthumous projects and creative continuity. Kon's abrupt departure underscored the risks of director-centric endeavors at studios like Madhouse, prompting debates in outlets like Dazed on balancing artistic integrity with completion feasibility, and influencing discussions on ethical revivals in animation.^[15] In March 2025, producer Masao Maruyama stated that the general public in Japan has somewhat forgotten Satoshi Kon, emphasizing the need to preserve his legacy amid evolving studio practices.^[34] This has positioned the film as a poignant emblem of anime's precarious innovation, encouraging renewed focus on unfinished legacies.^[35]

References

[1]
Yume-Miru Kikai (movie by Satoshi Kon) - Anime News Network
Yume-Miru Kikai (movie by Satoshi Kon) ; Alternative title: The Dreaming Machine. 夢みる機械 (Japanese) ; Genres: science fiction ; Themes: robots ; Official ...
[2]
Helmer Satoshi Kon, JAM Project's Kageyama Interviewed - News ...
In the excerpt, Kon discussed his upcoming movie The Dreaming Machine ( Yume-Miru Kikai ). Kon explained that the story for The Dreaming Machine is ...
[3]
Interview: Satoshi Kon - Anime News Network
Interview: Satoshi Kon. by Justin Sevakis, Aug 21st 2008. Satoshi Kon ... In English, it will be The Dream Machine . On the surface, it's going to be a fantasy-adventure targeted at younger audiences.
[4]
First Sketch for Newest Film by Paprika's Satoshi Kon - News
Mar 28, 2008 · The Madhouse studio has presented the first public image for Yume-Miru Kikai ( The Dreaming Machine ), the next theatrical anime film from director Satoshi Kon.
[5]
Producer: Script for Anime of Satoshi Kon's Opus Manga Being Written
Aug 28, 2018 · Maruyama also added that Yume-Miru Kikai ( The Dreaming Machine ), Kon's unfinished film, will remain uncompleted and unreleased. Maruyama ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[6]
Farewell Satoshi Kon - Anime News Network
Nov 3, 2010 · His final production, The Dream Machine , was incomplete when his health failed, and its future remains uncertain. Nevertheless, Kon leaves ...
[7]
The Dreams of Satoshi Kon: Chapter VI - The Endless Dream
Sep 11, 2010 · " Satoshi Kon has left the world with one last movie, The Dream Machine . Its Japanese title, Yume-Miru Kikai , is used by a character to ...
[8]
Producer Masao Maruyama Teases Desire to Animate Satoshi Kon's ...
Jul 10, 2017 · Madhouse announced later that year that it had resumed production on Kon's final film Yume-Miru Kikai ( The Dreaming Machine ) but the project ...
[9]
Review: Satoshi Kon: The Illusionist - Anime News Network
Aug 2, 2021 · The Dreaming Machine floundered and was eventually canceled because no other director could fill those shoes and replicate his vision ...
[10]
News Carlotta Films Streams Extended Trailer for Satoshi Kon: La ...
Mar 29, 2021 · At the time of his passing, Kon was working at Madhouse on a feature film called Yume-Miru Kikai ( The Dreaming Machine ). Madhouse ...
[11]
Inside Satoshi Kon's unfinished meta-nightmares | Little White Lies
Aug 24, 2020 · Moreover, where Kon made his name creating adult animated dramas such as Perfect Blue, Dreaming Machine was intended as a children's adventure.
[12]
An interview with producer Maruyama and Susumu Hirasawa about ...
Apr 23, 2018 · An interview with producer Maruyama and Susumu Hirasawa about director Satoshi Kon's unfinished posthumous work 'The Dreaming Machine' is now available.
[13]
Satoshi Kon's The Dreaming Machine - GaijinPot InJapan
May 21, 2010 · The movie features central characters called Ririco, Robin and King – and all of three are automated. Kon has dabbled quite extensively with technology.Missing: 2008-2010 | Show results with:2008-2010
[14]
The Plan for Satoshi Kon's Final Film, 'Dreaming Machine'
Aug 21, 2022 · Dreaming Machine was about the future's future, according to Kon. That's a tricky concept, but you need to grasp it to understand what Kon was doing here.
[15]
Exploring anime legend Satoshi Kon's unfinished final film - Dazed
Mar 1, 2018 · In 2010, shortly after he began work on Dreaming Machine, Kon was diagnosed with terminal pancreatic cancer and given six months to live.
[16]
Satoshi Kon Returns With YUME MIRU KIKAI (THE DREAMING ...
Mar 28, 2008 · Japanese maestro Satoshi Kon (Paprika, Millennium Actress, Paranoia Agent) is hard at work on his latest feature. Titled The Dreaming Machine.
[17]
The Lost Projects of Satoshi Kon - Animation Obsessive
Aug 25, 2022 · Our main focus is on Kon projects where we have access to his concept art. They start in the mid-1990s and run through his time on Dreaming Machine, a film ...Missing: origins announcement
[18]
None
Nothing is retrieved...<|control11|><|separator|>
[19]
madhouse.co.jp
### Summary of Satoshi Kon’s Dreaming Machine
[20]
Anime Director Satoshi Kon's Posthumous Work Machine That ...
Coincidentally enough, Machine That Dreams is a story about a city that is destroyed by a tsunami (Director Kon thought up the story 2 years before the ...
[21]
Masao Maruyama on Collaborating with Directors and Anime ...
Aug 24, 2019 · The Madhouse, MAPPA, and M2 founder discusses a wide range of topics in our Otakon 2019 interview.
[22]
9 Things You Didn't Know About Satoshi Kon's Unfinished Film ...
Apr 5, 2022 · Dreaming Machine was set to be made up of 1500 shots, 600 of which were finished at the time of Kon's passing. This means that slightly more ...
[23]
Satoshi Kon's Final Blog Entry (English Translation) - Viddy Well
Oct 23, 2017 · "It's the latter stages of pancreatic cancer. It's metastasized to several bones. You have at the most half a year left to live." My wife ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[24]
Satoshi Kon, Anime Filmmaker, Dies at 46 - The New York Times
Aug 26, 2010 · He was 46. The cause was pancreatic cancer, according to the Tokyo Shimbun news service and statements issued by Mr. Kon's wife, Kyoko, and by ...Missing: diagnosis | Show results with:diagnosis
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https://gigazine.net/news/20101112_madhouse_resume_kons_last_film/
[26]
Recession reality bites Japan's anime industry - CNN.com
Jul 30, 2009 · Japanese animation is roughly a $2 billion-a-year industry. Revenues peaked in 2006 but have since fallen off, as lower advertising revenues lead to fewer new ...Missing: challenges 2008<|control11|><|separator|>
[27]
Production Halted On Satoshi Kon's DREAMING MACHINE
Aug 9, 2011 · Due to financial pressures at Madhouse, production on the film has been halted with only six hundred of the fifteen hundred total shots from the picture ...
[28]
Interview: Legendary Anime Producer Masao Maruyama
Jan 27, 2017 · May I ask if there is any news update concerning Satoshi Kon 's unfinished film, The Dream Machine ? I have no new information. I would love ...
[29]
Shows and awards | IOO STUDIO LLC - Shop Art
... CA | 2015; “The Satoshi Kon Tribute Show”, China Independent Animation Form Beijing, China | 2015; Creative Talent Network (CTN) Roadtrip Burbank, CA | 2015
[30]
The SATOSHI KON PROBLEM - YouTube
Aug 25, 2020 · A retrospective on Satoshi Kon's career, life and the biggest ... The SATOSHI KON PROBLEM. 1.4M views · 5 years ago #satoshikon #madhouse ...
[31]
We Spoke to Makoto Shinkai, the Director Being Called "Th...
Oct 19, 2016 · Your Name reminds me of the work of the late, great animator Satoshi Kon, who made Paprika and Perfect Blue. In his films there's a lot of ...
[32]
'Satoshi Kon: The Illusionist' revisits the worlds of the transformative ...
Mar 28, 2022 · As shown in the documentary, anime director Mamoru Hosoda (“The Girl Who Leapt Through Time,” “Belle”) stated that Kon “broadened the scope ...
[33]
News Satoshi Kon Documentary Streams in US for 7 Days
Mar 22, 2022 · The Japan Information & Culture Center (JICC) will stream the documentary as part of a retrospective film series for Satoshi Kon from March 26 to April 10.
[34]
Where to begin with Satoshi Kon | BFI
Oct 7, 2025 · As Japanese animation's cultural standing globally has only accelerated since the early 2000s, such attitudes seem quaint, especially when ...Missing: impact | Show results with:impact