Eight Anthologies

The Eight Anthologies, known as Ettuttokai in Tamil, comprise a foundational collection of eight poetic compilations that form the earliest stratum of Sangam literature, the classical body of ancient Tamil poetry composed primarily between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE.^[1] These anthologies contain over 2,300 short lyrics by more than 470 poets, including women and bards from diverse social backgrounds, and are celebrated for their vivid depictions of ancient Tamil life, landscape, and emotions.^[2] The Eight Anthologies are traditionally divided thematically into akam (interior or love poetry, focusing on personal relationships, romance, and domestic life) and puram (exterior or heroic poetry, emphasizing war, kingship, ethics, and public valor).^[1] Five of the collections—Akananuru, Narrinai, Kuruntokai, Ainkurunuru, and Kalittokai—primarily explore akam themes through subtle metaphors drawn from nature, such as the union of lovers symbolized by blooming flowers or seasonal rains.^[2] In contrast, Purananuru and Patirruppattu center on puram subjects, praising chieftains and warriors while lamenting the human cost of conflict, as seen in elegies for fallen heroes.^[2] The Paripatal stands apart, blending devotional hymns to deities like Murugan and Vishnu with erotic and ethical verses, marking an early fusion of secular and religious elements in Tamil poetry.^[2] The specific anthologies are: Compiled during the Sangam academies—legendary assemblies of poets at Madurai—these works provide invaluable historical insights into pre-medieval South Indian society, including trade routes, social norms, and a relatively egalitarian poetic tradition before heavy Brahmanical influences.^[1] Their enduring significance lies in preserving Tamil cultural identity, influencing later Dravidian literature, and offering a window into an indigenous aesthetic that prioritizes human experience over mythology.^[1]

Overview

Definition and Composition

The Eight Anthologies, known as Ettuttokai in Tamil, constitute one of the Eighteen Greater Texts (Patiṉeṇmēlkanaḵku) of classical Sangam literature, comprising eight distinct compilations of short poems that embody the early Tamil poetic tradition. These anthologies primarily address themes of interior love (akam) and exterior heroism or public life (puram), showcasing a sophisticated, convention-bound style rooted in the naturalistic ethos of ancient Tamil society.^[3]^[4] In total, the Ettuttokai encompasses approximately 2,381 stanzas attributed to around 473 poets, drawn from varied backgrounds including royalty, artisans, farmers, and at least 27 women who contributed over 140 poems. This diverse authorship highlights the inclusive bardic culture of the period, with a small number of prolific poets—such as Kapilar, who composed about 10% of the surviving corpus—dominating the output.^[3]^[5] The Ettuttokai forms a companion to the Pattuppāṭṭu (Ten Idylls), together comprising the foundational super-anthologies of Sangam poetry, where the former emphasizes concise lyrical forms and the latter extends into longer narrative idylls, both unified by shared thematic and stylistic conventions. Originating as curated selections from pre-literate oral bardic traditions, these collections were later redacted into written compilations, preserving the vibrant humanistic voice of the Sangam period as its historical backdrop.^[3]^[4]

Significance in Tamil Literature

The Eight Anthologies stand as the oldest extant body of Tamil literary works, comprising approximately 2,381 poems that vividly reflect the nuances of ancient Dravidian society, its diverse ecological landscapes, and prevailing ethical norms. These poems capture the social structures, daily life, and moral frameworks of early Tamil communities, providing invaluable evidence of a sophisticated pre-medieval civilization independent of northern Indian influences.^[6] This collection has exerted a profound and enduring influence on the evolution of Tamil poetry, establishing stylistic and thematic conventions that later works emulated, while also informing the grammatical and rhetorical principles outlined in the Tolkappiyam, the foundational text of Tamil linguistics. The anthologies' emphasis on emotive depth and natural imagery resonated through centuries, shaping medieval Bhakti literature and even modern Tamil poetic expressions, thereby reinforcing a continuous literary tradition. Moreover, they bolster contemporary Tamil identity, serving as a cultural cornerstone that underscores the language's resilience and vitality in the face of historical shifts.^[6]^[7] Renowned scholars regard the Eight Anthologies as a pinnacle of global classical literature, comparable to ancient Greek or Latin corpora for their artistic merit and historical depth, which played a pivotal role in the Government of India's 2004 declaration of Tamil as a classical language. This recognition highlights ongoing scholarly debates about the anthologies' contribution to positioning Tamil as an autonomous classical tradition alongside Sanskrit, emphasizing the distinct Dravidian literary paradigm rather than derivative influences.^[8]^[7]

Historical Context

Dating and Chronology

The dating of the Eight Anthologies (Ettuttokai), a core collection of Sangam literature, remains a subject of scholarly debate, with a broad consensus placing the composition and compilation between the 1st century BCE and the 5th century CE. The earliest poetic layers are estimated to date from the 1st to 2nd century BCE, reflecting an initial oral tradition, while later compilations and editorial layers extend into the 3rd to 5th century CE, marking the transition to written form.^[9] This range is supported by the absence of references to later dynasties like the Pallavas, suggesting completion before their rise around 250 CE.^[9] Key scholarly perspectives highlight this chronology's complexity. Kamil Zvelebil proposed a stratified timeline for the anthologies, with the bulk of poems composed between 100 BCE and 250 CE, incorporating earlier and later accretions from multiple generations of poets during the purported Sangam assemblies.^[9] In contrast, Herman Tieken argued for a later origin, postdating the material to after the 3rd century CE—potentially into the second half of the 1st millennium CE—viewing the works as retrospective imitations of Sanskrit kāvya traditions rather than contemporary records. These views underscore ongoing debates about the anthologies' authenticity and temporal layers. Linguistic and archaeological evidence bolsters the earlier dating. The poems exhibit an archaic form of Tamil with minimal Sanskrit or Prakrit loanwords, consistent with a pre-3rd century CE context, while references to the Mauryan empire (Moriyar) in anthologies like Akananuru indicate composition after the 2nd century BCE.^[9] Archaeological correlates include mentions of Roman (Yavana) trade in ports like Puhar, aligning with 1st-century BCE to 2nd-century CE Roman-Tamil commerce evidenced by amphorae and coins at sites like Arikamedu.^[10] The evolution from oral recitation—fostered in legendary Sangam academies—to written anthologies likely occurred amid these assemblies, with final redaction in palm-leaf manuscripts by the 5th century CE.^[9]

Manuscript Rediscovery

The rediscovery of the Eight Anthologies, part of the classical Sangam corpus, occurred primarily in the late 19th century when scholars began unearthing palm-leaf manuscripts preserved in South Indian Hindu monasteries and temples. These fragile documents, often stored in temple libraries or monastic collections, had survived centuries of neglect, environmental damage, and historical upheavals, though many were incomplete or deteriorated. The process marked a pivotal shift, transitioning these ancient texts from obscurity to scholarly scrutiny and public access.^[11] A central figure in this effort was U.V. Swaminatha Iyer, a Tamil scholar who, from the 1880s through the 1920s, traveled extensively across Tamil Nadu to collect and edit these manuscripts, collaborating with contemporaries like C.W. Damodaram Pillai. Iyer's initiatives included sourcing multiple copies—for instance, consulting sixteen manuscripts for the Purananuru edition—and publishing critical versions that incorporated commentaries, making the anthologies available in print for the first time. By 1920, all major Sangam works, including the Eight Anthologies, had been edited and disseminated, revitalizing interest in classical Tamil literature.^[12] Scholars faced significant challenges due to the fragmentary nature of surviving manuscripts, with many texts existing only in partial forms requiring careful reconstruction. For example, the Paripatal anthology preserves just 22 of its original 70 poems, highlighting the extent of loss and the editorial labor involved in piecing together verses from disparate sources.^[13] Subsequent efforts by institutions such as Tamil University in Thanjavur have produced critical editions and catalogues of palm-leaf manuscripts, ensuring ongoing preservation and analysis into the 21st century. International scholars, including John Ralston Marr, have contributed detailed studies, with publications extending up to recent decades, further refining textual authenticity and accessibility.^[14]

List of Anthologies

The Eight Anthologies (Ettuttokai) consist of eight classical Tamil collections, broadly classified into akam (interior domains focusing on love and personal emotions) and puram (exterior domains addressing heroism, ethics, and public life).^[15] These works collectively contain 2,371 poems.

Anthology	Number of Poems	Focus	Classification
Naṟṟiṇai	400	Love-themed poems in akaval metre	Akam
Kuṟuntokai	401	Short love poems, primarily akam	Akam
Aiṅkuṟunūṟu	501	Poems on five landscapes of love	Akam
Akaṉāṉūṟu	400	Akam poems exploring erotic and domestic themes	Akam
Puṟanānūṟu	400	Puram poems on heroism, ethics, and kingship	Puram
Kaḷittokai	150	Dramatic love dialogues in kali metre	Akam
Paṭirṟuppattu	80	Poems in ten sets praising Chera kings	Puram
Paripāṭal	70 intended (24 surviving)	Songs blending love and devotion, in paripatal metre	Mixed

Structural Features

The Eight Anthologies, collectively known as Ettuttokai, demonstrate considerable variation in stanza lengths, with poems ranging from 3 to 40 lines across the collections, allowing for concise expressions as well as more expansive explorations within the Sangam poetic tradition.^[16] This diversity in form underscores the flexibility of early Tamil verse, where shorter stanzas often capture fleeting emotions or observations, while longer ones permit layered narratives, all unified under the broader umbrella of akam and puram conventions without delving into specific metrical details.^[17] The organization of poems within these anthologies typically follows thematic, landscape (tinai), or subject-based arrangements, facilitating a structured presentation that reflects the interconnectedness of human experience and environment. For example, Aiṅkuṟunūṟu divides its 501 poems into five sections aligned with the primary tinais—kurinji (hilly regions), mullai (pastoral forests), marutam (wetlands), neytal (seashore), and palai (wastelands)—each section exploring corresponding emotional and situational motifs.^[18] Such classifications enhance the anthologies' coherence, enabling readers to navigate the corpus through ecological and thematic lenses that mirror ancient Tamil worldview.^[17] Colophons and prefaces serve as essential paratextual devices in the Eight Anthologies, providing metadata that categorizes poems by authorship, thematic focus, and contextual details, thereby aiding compilation and scholarly interpretation. These elements, often appended to individual poems or sections, include notes on the poem's subject, the poet's intent, or the patron's role, which were crucial for medieval editors in grouping disparate works into cohesive collections.^[19] In some instances, they also indicate variant readings or transmission histories, contributing to the anthologies' preservation amid oral and manuscript traditions.^[20] Certain anthologies exhibit an incomplete or fragmentary character, reflecting the challenges of textual transmission over centuries. Paripāṭal, for instance, survives in a partial state with only 24 hymns out of an intended 70, originally composed for musical accompaniment in devotional contexts, blending lyrical poetry with performative elements like song and ritual.^[20] This fragmentary nature highlights the performative and liturgical dimensions of some works, where structure was intertwined with oral recitation and musical settings rather than fixed textual completeness.^[13]

Authorship

Known Poets

The Eight Anthologies (Ettuttokai) comprise approximately 2,381 poems attributed to 473 poets in total, of which 102 are anonymous, resulting in about 371 poets identifiable by name through manuscript colophons and scholarly reconstructions.^[2]^[21] These attributions rely on internal evidence from the texts, such as author signatures at the end of poems, cross-references in commentaries, and historical analyses synchronizing poets with rulers and events.^[4] The identifiable poets represent a diverse demographic within ancient Tamil society, encompassing professional bards (pāṇar), court scholars, royalty, and a notable inclusion of women, with around 30 female contributors documented.^[21] This mix highlights the broad participation in literary production across social strata, from itinerant performers to elite patrons, though the majority hailed from Tamilakam regions under Chera, Chola, and Pandya domains.^[4] Scholarly consensus places their activities between the 1st century BCE and 3rd century CE, with some potential non-Tamil regional ties inferred from thematic elements, but primarily rooted in indigenous traditions.^[21] Among the most prominent figures is Kapilar, a Brahman poet renowned for his ethical and naturalistic themes, who contributed approximately 206–235 verses across the anthologies, including about 27 in Purananuru, several dozen in Kuruntokai, 18 in Akananuru, and works in others such as Narrinai and Kalittokai; he is often depicted as a wandering scholar and close associate of the patron Vel Pari.^[22]^[2] Mamulanar, another prolific poet, contributed around 150 poems, primarily in Purananuru and Akananuru, focusing on ethical and heroic themes. Paranar, a specialist in puram (public life) poetry, contributed 13 poems to Purananuru and additional works in Akananuru and Narrinai, serving as a premier court poet who eulogized Chola and Pandya rulers like Karikala Chola, providing key historical insights into early Tamil polities.^[21] Nakkirar, associated with scholarly and devotional strains, contributed poems to Narrinai, Akananuru, and Purananuru, and is credited with later commentaries that influenced Tamil poetics, though his major work Tirumurugarruppatai belongs to the companion collection Pattuppattu.^[4]^[2] Avvaiyar, one of the prominent female poets, contributed 59 poems to Purananuru, praised for her diplomatic wit and verses on royal sacrifices, exemplifying women's voices in a male-dominated corpus.)^[4]

Anonymous Contributions

In the Eight Anthologies (Ettuttokai) of Sangam literature, a significant number of poems lack attributed authorship, with 102 out of 2,381 poems classified as anonymous across the collection.^[23] This anonymity is particularly notable in akam-focused anthologies, such as Kuruntokai, where 56 of the 401 poems have unknown authors, representing about 14% of that specific work.^[24] These unattributed pieces highlight the challenges in tracing individual contributions within the broader corpus. The prevalence of anonymous poems has profound implications for authorship studies in Sangam literature. Given the oral transmission of these works prior to their compilation, scholars suggest that many may originate from collective compositions or community recitations, where individual credit was secondary to shared cultural expression.^[25] In modern research, stylometric methods—analyzing linguistic patterns, vocabulary, and structural features—have been applied to attempt attributions for anonymous texts, as seen in studies of related Sangam collections like Pathitrupathu, revealing potential stylistic affinities with known poets.^[26] Anonymous contributions play a key role in preserving diverse societal voices from the Sangam era, capturing perspectives from various social strata without tying them to specific individuals, thus emphasizing the communal nature of the poetic tradition. For instance, these works often reflect everyday ethical and cultural values, such as hospitality and honor, embedded in the anonymous hymns.^[27] Scholarly debates surround the nature of this anonymity, with some viewing it as a deliberate literary convention in the Sangam tradition that prioritizes the universality of themes over personal authorship, fostering a sense of collective heritage. Others attribute it to historical processes of transmission, where names were lost or omitted during oral and manuscript phases. This tension underscores ongoing interpretive challenges in understanding the Eight Anthologies' composition.^[27]

Poetic Elements

Metrical Forms

The Eight Anthologies of ancient Tamil Sangam literature predominantly employ the akaval metre, a versatile form characterized by its rhythmic flow in unrhymed or loosely rhymed lines, often enhanced by alliteration and subtle internal rhymes to create a natural, speech-like cadence suitable for both lyrical and narrative expression.^[2] This metre, also known as āciriyam, is the most ancient in Tamil prosody, evoking the cry of the peacock in its origins and allowing poets considerable freedom while maintaining structural simplicity.^[28] It dominates six of the anthologies—Narrinai, Kuruntokai, Ainkurunuru, Akananuru, Purananuru, and Patirruppattu—comprising approximately 90% of the total poems across the collection, with examples including the 400 poems of Narrinai and the 400 of Purananuru.^[2] In contrast, the kali metre is exclusive to the Kalittokai, the seventh anthology, where all 150 poems utilize its dramatic and lyrical structure, featuring repetitions of lines or phrases to mimic dialogue and evoke intense emotional states, particularly in love scenarios.^[2] This metre incorporates elements of āciriyam and veṇpā subtypes, resulting in four variations such as akaval-kali and veṇpā-kali, which facilitate performative qualities ideal for staging lovers' exchanges.^[29] The paripāṭal metre appears uniquely in the Paripāṭal, the eighth anthology, as a musical verse form designed for devotional singing, marked by repetitive refrains and rhythmic patterns that align with accompanying tunes, often notated for musicians.^[2] With only 22 surviving complete poems out of an original 70, this metre blends moric structures for a haunting, chant-like quality suited to religious hymns on deities like Murugan and Vishnu.^[20] Tamil prosody in the Eight Anthologies evolved primarily through indigenous traditions codified in the Tolkāppiyam, the earliest extant grammar, which enumerates 34 poetic components while adapting rhythmic principles to the Dravidian phonetic system, though showing indirect familiarity with Vedic ritualistic verse forms in thematic rather than strictly metrical influences.^[30] This development marked a shift from simpler Vedic-inspired syllabic patterns to more fluid, indigenous adaptations emphasizing emotional and acoustic resonance over rigid quantification.^[31]

Illustrative Examples

The Eight Anthologies contain a rich array of short poems that exemplify the elegance and economy of classical Tamil verse, balancing interior (akam) explorations of love with exterior (puram) reflections on ethics and society. Selected examples here illustrate this duality, drawn from Kuruntokai for intimate longing, Akananuru for historical and geographical allusions, and Purananuru for moral insight on impermanence; these choices also showcase variety in metrical forms such as the akaval in Kuruntokai and the more expansive asiriyappā in the others.^[32] Kuruntokai 132, an akam poem attributed to Siraikkudi Anthaiyar, captures the hero's recollection of a clandestine embrace in the misty hills of the kurinji landscape, evoking the lover's physical allure through vivid natural imagery. Translated by Vaidehi Herbert, it reads: "How can I forget the dark woman with great beauty, raised delicate like a lotus, with eyes like a young spear, who embraced me tightly in this spot? The place where she gave me her love is like the eyes of a calf that longs to see its mother whose udders are ready to flow!" The poem's brevity—typical of the anthology's short format—relies on simile to convey yearning, likening the hero's gaze to a calf's desperate stare, which underscores the emotional intensity of separation while embedding the scene in pastoral tenderness. This imagery highlights the anthology's technique of merging human emotion with elemental nature, creating a layered sensory experience without explicit narrative.^[33] In Akananuru 149, another akam piece set in the coastal mullai terrain, the poet evokes the heroine's anxiety over her absent lover by alluding to ancient trade networks, integrating real-world geography into the emotional drama. A scholarly translation by George L. Hart renders key lines as: "They say the Yavanas, those foreigners from beyond the sea, come in their ships laden with gold to our shores, exchanging it for pepper and other spices, filling the harbor of Muchiri with their clamor as they depart." The reference to Yavanas—ancient Tamil term for Greeks and Romans—anchors the poem in the 1st-2nd century CE Indo-Roman trade routes along the Malabar coast, where ports like Muziris thrived on spice exports. This historical detail not only situates the lover's journey in a tangible world of maritime commerce but also amplifies the heroine's isolation, as the foreign ships' arrival mirrors the unpredictability of her beloved's return. Such allusions demonstrate how Sangam poets wove verifiable external realities into personal narratives, enhancing the poem's cultural depth. Purananuru 192, a puram poem by Kaniyan Pungundranar, meditates on life's transience and universal kinship through a philosophical lens, structured in quatrains that build from spatial unity to existential acceptance. A.K. Ramanujan's translation captures its rhythm: "Every town our home town, every man a kinsman. Good and evil, his gift and denial, come by necessity, not at the will of this man or that. [...] The learned do not say, 'This is mine, that is not mine'; they do not sorrow over what is not here." The poem's structure progresses logically: first establishing communal bonds ("every town our home town"), then attributing fortune to fate rather than human agency, and culminating in equanimity toward death and possession. This breakdown reveals the ethical core of puram poetry, urging detachment amid inevitable change, with the repetitive phrasing reinforcing a meditative tone that transcends individual loss. The work's impact lies in its concise universality, influencing later Tamil ethics by framing mortality as impartial and shared.^[32]

Themes

Akam and Puram Traditions

The Eight Anthologies, collectively known as Ettuttokai, are organized around the dual poetic conventions of akam and puram, which represent interior and exterior dimensions of human experience in classical Tamil Sangam literature. Akam poetry delves into personal emotions, particularly romantic love between lovers, while puram addresses public and heroic aspects of society, such as valor and governance. This binary structure not only classifies the poems but also reflects a holistic worldview where private sentiments and communal duties are intertwined through shared symbolic landscapes. Of the eight anthologies, five are predominantly akam, two focus on puram, and one incorporates both.^[2]^[34] Akam tradition emphasizes the inner world of romance, classified into five tinai or ecological landscapes that symbolize stages of love: kurinji (mountainous regions evoking clandestine union), mullai (forested areas denoting patient waiting), marutam (cultivated fields representing quarrels in marital life), neytal (coastal zones signifying anxious pining), and palai (arid deserts portraying separation and hardship). These landscapes serve as metaphors for emotional progression, with nature's elements—plants, animals, and phenomena—conventionally representing human feelings; for instance, in kurinji, the kurinji flower symbolizes budding femininity, while honeybees denote pursuing male lovers, and monkeys evoke insensitive advances. Such symbolism dominates anthologies like Akananuru (400 poems on erotic love) and Kuruntokai (short verses capturing intimate moments), where the focus remains on unspoken emotions without naming individuals or places, relying instead on evocative imagery to convey joy, longing, or sorrow.^[21]^[2]^[35] In contrast, puram tradition explores exterior themes of heroism, ethics, and social obligations, including war (tinai like vanchi for invasions), kingship, hospitality, and moral conduct toward victors or the deceased. Poems here praise rulers' generosity and warriors' sacrifices, often using nature as an objective backdrop for epic deeds rather than emotional allegory; for example, battles are likened to seasonal storms, underscoring valor without personal introspection. This genre is central to Purananuru (400 poems on heroic exploits and elegies) and Patirruppattu (80 verses lauding chieftains), where societal harmony and public duty take precedence.^[2]^[34]^[36] The interplay between akam and puram manifests in shared motifs and conventions, such as the heroic ideal bridging private devotion—where a lover's steadfastness mirrors a warrior's bravery—and public life, or the unified use of tinai landscapes to evoke both intimate yearning and communal strife. Paripatal, the mixed anthology, exemplifies this fusion with 24 hymns blending love's tenderness and heroic piety. These traditions thus provide a balanced framework, with akam comprising about three-fourths of the corpus for its emotional depth and puram the remaining quarter for its societal scope, highlighting the Eight Anthologies' enduring portrayal of Tamil cultural ethos.^[21]^[2]^[37]

Religious Influences

The Eight Anthologies of Sangam literature are predominantly non-sectarian, reflecting indigenous animistic beliefs centered on local deities, nature spirits, and ancestral worship, with minimal evidence of Vedic or Brahmanic influences. This secular orientation aligns with the broader Tamil cultural landscape of the period, where religious expressions were integrated into everyday life without dominant priestly hierarchies or ritualistic orthodoxy. Scholars note that the anthologies emphasize ethical humanism and communal values over doctrinal theology, drawing from pre-Aryan Dravidian traditions that venerated elements like rivers, hills, and tutelary gods such as Murugan and Korravai.^[38]^[39] A notable exception is the Paripāṭal, the fifth anthology, which contains devotional hymns that introduce early bhakti elements, blending spiritual praise with akam love themes. Of the 24 surviving full poems, eight are dedicated to Murugan (as Murukan), portraying his birth and valor in rhythmic paripāṭal meter, while seven extol Vishnu (as Tirumal), describing his cosmic forms and benevolence; nine additional verses honor the river Vaigai as a sacred entity. These hymns fuse erotic longing with divine adoration, using dramatic dialogues and natural imagery to evoke emotional surrender, marking a transitional phase from secular poetry to formalized devotion. This synthesis is seen as an early manifestation of Tamil bhakti, predating the later Alvars and Nayanars, where human love serves as a metaphor for union with the divine. Korravai, the war goddess, is referenced in the anthology but lacks dedicated surviving full poems.^[40]^[20]^[41] Traces of early Jain and Buddhist ideas appear in the ethical puram poems, particularly in Purananuru, where themes of non-violence (ahimsa) and compassion underscore moral conduct amid war and kingship. Poems such as 65–66 and 212–213 advocate restraint in conflict, protecting all life forms, and promoting equanimity, echoing sramanic principles of karma and non-harm without explicit doctrinal references. These elements suggest subtle influences from heterodox traditions prevalent in ancient Tamilakam, integrated into Tamil ethical frameworks rather than as separate religious tracts.^[42] Scholarly interpretations highlight religious syncretism in the Eight Anthologies as a reflection of pre-Bhakti Tamil spirituality, where indigenous animism coexisted with emerging Vaishnava and Shaiva motifs, fostering a pluralistic worldview. Recent debates, up to 2025, emphasize how this syncretism resisted full Vedic assimilation, preserving Dravidian vitality while absorbing selective bhakti expressions, as evidenced in Paripāṭal's hymns. Analyses underscore the anthologies' role in documenting a fluid religious ethos, influencing later bhakti movements without supplanting secular humanism.^[20]^[42]^[38]