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Endurance running hypothesis

The endurance running hypothesis proposes that early humans evolved specialized anatomical and physiological traits to excel at long-distance running, enabling them to pursue and exhaust large prey animals through persistence hunting in hot environments, a strategy that provided access to nutrient-rich meat crucial for survival and cognitive development.^[1]^[2] First articulated by biologist David Carrier in 1984, the hypothesis addresses the "energetic paradox" of human locomotion: while running is costly in energy compared to quadrupedal animals, humans maintain a relatively constant cost of transport across speeds due to bipedal adaptations that decouple stride frequency from breathing rate, allowing efficient oxygen use during prolonged exertion.^[1] Carrier argued that this capability, combined with superior thermoregulation via sweating rather than panting, positioned early hominids as diurnal endurance predators, targeting animals like zebras or antelopes by forcing them to run at suboptimal speeds until hyperthermia or fatigue set in. The idea was later refined in 2004 by Dennis Bramble and Daniel Lieberman, who identified endurance running as a derived trait emerging around 2 million years ago in the genus Homo, coinciding with increased body size, brain expansion, and the shift toward meat-heavy diets.^[3]^[2] Key human adaptations supporting this hypothesis include a reduced body hair coverage to facilitate convective cooling during runs, an extensive network of sweat glands for evaporative heat loss independent of locomotion, and skeletal features such as a prominent nuchal ligament for head stabilization, an elongated Achilles tendon for elastic energy storage, and a narrow waist for efficient torso rotation.^[2] Physiological evidence underscores human superiority in endurance: unlike most mammals, which overheat quickly during sustained activity, humans can run marathons at speeds up to 20 km/h in tropical heat, outpacing prey over distances of 20–30 km through persistence tactics.^[3] Fossil records provide corroboration, with traits like the arched foot and robust heel strike appearing in Homo erectus fossils from 1.9 million years ago, absent in earlier australopithecines or other primates.^[2] Recent ethnographic and archaeological studies bolster the hypothesis, documenting over 390 historical instances of persistence hunting across Indigenous groups worldwide from the 16th to 21st centuries, far more prevalent than previously estimated—such as in 81% of surveyed North American societies—demonstrating its practicality and caloric efficiency in acquiring large game without advanced weapons.^[4] Evolutionary biologists like Lieberman emphasize that no alternative explanation fully accounts for these running-specific traits, suggesting endurance running not only facilitated hunting and scavenging but also drove selective pressures for larger brains by enabling reliable access to high-energy foods.^[5] While debates persist on the exact primacy of running versus other activities like scavenging, the hypothesis remains a cornerstone for understanding human bipedalism's adaptive origins.^[6]

Introduction

Core Hypothesis

The endurance running hypothesis posits that early humans, including Homo sapiens and precursor species such as Homo erectus, evolved specialized anatomical and physiological traits that enabled exceptional endurance running capabilities, facilitating persistence hunting strategies where prey is pursued over extended distances until exhaustion rather than relying on short bursts of speed. This hypothesis emphasizes that such adaptations arose as a response to environmental pressures in open savannas, allowing hominins to access nutrient-rich animal protein essential for brain expansion and survival. Central to the hypothesis are key physiological adaptations, including efficient thermoregulation through widespread eccrine sweat glands that enable evaporative cooling during prolonged exertion, spring-loaded tendons like the Achilles tendon that store and release elastic energy to reduce metabolic cost, and an aerobic capacity that surpasses that of most other mammals relative to body size, permitting sustained running at moderate speeds without rapid overheating. These traits collectively provided a selective advantage for hunting or scavenging large game approximately two million years ago, transforming early Homo from opportunistic foragers into more efficient predators in calorie-scarce environments. The hypothesis links these adaptations directly to persistence hunting, a method observed in modern hunter-gatherer groups where hunters track and chase prey, such as kudu or antelope, over distances of 20 to 40 kilometers in a single pursuit, often lasting several hours under hot conditions.^[7] Unlike mammalian prey lacking effective sweat-based cooling, which succumb to hyperthermia after brief sprints, humans can maintain pursuit by alternating walking and running, exploiting the prey's need to rest and thereby securing a kill without advanced weaponry.^[7] Evolutionarily, endurance running traits first emerged in Homo erectus around two million years ago, coinciding with increased body size and bipedal efficiency, and were further refined in Homo sapiens, enhancing the species' dispersal and ecological dominance across diverse habitats.

Historical Development

The endurance running hypothesis traces its roots to early 20th-century ethnographic accounts of persistence hunting practices among Kalahari San foragers, where hunters pursued prey over extended distances until exhaustion, providing anecdotal evidence of human long-distance running capabilities in hot environments.^[8] These observations, though not framed in evolutionary terms, laid informal groundwork for later scientific inquiry into human locomotor adaptations. In the 1980s, biologist David Carrier advanced the idea more systematically, proposing in his 1984 paper that the high energetic cost of human running paradoxically supported its role in hominid evolution, particularly for endurance pursuits that allowed persistence in overheating prey.^[1] Carrier's work highlighted physiological advantages like efficient cooling through sweating, marking an early formal precursor to the hypothesis.^[1] The hypothesis was first formally proposed in the early 2000s by Harvard anthropologist Daniel E. Lieberman and University of Utah biologist Dennis M. Bramble, who synthesized anatomical, physiological, and comparative evidence in their seminal 2004 Nature paper, "Endurance running and the evolution of Homo."^[2] They argued that endurance running emerged as a derived trait in the genus Homo around two million years ago, potentially driving key evolutionary changes such as increased body size and bipedal refinements.^[2] Lieberman's expertise in running physiology emphasized human thermoregulatory superiority, while Bramble's focus on skeletal adaptations, like the nuchal ligament, underscored biomechanical specializations for sustained locomotion.^[2] This publication shifted the discourse from speculative ethnography to rigorous evolutionary biology, influencing subsequent paleoanthropological research. Key milestones in the hypothesis's development include its popularization in the mid-2000s through Christopher McDougall's 2009 book Born to Run, which drew on Lieberman's work to argue that humans are anatomically predisposed for endurance running, sparking broader public and academic interest. In the 2010s, integrations with biomechanics studies expanded the framework; for instance, research on locomotor economy demonstrated how human limb proportions and muscle fiber compositions optimize energy use during prolonged running, reinforcing the hypothesis's physiological claims.^[9] More recently, a 2024 ethnohistorical study documented over 390 instances of persistence hunting across cultures from the 16th to 21st centuries, further validating its historical prevalence and supporting the hypothesis's evolutionary implications.^[4] These advancements, building on the foundational 2004 paper, solidified the endurance running hypothesis as a central element in understanding human evolutionary adaptations.

Anatomical and Physiological Evidence

Human Adaptations for Endurance

Humans possess a high density of eccrine sweat glands, approximately 2–4 million across the body, which is unique among primates and enables effective evaporative cooling during prolonged physical activity in hot environments.^[10] This adaptation allows humans to dissipate heat without overheating, as sweat rates can reach 1–2 liters per hour, far exceeding those of other mammals that rely on panting or reduced activity in high temperatures. In contrast, chimpanzees have only about 10% of the human eccrine gland density, limiting their thermoregulatory efficiency during exertion.^[11] Humans also exhibit a superior maximal aerobic capacity, with VO₂ max values in elite endurance runners reaching 70–90 ml/kg/min, enabling sustained energy production at levels up to five times the resting metabolic rate.^[9] This high VO₂ max supports prolonged aerobic effort, allowing individuals to maintain submaximal intensities for hours without rapid fatigue, a key factor in endurance activities. Anatomically, the elongated Achilles tendon in humans acts as an elastic energy storage mechanism, recovering up to 50% of the metabolic cost of running by storing and releasing strain energy during each stride—more efficient than in most quadrupeds, which lack such compliant tendons. Similarly, the arched structure of the human foot functions as a spring, returning approximately 17% of the energy expended per step through elastic recoil in the plantar fascia and midfoot joints. These features enhance running economy, reducing the overall energy required for locomotion over long distances. The human body plan includes a narrow waist and low, wide shoulders, which facilitate efficient heat dissipation by increasing the effective surface area-to-volume ratio for sweating while also improving balance and trunk stability during running.^[11] This morphology decouples pelvic and thoracic rotation, minimizing energy loss from unnecessary movements and aiding thermoregulation in warm conditions. Biomechanically, the gluteus maximus muscle is disproportionately enlarged in humans compared to other primates, comprising about 18% of hip musculature mass versus 12% in chimpanzees, and is primarily activated during running to extend the hip and stabilize the trunk against forward pitch.^[12] This muscle plays a minimal role in walking but is crucial for countering gravitational torque at running speeds, enhancing endurance by preventing excessive energy expenditure on posture maintenance.^[12] Additionally, the nuchal ligament, a robust elastic structure connecting the skull to the thoracic vertebrae, stabilizes the head during high-speed locomotion by absorbing vertical oscillations and reducing angular accelerations to within the range of vestibulo-ocular reflexes. Absent or rudimentary in non-human apes, this ligament allows humans to maintain visual focus and balance over extended periods, a derived trait evident in Homo fossils.^[13] Quantitatively, these adaptations enable humans to sustain running paces of 3–4 m/s for several hours, as demonstrated in marathon performances where elite athletes cover 42 km in under 2 hours at approximately 5.8 m/s average but can maintain 4 m/s indefinitely under aerobic conditions.^[14] In comparison, sprinters like cheetahs reach 30 m/s but overheat and fatigue after 200–500 meters due to limited cooling and aerobic capacity.

Comparative Analysis with Other Mammals

The endurance running hypothesis posits that humans possess unique adaptations for sustained locomotion over long distances, distinguishing them from other mammals that prioritize speed or short bursts of activity. While many mammals excel in sprinting, few can maintain moderate paces for extended periods without overheating or fatigue, highlighting human specialization in thermoregulation and efficiency.^[2] Consider the pronghorn antelope, often cited as one of the fastest land animals, capable of short bursts up to 100 km/h but relying primarily on panting for cooling, which limits its endurance to approximately 10-15 km before overheating becomes debilitating. In contrast, humans can sustain speeds of about 21 km/h over tens of kilometers without such rapid thermal distress, thanks to superior evaporative cooling. Similarly, wild predators like lions achieve bursts of 50-60 km/h but overheat during pursuits exceeding a few hundred meters, as their panting-based thermoregulation proves inefficient for prolonged exertion.^[2]^[15]^[2] Domesticated endurance animals such as horses and dogs demonstrate partial adaptations, including some capacity for sweating, yet they fall short of human efficiency in tendon recoil and overall energy use during distance running. Horses, for instance, can reach 64 km/h but fatigue and overheat more quickly than humans over marathon-like distances due to less optimized elastic energy storage in their limbs. Dogs, while capable of sustained trotting, lack the human combination of stride optimization and heat dissipation that allows for hours of moderate-paced running.^[2]^[2]^[2] This divergence underscores an evolutionary novelty in humans: the bipedal gait, which has a comparable energy cost to quadrupedal running in similarly sized animals but integrates efficiently with other human adaptations for endurance, enabling greater distances without proportional fatigue. No other large mammal integrates this efficiency with profuse sweating—humans possess around 2 million sweat glands per individual for enhanced cooling—and the cognitive ability for tracking prey over varied terrain. For example, chimpanzees, our closest relatives, exhibit inefficient knuckle-walking with an energy cost approximately 1.5 times higher than human bipedal locomotion for similar travel, and their maximum speeds rarely exceed 20-25 km/h with no capacity for endurance running. Human stride frequency, optimized at about 180 steps per minute during distance efforts, further enhances this economy by minimizing vertical oscillation and maximizing forward propulsion.^[2]^[16]^[16]^[2]

Evolutionary and Archaeological Support

Fossil Record Evidence

The fossil record provides key evidence for the gradual emergence of anatomical traits supporting endurance running in early hominins, beginning with precursors in earlier species and becoming more pronounced in the genus Homo. The Laetoli footprints, dated to approximately 3.6 million years ago in Tanzania, represent some of the earliest direct indications of bipedal locomotion, showing a heel-to-toe gait pattern with weight transfer similar to that of modern humans, though lacking the full stride efficiency later seen in endurance-adapted forms.^[17] These tracks, likely made by Australopithecus afarensis, demonstrate a transitional bipedalism suited for walking but not optimized for sustained running, as evidenced by the species' relatively short hindlimbs and pelvis morphology that prioritized stability over speed.^[18] In Australopithecus afarensis (around 3.2 million years ago), the pelvis exhibits adaptations for upright walking, such as a shortened ilium and reoriented hip musculature, but retains features like a narrower birth canal and less developed gluteal attachments that limit endurance capabilities compared to later hominins.^[18] A notable shift occurs with Homo erectus, where shoulder morphology reconfigures: the scapula lowers relative to the vertebral column, and the glenoid fossa orients more laterally, reducing the elevated, ape-like shoulder positioning of australopiths and facilitating a more efficient arm swing during prolonged locomotion. By around 1.8 million years ago, Homo erectus fossils reveal more advanced endurance-related traits. The nearly complete skeleton of Turkana Boy (KNM-WT 15000), an approximately 8- to 12-year-old individual from Kenya, displays modern human-like body proportions, with lower limbs comprising about 55% of total height—compared to roughly 50% in australopiths—enabling greater stride length and energy efficiency for long-distance travel. This elongation of the legs correlates with hominin migration into open savanna environments, where longer limbs supported sustained locomotion over distances exceeding 20 km, as inferred from biomechanical models of early Homo gait.^[9] Additionally, Homo erectus shows a reduced gut size relative to body mass, estimated at about 60-70% of that expected for a primate of similar size, which the expensive tissue hypothesis attributes to a shift toward a high-energy diet including hunted meat, freeing metabolic resources for larger brains and endurance activities.^[19] Fossils from the Dmanisi site in Georgia (1.8 million years ago) further support thermoregulatory adaptations crucial for endurance running in hot environments. These skulls exhibit an enlarged nasal region with projecting external nares and internal nasal structures, enhancing airflow and heat dissipation during prolonged exertion, a derived feature distinguishing early Homo from earlier hominins.

Persistence Hunting Traces

Ethnographic observations of persistence hunting provide direct evidence of the practice among modern hunter-gatherer groups, offering insights into potential ancestral behaviors. Among the San people of the Kalahari Desert in southern Africa, persistence hunts have been documented since the early 20th century, with hunters pursuing large prey such as kudu over distances of 20–40 km on foot until the animals succumb to exhaustion from overheating.^[7] These hunts typically occur during the hottest parts of the day in open terrain, leveraging human thermoregulatory advantages like sweating to outlast the prey's panting-based cooling. Similar practices have been recorded among the Tarahumara (Rarámuri) people of northwestern Mexico, where groups of runners chase deer through rugged canyons for several hours, combining tracking and sustained pursuit to induce fatigue in the animals.^[20] Historical accounts also describe persistence hunting by Australian Aboriginal groups in northwestern Australia, where individuals or small teams ran down kangaroos over extended distances until the prey collapsed, a method noted in ethnographic reports from the mid-20th century.^[21] A 2024 study identified over 390 historical instances of persistence hunting across Indigenous groups worldwide from the 16th to 21st centuries, indicating its greater prevalence than previously thought.^[4] Archaeological evidence from footprint sites supports the interpretation of endurance-based locomotion in early Homo species, consistent with persistence hunting strategies. A key example comes from the Ileret site in Kenya, where 1.5-million-year-old footprints attributed to Homo erectus reveal spaced strides and efficient bipedal gait patterns indicative of a capability for sustained, long-distance travel in group settings.^[22] These tracks, preserved in lacustrine sediments, show variability in stride length and foot morphology that align with modern human endurance walking and running, suggesting coordinated movement suitable for pursuing prey across open landscapes. Such evidence implies that Homo erectus individuals were capable of the paced locomotion required for persistence hunts, distinguishing their mobility from that of contemporaneous non-human primates. Tool associations at ancient sites further link persistence hunting to close-range encounters following prey exhaustion. At Schöningen, Germany, wooden spear points dating to approximately 200,000 years ago (with previous estimates around 300,000–400,000 years) were found alongside butchered horse remains, indicating systematic hunting of medium-to-large game with thrusting or throwing weapons designed for final, short-distance kills after prolonged pursuits.^[23] These artifacts, balanced for aerodynamic use, support scenarios where hunters exhausted prey through chasing before delivering lethal blows, as the spears' design and the site's ambush-like context point to opportunistic takedowns rather than high-speed chases. Complementary isotopic analyses of faunal and hominin remains from sites post-dating 2 million years ago, such as those in East Africa, reveal elevated nitrogen-15 levels in collagen, signaling a shift toward meat-heavy diets reliant on large herbivores, consistent with successful persistence-based procurement of animal protein.^[24] Behavioral reconstructions of persistence hunting emphasize low-technology strategies adapted to hot environments, integrating tracking with endurance running. Hunters rely on visual cues like footprints, broken vegetation, and blood trails to relocate prey during intermittent rests, allowing pursuits to span hours without direct line-of-sight contact.^[7] In arid, high-temperature climates, this method exploits the prey's limited heat dissipation—primarily through panting—against humans' superior sweating efficiency, enabling hunters to maintain moderate speeds (around 5–10 km/h) over 20–50 km until hyperthermia overtakes the target. Ethnographic parallels from the San demonstrate how such tracking skills, honed through generational knowledge, minimize energy expenditure while maximizing success in thermoregulatorily challenging conditions, reconstructing a viable ancestral hunting niche without advanced weaponry.

Criticisms and Academic Discourse

Key Counterarguments

One major counterargument to the endurance running hypothesis centers on the high energy demands of sustained running, which critics argue would have been unsustainable for early Homo without consistent access to high-calorie food sources. Running expends approximately twice the energy of walking for the same distance, with estimates indicating about 1 kcal per kilogram of body weight per kilometer for running compared to 0.5 kcal per kilogram per kilometer for walking, potentially leading to caloric deficits during prolonged pursuits in unpredictable savanna environments.^[25] Furthermore, a 2007 analysis by anthropologists Travis R. Pickering and Henry T. Bunn contends that early Homo species, such as Homo habilis and early Homo erectus, lacked the advanced tracking skills necessary for effective persistence hunting, as evidenced by bovid bone assemblages from Olduvai Gorge showing patterns more consistent with scavenging than active pursuit.^[6] They propose instead that meat acquisition was primarily opportunistic, relying on scavenging rather than energy-intensive running strategies.^[6] Critics also highlight limitations in human thermoregulation that undermine the hypothesis, particularly in hot and humid conditions prevalent in ancestral habitats. While humans rely on sweating for cooling during endurance activities, high humidity reduces evaporation efficiency, leading to faster overheating compared to arid environments where the hypothesis is often tested; this could render long-distance running impractical for much of the year in tropical savannas.^[15] In this context, scholars like Peter S. Ungar have emphasized that scavenging, rather than hunting via running, likely served as the primary means of meat procurement for early Homo, supported by dental microwear evidence indicating opportunistic feeding on carrion and marrow rather than fresh kills requiring pursuit. The reliance on ethnographic analogies from modern hunter-gatherers has been criticized for potential bias, as earlier analyses suggested persistence hunting was exceedingly rare and contributed minimally to caloric intake in observed groups. For instance, in the San people of the Kalahari, such hunts account for only a small fraction—estimated at less than 10-20%—of overall food energy, with most calories derived from gathering and shorter-range activities.^[26] However, a 2024 ethnohistorical analysis documents nearly 400 instances of endurance pursuit hunting across 158 societies (58% of 272 surveyed locations globally), including 81% of 141 western North American societies, indicating broader historical prevalence than previously estimated and suggesting the practice may not be overstated as an ancestral strategy.^[4] Moreover, there is no direct archaeological or fossil evidence, such as isotopic signatures or tool marks indicative of exhausted prey, to confirm that endurance running was a regular hunting method in Pleistocene hominins. Finally, many anatomical traits posited as running adaptations, such as elongated lower limbs, may instead reflect selection for efficient walking and foraging over long distances rather than specialized endurance running. Comparative biomechanical studies indicate that longer legs primarily enhance stride length and reduce energy costs in bipedal walking, a capability that emerged earlier in australopithecines and supported scavenging or plant gathering in open landscapes without necessitating high-speed pursuits.^[9] This interpretation aligns with evidence from early Homo fossil morphology, where limb proportions optimize terrestrial travel economy but do not uniquely demand running performance.^[27]

Alternative Evolutionary Explanations

One alternative explanation for the evolution of human bipedalism and associated locomotion traits posits that these adaptations arose primarily to facilitate scavenging in open savanna environments, where early hominins needed to travel long distances on foot to locate and access animal carcasses left by predators.^[28] Under this scavenging hypothesis, upright walking freed the hands for carrying tools or food while enabling efficient coverage of expansive territories, reducing energy expenditure compared to quadrupedalism for such activities.^[29] A key formulation of this idea is C. Owen Lovejoy's provisioning model, which suggests that bipedalism evolved to allow males to transport scavenged resources back to mates and offspring, promoting pair-bonding and infant survival in resource-scarce settings. Another competing hypothesis emphasizes foraging efficiency as the driver for human endurance and long limb proportions, arguing that these traits enabled early hominins to gather carbohydrate-rich plant foods, such as tubers, seeds, and fruits, over wide areas in mosaic habitats.^[30] Studies from the 1990s and early 2000s, including those by Richard Wrangham, highlight how reliance on a high-carbohydrate diet from dispersed plant sources selected for extended walking and moderate endurance capabilities, as processing and transporting bulky, low-calorie foods required sustained locomotion without the high-speed demands of predation.^[31] This model posits that such foraging patterns, rather than meat acquisition, shaped the elongation of legs and improvements in thermoregulation, providing metabolic fuel for brain expansion while minimizing predation risks through daylight activity.^[32] The aquatic ape theory, considered a fringe hypothesis, proposes that certain human locomotion traits, including elements of endurance, partially stem from semi-aquatic adaptations during an early phase of hominin evolution near water bodies. Initially suggested by Alister Hardy in 1960 and popularized by Elaine Morgan, it argues that wading and swimming in coastal or riverine environments favored bipedal posture for buoyancy and propulsion, with endurance deriving from an arboreal ancestry that pre-adapted hominins for climbing and balancing in wetland forests before full terrestrial commitment. Though largely discredited due to lack of fossil or genetic support, proponents maintain it explains traits like subcutaneous fat and hairlessness alongside moderate aquatic-influenced stamina. In the 2010s, a hybrid multi-purpose locomotion model emerged, integrating elements of scavenging and defensive behaviors to explain endurance running as an adaptation for confronting carnivores like hyenas at carcass sites, rather than solely for pursuit hunting.^[33] This framework, advanced in studies of Pleistocene interactions, suggests that hominins in groups used sustained running to monitor kills, outlast or intimidate scavengers such as spotted hyenas over distances, and secure meat through power scavenging without direct predation.^[34] By combining aerobic capacity with social coordination, this model views locomotion traits as versatile tools for resource defense in competitive savanna ecosystems, where confrontations at fresh carcasses demanded both speed bursts and prolonged exertion.^[35]

Implications and Recent Developments

Evolutionary Role in Human History

The endurance running hypothesis posits that the development of long-distance running capabilities around 2 million years ago in the genus Homo played a pivotal role in human dietary evolution by facilitating access to nutrient-dense animal resources. While some propose this allowed for more effective persistence hunting and carcass competition with other predators, potentially leading to increased meat consumption, zooarchaeological evidence indicates no sustained increase in carnivory after the appearance of Homo erectus.^[36] This access to high-quality proteins, fats, and micronutrients is thought to have supported metabolic demands and brain expansion, consistent with the expensive tissue hypothesis, whereby energy reallocated from a smaller gut due to a higher-quality diet fueled encephalization, with the quotient rising from approximately 2.5 in apes and early hominins to around 7 in modern humans.^[2] The hypothesis suggests endurance running may have encouraged group-based hunting strategies that enhanced cooperation among early Homo populations, potentially influencing social bonds and division of labor, though direct evidence linking it to the evolution of communication or language precursors remains speculative. Persistence hunts likely required coordinated efforts to track and exhaust prey over extended distances. These dynamics are proposed to have aided survival in variable environments, with morphological traits suited to hot savanna pursuits potentially providing advantages over contemporaneous species like Neanderthals, whose shorter limbs and cold-adapted features may have been less optimal for prolonged endurance running in warm climates.^[37] Over the long term, endurance running shaped the distinctive morphology of modern humans, with associated traits—such as spring-like tendons, efficient thermoregulation, and skeletal reinforcements—present in Homo fossils from early in the genus and persisting in contemporary populations, influencing locomotion and energy allocation.^[2]

Modern Applications and Studies

Recent research has provided empirical support for the endurance running hypothesis (ERH) through analyses of historical and ethnographic data. A 2024 study published in Nature Human Behaviour examined nearly 400 ethnohistorical accounts from diverse cultures, demonstrating that endurance pursuit hunting—where hunters chase prey to exhaustion over long distances—was a widespread and efficient strategy, with return rates comparable to other methods like bow hunting or trapping.^[4] This work validates the ERH by showing that human physiological adaptations, such as efficient sweating for thermoregulation, enabled such pursuits in hot environments without specialized tools.^[4] In 2025, a study in Biology & Philosophy extended the ERH into evolutionary psychology by integrating it with embodied cognition frameworks. The paper argues that endurance running not only shaped human morphology but also facilitated cognitive advancements, such as enhanced planning and spatial awareness during prolonged hunts, where sensorimotor experiences grounded abstract thinking. This integration posits that running behaviors contributed to the evolution of predictive cognition, allowing early humans to anticipate prey movements over extended periods.^[38] The ERH has influenced modern health practices, particularly the rise of barefoot and minimalist running in the 2010s. Research by Daniel Lieberman and colleagues demonstrated that habitually barefoot runners adopt a forefoot strike pattern, which generates lower collision forces compared to the heel-striking common in shod runners, potentially reducing injury risk by mimicking ancestral gait mechanics.^[39] Follow-up studies in the 2010s suggest that transitioning to minimalist shoes may decrease rates of repetitive stress injuries like shin splints in recreational runners, provided gradual adaptation is employed, though evidence is mixed and systematic benefits are not conclusively established.^[40] Athletic performance in ultramarathons serves as a contemporary analog to the ERH, highlighting human superiority in prolonged efforts. In events exceeding 100 miles, such as the annual Man versus Horse Marathon in Wales, human runners have outperformed horses in hot conditions since 2007, leveraging superior heat dissipation to maintain pace while equines overheat.^[41] Recent biomechanical analyses have confirmed key ERH predictions, including humans' elastic energy return in tendons and steady pacing efficiency, which enable sustained speeds over 50 kilometers without fatigue-induced form breakdown.^[3]

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There have been a number of major dietary shifts in human evolution, including meat eating, cooking, and those associated with plant and animal domestication.
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Computer simulation of scavenging by hominins and giant hyenas in ...
Sep 28, 2023 · Computer simulation of scavenging by hominins and giant hyenas in the late Early Pleistocene ... Moreover, the role of scavenging in the evolution ...Missing: multi- | Show results with:multi-
[34]
Human evolution: Hominins challenge giant hyenas for carcasses in ...
Sep 28, 2023 · ... scavenging for carcasses, even in competition with giant hyenas. The authors speculate that scavenged remains may have been an important ...Missing: locomotion hybrid running
[35]
One Million Years Ago, Our Human Relatives May Have Challenged ...
Sep 28, 2023 · The study also simulated scavenging competition between hominins and giant hyenas by estimating both the ... humans got the upper hand only ...Missing: locomotion hybrid
[36]
No sustained increase in zooarchaeological evidence for carnivory ...
Jan 24, 2022 · At approximately 2 Ma, evidence from the FwJj 20 site suggests that some hominins had diversified their diet by incorporating aquatic resources ...
[37]
Foot strike patterns and collision forces in habitually barefoot versus ...
Jan 28, 2010 · Here we show that habitually barefoot endurance runners often land on the fore-foot (fore-foot strike) before bringing down the heel.Missing: minimalist | Show results with:minimalist
[38]
Can a human outrun a horse? Here's what it takes
Oct 24, 2024 · Discover the science behind human endurance and how our evolutionary adaptations give us the surprising ability to outlast even horses in long-distance races.