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Scapula

The scapula, commonly known as the shoulder blade, is a flat, triangular bone that constitutes the posterior element of the shoulder girdle.^[1]^[2] It is positioned on the dorsal surface of the upper thoracic region, overlying the posterior aspects of ribs 2 through 7, and connects the clavicle to the humerus via specific articulations.^[2] The bone's primary role is to provide attachment sites for 17 muscles that enable essential shoulder motions, including elevation, depression, protraction, retraction, and rotation.^[1]^[2] Structurally, the scapula features three borders—the superior, medial (vertebral), and lateral (axillary)—and three angles: superior, inferior, and lateral.^[2] Its surfaces include a ventral (costal) side with the subscapular fossa and a dorsal side divided by the spine into the supraspinous and infraspinous fossae.^[2] Key processes extend from the bone, such as the acromion (which articulates with the clavicle), the coracoid process (for muscle and ligament attachments), and the spine (separating the dorsal fossae).^[1]^[2] The lateral angle houses the glenoid cavity, a shallow socket deepened by the glenoid labrum, which forms the glenohumeral joint with the humeral head.^[2] Functionally, the scapula's mobility and stability are integral to the shoulder complex, allowing for the wide range of arm movements required in daily activities and sports.^[1] It develops through endochondral ossification beginning around the 11th week of embryogenesis and receives its blood supply via the scapular anastomosis from branches of the axillary and subclavian arteries.^[1] Clinically, scapular abnormalities can lead to conditions such as winging (due to serratus anterior weakness) or impingement syndromes, underscoring its importance in upper extremity biomechanics.^[2]

Anatomy

Surfaces

The costal surface, also known as the anterior or ventral surface, faces the thoracic rib cage and features a large, shallow concavity known as the subscapular fossa.^[2] This fossa occupies most of the surface and is relatively smooth in texture, with three longitudinal ridges that traverse it for structural support.^[2] The dorsal surface, or posterior surface, is convex and marked by a prominent bony ridge called the spine of the scapula, which divides it into two fossae of unequal size.^[2] The supraspinous fossa lies superior to the spine and is smaller and more triangular in outline, while the infraspinous fossa below is larger and extends toward the inferior angle; both fossae exhibit a roughened texture.^[2] A subtle ridge runs along the medial aspect of the infraspinous fossa near the lateral border, originating from the glenoid cavity and terminating above the inferior angle.^[2] The lateral surface, situated at the lateral angle of the scapula, encompasses the glenoid cavity and transitions into a narrow neck connecting the cavity to the body of the bone.^[2] The glenoid cavity itself is pear-shaped and shallow, serving as the articulation site for the humerus, with its orientation featuring a slight upward tilt of 10 to 15 degrees relative to the medial border of the scapula.^[3]^[4] In adults, the scapula measures an average length of approximately 14.8 cm and width of 10.8 cm, contributing to its overall triangular morphology with a subtle lateral curvature that aligns the glenoid for shoulder mobility.^[5]^[6]

Borders

The scapula is bounded by three distinct borders that form its triangular perimeter: the medial (vertebral) border, the lateral (axillary) border, and the superior border. These edges vary in length, thickness, and curvature, contributing to the bone's structural integrity and mobility within the shoulder girdle.^[2] The medial border, also known as the vertebral border, is the longest of the three, measuring approximately 15 cm in adults, and runs parallel to the vertebral column along the dorsal aspect of the thorax. It is relatively straight or slightly convex, extending continuously from the superior angle to the inferior angle without major interruptions, and provides attachment sites for muscles including the levator scapulae superiorly and the rhomboid muscles along its length (detailed attachments covered separately).^[2]^[7] The lateral border, or axillary border, is the thickest and most robust, with a length of about 12-14 cm, and exhibits a rounded, slightly concave profile that accommodates surrounding musculature. Positioned along the axillary region, it extends from the inferior angle superolaterally toward the glenoid cavity, forming a sturdy lateral margin that supports the articulation with the humerus.^[2]^[8] The superior border is the shortest and thinnest, typically measuring 5-6 cm, and presents a concave curvature that arches gently from the superior angle to the base of the coracoid process. It features the suprascapular notch, a prominent indentation near its lateral end that is bridged by the superior transverse scapular ligament to form the suprascapular foramen.^[2]^[7] These borders interconnect at the scapula's angles to delineate its overall triangular outline, with the medial and superior borders meeting superiorly, the superior and lateral borders converging laterally, and the medial and lateral borders uniting inferiorly, thereby enclosing the bone's dorsal and costal surfaces.^[2]

Angles

The scapula, a flat triangular bone, features three distinct angles that serve as key junction points between its borders, contributing to its overall structural framework and facilitating muscle attachments and joint articulation. These angles are the superior, inferior, and lateral, each with unique morphological characteristics and positional alignments that underscore their roles in shoulder girdle stability.^[2] The superior angle is an acute, rounded projection located at the junction of the superior and medial borders, positioned near the level of the T2 vertebra. This angle provides a smooth insertion site for the levator scapulae muscle, which aids in elevating the scapula.^[9]^[10]^[8] The inferior angle, the largest and most prominent of the three, is a blunt, rounded structure situated at the junction of the medial and lateral borders, aligning with the T7 vertebral level. It serves as a palpable surface landmark on the back, often used in clinical assessments for its superficial position over the seventh rib.^[11]^[12] The lateral angle is a thick, robust region formed at the junction of the superior and lateral (axillary) borders, where it expands to create the glenoid fossa—a shallow cavity that articulates with the humerus to form the glenohumeral joint. This thickening enhances the structural integrity required for weight-bearing and mobility at the shoulder.^[13]^[8] Collectively, the superior and inferior angles are positioned along the medial border, while the lateral angle lies at the axillary border, delineating the scapula's characteristic triangular outline and distributing mechanical stresses across the bone.^[2]

Processes

The scapula possesses several key bony processes that project from its body, serving primarily as structural supports and sites for articulation with adjacent bones. These include the spine, acromion, coracoid, and glenoid cavity, each with distinct shapes and positions that contribute to the overall architecture of the shoulder girdle.^[2] The spine of the scapula is a prominent, transverse ridge that extends obliquely across the posterior surface of the bone, separating the supraspinous and infraspinous fossae. It originates near the medial border and runs laterally toward the acromion, providing a robust division of the dorsal aspect. This ridge-like structure typically measures around 10 cm in length in adults, though exact dimensions vary.^[14]^[15] The acromion process forms as a flattened, oblong lateral extension of the scapular spine, projecting anteriorly and laterally to create the summit of the shoulder. Located superior to the glenoid cavity, it is a broad, flat projection that averages approximately 4.5 cm in length and 2.4 cm in width in adult scapulae. Articularly, the acromion connects with the lateral end of the clavicle at the acromioclavicular joint, forming part of the shoulder arch.^[2]^[14]^[15]^[6] The coracoid process arises as a hook-like projection from the superior lateral aspect of the scapular neck, directed anteriorly and slightly laterally, resembling a crow's beak. Positioned inferior to the clavicle and lateral to the suprascapular notch, its overall length averages about 4.4 cm, with the terminal hook measuring roughly 1.4 cm in width. While it does not form a direct synovial joint, the coracoid serves as a key anchor in the pectoral girdle.^[2]^[14]^[15]^[6] The glenoid process, often referred to as the glenoid cavity or fossa, is an oval-shaped, pear-like depression located at the lateral angle of the scapula, at the junction of the superior and lateral borders. This shallow cavity is oriented laterally and slightly superiorly, with average dimensions of 3.6 cm in the superior-inferior direction and 2.5 cm in the anterior-posterior direction; it is deepened by the fibrocartilaginous glenoid labrum to enhance stability. Articularly, the glenoid cavity forms the glenohumeral joint by receiving the head of the humerus, allowing for a wide range of shoulder motion.^[2]^[14]^[15]^[6]

Muscle and ligament attachments

The scapula serves as a key site for the origin and insertion of multiple muscles involved in shoulder girdle stability and movement, as well as the attachment of several ligaments that reinforce the glenohumeral joint and connect to adjacent bones. These attachments occur on specific bony features such as the fossae, borders, angles, spine, acromion, and coracoid process, often marked by roughened surfaces or tubercles that facilitate secure tendinous bonds. Distinguishing between origins (where muscles arise from the scapula) and insertions (where muscles attach to the scapula after originating elsewhere) is essential for understanding the bone's role in musculoskeletal architecture.^[2] Among the muscles originating from the scapula, the subscapularis arises from the subscapular fossa on the costal (anterior) surface, covering much of this concave area with its broad aponeurosis. The supraspinatus originates from the supraspinous fossa above the spine, utilizing the smooth, concave region for its fleshy belly. Similarly, the infraspinatus takes origin from the infraspinous fossa below the spine, attaching across the larger posterior depression. The teres minor originates along the upper two-thirds of the lateral (axillary) border, near the infraglenoid tubercle, on a roughened area that supports its tendon. The teres major originates from the inferior angle and the lower part of the lateral border, at the dorsal surface where the bone tapers. The deltoid originates from the lateral aspect of the spine and the inferior surface of the acromion, with fibers blending into the trapezius insertion nearby. The short head of the biceps brachii originates from the coracoid process, specifically the lateral aspect of its tip, alongside the coracobrachialis. These origins are typically characterized by roughened periosteum to enhance tendon adhesion.^[2]^[8]^[16] Muscles inserting onto the scapula include the rhomboid major and minor, which attach to the medial (vertebral) border; the major to the medial border from the spine to the inferior angle, and the minor to the upper portion at the base of the spine, both on roughened strips that allow for their tendinous insertions. The trapezius inserts along the medial third of the spine, the acromion, and the posterior aspect of the lateral clavicle, with upper fibers attaching superiorly. The pectoralis minor inserts onto the medial aspect of the coracoid process, its three-digit tendon fanning out over the roughened surface. These insertions contribute to scapular retraction and elevation, with the medial border featuring distinct ridges for rhomboid attachment.^[2]^[8] Key ligaments associated with the scapula include the coracoacromial ligament, which extends from the lateral border of the coracoid process to the acromion, forming a strong fibrous arch over the suprahumeral space. The coracoclavicular ligament, comprising the trapezoid (lateral) and conoid (medial) parts, attaches from the coracoid process to the inferior surface of the clavicle, providing vertical stability to the acromioclavicular joint. The superior transverse scapular ligament bridges the suprascapular notch, converting it into the scapular foramen through which the suprascapular nerve passes, anchored to the bony margins superior to the notch. These ligaments originate or insert directly on scapular processes, often at sites with thickened periosteum for enhanced tensile strength.^[2]^[8]

Blood supply and innervation

The arterial supply to the scapula is derived from the scapular anastomosis, a network that ensures robust collateral circulation around the bone and its attachments. The suprascapular artery, originating from the thyrocervical trunk (a branch of the subclavian artery), courses superiorly over the superior transverse scapular ligament or through the suprascapular notch to supply the supraspinatus fossa, infraspinatus fossa, and acromion.^[1] The subscapular artery, arising from the third part of the axillary artery, descends along the posterior axillary wall and gives off the circumflex scapular artery, which pierces the triangular space to reach the posterior scapular surface and contribute to the anastomosis near the lateral border.^[1] Complementing these, the anterior and posterior circumflex humeral arteries—both branches of the axillary artery—encircle the surgical neck of the humerus and provide blood to the glenoid cavity, glenohumeral joint capsule, and adjacent scapular margins.^[17] Venous drainage parallels the arterial pathways, with blood from the scapular region collecting into the suprascapular and circumflex scapular veins, which ultimately converge into the axillary vein; this system includes numerous small, variable anastomotic tributaries that facilitate efficient return flow.^[1] Innervation of the scapula and its attached musculature primarily involves motor nerves from the brachial plexus, with sensory contributions to the overlying skin and periosteum. The suprascapular nerve, derived from the C5 and C6 spinal roots via the superior trunk, enters the supraspinatus fossa through the suprascapular notch (beneath the superior transverse scapular ligament) to innervate the supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles.^[18] The axillary nerve, also from C5 and C6 roots off the posterior cord, wraps around the surgical neck of the humerus near the glenoid to supply motor innervation to the teres minor muscle and sensory branches to the shoulder joint capsule.^[19] Along the medial border, the dorsal scapular nerve (C5 root) provides motor supply to the rhomboid major, rhomboid minor, and levator scapulae muscles.^[20] Sensory innervation to the scapular periosteum and posterior thoracic skin is mediated by branches of the lateral pectoral nerve (from C5-T1) and the second to fourth intercostal nerves (from thoracic spinal nerves T2-T4).^[1] The intraosseous blood supply enters the scapula via nutrient foramina, small vascular channels typically located along the medial and lateral borders as well as the costal and dorsal surfaces, with studies identifying an average of 5.3 such foramina per scapula to support endosteal nutrition and bone remodeling.^[21]

Development

The scapula originates from the lateral plate mesoderm as part of the pectoral girdle during embryonic development. In the fifth week of gestation, it appears as a mesenchymal condensation proximal to the developing upper limb bud, initially forming an irregular structure with outgrowths corresponding to the future body, coracoid process, and glenoid region.^[22]^[23] This condensation differentiates under the influence of signaling pathways, such as those involving fibroblast growth factors and Wnt, to establish the foundational framework for the scapular blade and articulating surfaces.^[24] Ossification of the scapula primarily occurs through intramembranous ossification, with a primary center appearing in the body around the eighth week of intrauterine life.^[25]^[26] Secondary ossification centers develop postnatally: the coracoid process ossifies from two centers, the first appearing around 1 year of age and the second between 6 and 10 years; the acromion forms from up to three centers that appear variably from birth to late adolescence (typically 14-18 years); and the glenoid cavity ossifies from centers emerging between birth and 14 years, contributing to the subglenoid and coracoid regions.^[25]^[27] These centers gradually fuse with the primary body ossification site, completing by approximately 25 years of age, though variations can persist.^[28] Postnatal growth of the scapula involves appositional bone deposition along its periosteal surfaces, allowing expansion in size and adaptation to increasing mechanical loads from upper limb activity.^[29] This process is modulated by mechanical stress, in accordance with Wolff's law, where bone remodeling strengthens areas subjected to tension or compression from muscle attachments and joint forces.^[30] Sexual dimorphism emerges during growth, with male scapulae typically achieving greater overall dimensions—such as longer blades and wider glenoids—compared to females, reflecting differences in body size and hormonal influences on skeletal maturation.^[31] Incomplete fusion of secondary centers, particularly the acromion, may result in os acromiale, a developmental variant observed in 1-15% of individuals.^[32]

Function

Movements

The scapula exhibits a variety of movements that facilitate the extensive mobility of the shoulder girdle and upper extremity. These include elevation and depression, which involve superior and inferior translation; protraction and retraction, which describe anterior and posterior gliding along the thoracic wall; upward and downward rotation, which adjust the orientation of the glenoid fossa; and anterior and posterior tilting, which fine-tune the scapula's position relative to the thorax. These motions collectively enable the shoulder to achieve full functional range, such as overhead reaching or pushing activities.^[1] Normal ranges for these movements vary slightly across individuals but are well-characterized in healthy adults. Elevation typically allows for up to 40 degrees of superior displacement, while depression permits about 10 degrees of inferior movement. Protraction and retraction occur with ranges of approximately 20 degrees and 15 degrees, respectively, reflecting the scapula's sliding over the curved thoracic surface. Upward rotation spans 30 to 60 degrees during arm abduction beyond 90 degrees, and downward rotation mirrors this range in reverse. Anterior tilting averages 10 to 20 degrees, whereas posterior tilting can reach 20 to 30 degrees, particularly during overhead arm positions to accommodate humeral head clearance. Full arm elevation to 180 degrees necessitates about 60 degrees of upward rotation to supplement glenohumeral motion.^[33]^[34]^[35] These movements are enabled primarily by the scapulothoracic articulation, a physiological joint formed by the muscular and fascial gliding of the scapula's posterior surface against the thoracic wall, without bony congruence. Additional mobility is provided indirectly through the acromioclavicular joint, linking the acromion to the clavicle, and the sternoclavicular joint, connecting the clavicle to the manubrium, allowing coupled translation and rotation of the entire girdle.^[1]^[33] Coordinated muscle action drives and stabilizes these motions. The upper trapezius and levator scapulae elevate the scapula, while the lower trapezius, serratus anterior (lower fibers), and pectoralis minor depress it. Protraction is primarily achieved by the serratus anterior and pectoralis minor, with retraction facilitated by the middle/lower trapezius and rhomboid major and minor. Upward rotation involves synergistic action of the upper and lower trapezius with the serratus anterior, whereas downward rotation is powered by the rhomboids, levator scapulae, and pectoralis minor. These muscles ensure smooth integration with humeral movements for efficient shoulder function.^[1]^[33]

Biomechanics

The scapula functions as a critical strut in the shoulder girdle, connecting the humerus via the glenohumeral joint to the clavicle through the acromioclavicular joint, thereby facilitating the transmission of upper limb loads to the axial skeleton via the sternoclavicular joint. This configuration allows the scapula to distribute compressive and shear forces generated during arm activities, such as lifting or pushing, across the thoracic cage while maintaining mobility. In this role, the scapula's broad, triangular shape and muscular attachments enable it to act as a mechanical lever, converting upper extremity forces into controlled motion and stability against the thorax. Stability of the scapula within the shoulder complex relies on both static and dynamic mechanisms to counteract translational and rotational forces. Static stabilizers include the glenoid labrum, which deepens the glenoid fossa by 50% and enhances concavity for humeral head containment, and the glenohumeral ligaments (superior, middle, and inferior), which provide passive restraint against excessive translation, particularly in abduction and external rotation. Dynamic stability is primarily achieved through the rotator cuff muscles (supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis), which generate compressive forces to center the humeral head in the glenoid, with peak contributions from the subscapularis (up to 53% of total cuff force) during loading. Scapular stabilizers like the serratus anterior and trapezius further contribute dynamically by forming force couples that prevent scapular winging and maintain thoracic alignment.^[36]^[37]^[38] A key biomechanical principle governing scapular motion is the scapulohumeral rhythm, which describes the coordinated ratio of glenohumeral to scapulothoracic movement during elevation, typically 2:1 in abduction beyond 30° (i.e., for every 2° of humeral elevation, the scapula upwardly rotates 1°). This rhythm ensures optimal glenohumeral joint congruency and minimizes impingement by progressively orienting the glenoid upward and posteriorly. The 2:1 ratio arises from the initial 30° of pure glenohumeral motion followed by coupled scapular upward rotation, posterior tilt, and external rotation, driven by balanced muscle forces from the deltoid, trapezius, and serratus anterior. Stress analysis reveals significant loads on the scapula during overhead activities, with glenohumeral compressive forces reaching 0.8–1.5 times body weight (BW) in throwing motions, such as the post-release deceleration phase where forces approximate 1090 N (∼1.55 BW for a 70 kg individual). These compressive loads are transmitted through the scapula to the clavicle, peaking during arm cocking and acceleration to stabilize the joint against superior migration. Along the scapulothoracic interface, shear forces arise from frictional sliding of the scapula against the thoracic wall, with anterior-posterior shear-to-compression ratios up to 0.42 during shoulder-level lifts, potentially exacerbated by muscle imbalances leading to scapular protraction or retraction.^[39]^[40] Alterations in scapulohumeral rhythm, such as reduced upward rotation (by 5–15° in affected individuals), can disrupt force distribution and contribute to subacromial impingement by narrowing the subacromial space and increasing humeral head proximity to the coracoacromial arch.^[35]

Clinical significance

Fractures and injuries

Scapular fractures are uncommon injuries, comprising less than 1% of all fractures and 3-5% of shoulder girdle fractures, typically resulting from high-energy blunt trauma such as motor vehicle collisions or falls from height.^[41] These fractures occur in 80-90% of cases due to direct impact on the scapula or indirect force from humeral head impaction into the glenoid, and approximately 90% are associated with concomitant injuries, including rib fractures, clavicular fractures, pulmonary contusions, or head trauma.^[42] Neurovascular compromise, such as brachial plexus injury, affects 10-20% of patients, underscoring the need for thorough assessment.^[43] Fractures are classified by anatomic location, with body fractures being the most common (about 45%), often involving transverse or oblique patterns from direct blows and rarely requiring intervention unless severely displaced.^[41] Scapular neck fractures are distinguished as anatomic (proximal to the glenoid) or surgical (distal, involving the glenoid neck), where surgical necks may necessitate fixation if there is greater than 1 cm translation or 40° angulation to restore shoulder stability.^[42] Glenoid rim fractures, frequently anterior or posterior avulsions, demand attention due to potential glenohumeral instability, particularly if the articular step-off exceeds 2 mm or involves more than 20-25% of the glenoid surface.^[44] Acromion fractures, graded I-III by displacement, and coracoid process avulsions (often from muscle pull) are less frequent (8% and 7%, respectively), with type III acromion or significantly displaced coracoid fractures typically treated surgically to prevent impingement or nonunion.^[41] Diagnosis begins with a history of high-energy trauma and physical examination revealing localized pain, swelling, crepitus, and restricted shoulder motion, alongside evaluation for associated injuries.^[43] Standard anteroposterior and lateral scapular radiographs detect most fractures, but computed tomography (CT) is essential for assessing displacement, intra-articular involvement, and surgical planning, as initial chest X-rays miss up to 43% of cases.^[42] Management is predominantly conservative for over 90% of nondisplaced or minimally displaced fractures, involving sling immobilization for 1-3 weeks followed by early pendulum exercises and physical therapy to promote healing and prevent stiffness.^[41] Surgical intervention, such as open reduction and internal fixation, is indicated for displaced glenoid fractures with more than a 2 mm step-off, significant neck angulation, open fractures, or floating shoulder variants to ensure articular congruity and functional recovery.^[44] In select cases, fractures may briefly disrupt local blood supply, though vascular integrity is generally preserved due to the scapula's robust muscular envelope.^[43]

Congenital anomalies

Congenital anomalies of the scapula encompass a range of developmental malformations arising from disruptions in embryonic formation and migration, leading to structural abnormalities that can impair shoulder function and aesthetics. Sprengel's deformity, the most common congenital anomaly of the scapula, involves an abnormally high or undescended scapula resulting from incomplete caudal migration during the fifth to eighth weeks of gestation.^[45] This condition is characterized by a small, rotated scapula positioned above the typical level at the seventh cervical vertebra, often with associated omovertebral bone connecting the scapula to the cervical spine.^[46] It presents unilaterally in approximately 80% of cases, more frequently on the right side, and may cause visible asymmetry, limited shoulder abduction, and scapular winging.^[47] Sprengel's deformity is frequently associated with Klippel-Feil syndrome, occurring in 20-42% of those cases due to shared disruptions in somitogenesis and Hox gene expression. Scapular dysgenesis refers to partial absence, hypoplasia, or malformation of the scapula, stemming from faulty mesodermal differentiation in early embryogenesis.^[48] This anomaly can occur in isolation or as part of multisystem genetic disorders. Isolated cases may present with unilateral or bilateral involvement, resulting in reduced scapular size and altered muscle attachments that limit arm elevation. Os acromiale represents a failure of fusion of one or more acromial ossification centers, a congenital variation occurring during postnatal growth between ages 14 and 18.^[49] It has a prevalence of 2-8% in the general population, with higher rates (up to 15%) in individuals of African descent, and involves segments such as the meta-acromion or pre-acromion remaining separate. Most cases are asymptomatic, but a mobile os acromiale can cause subacromial impingement, pain, and rotator cuff irritation due to abnormal motion at the unfused site.^[50] Diagnosis of these anomalies begins prenatally with ultrasound, which can identify elevated scapular position or hypoplasia in high-risk pregnancies, though sensitivity is limited by fetal positioning.^[51] Postnatally, plain radiographs confirm scapular position and bony connections, while MRI delineates soft tissue involvement, cartilage, and associated spinal anomalies; CT is reserved for detailed omovertebral bone assessment.^[52] Treatment is conservative for mild cases, focusing on physical therapy to improve range of motion. Surgical intervention, such as the Woodward procedure for Sprengel's deformity, involves scapular osteotomy, excision of the omovertebral bone, and muscle transfer to achieve caudal descent, typically performed between ages 3 and 8 for optimal cosmetic and functional outcomes.^[46] For symptomatic os acromiale, fusion or excision is indicated, while scapular dysgenesis management addresses underlying syndromes supportively.^[49]

Other disorders

Scapular winging refers to the abnormal prominence of the medial border of the scapula due to dysfunction in the muscles that stabilize it against the thoracic wall. Medial winging most commonly arises from serratus anterior muscle palsy, typically resulting from injury to the long thoracic nerve, which innervates this muscle and can be affected by trauma, iatrogenic causes, or idiopathic neuritis.^[53] Trapezius weakness, often due to accessory nerve injury, leads to lateral winging characterized by inferior and lateral displacement of the scapula, impairing shoulder elevation and stability.^[54] This condition manifests as pain, weakness, and limited range of motion during overhead activities, with prevalence estimated at 1-10% among patients with brachial plexus injuries, where nerve involvement contributes to the imbalance.^[55] Osteochondromas are benign bone tumors that frequently develop at the borders or processes of the scapula and are the most common benign tumor affecting the scapula. These exophytic lesions arise from aberrant cartilage growth, though they account for a smaller fraction of all osteochondromas overall. Symptomatic cases, which may present with pain, mechanical symptoms, or restricted motion due to mass effect, are managed through surgical excision to alleviate symptoms and prevent complications such as bursal irritation or malignant transformation, which occurs in less than 2% of cases with complete resection.^[56]^[57] Arthritic conditions involving the scapula include glenohumeral osteoarthritis, which alters scapular alignment and kinematics, leading to compensatory protraction and upward rotation abnormalities that exacerbate pain and dysfunction. In advanced stages, this degenerative process erodes the glenoid fossa, shifting the humeral head and disrupting scapulothoracic rhythm. Additionally, scapulothoracic bursitis, often termed crepitus syndrome, involves inflammation of the bursae between the scapula and thoracic wall, resulting in audible or palpable grinding during scapular motion due to repetitive friction or soft tissue hypertrophy.^[58]^[59] Snapping scapula syndrome describes abnormal scapular motion producing audible or palpable snapping, grinding, or crepitus, stemming from bony irregularities such as exostoses or soft tissue anomalies like bursitis or muscle atrophy. This condition disrupts normal scapulothoracic gliding and is often linked to repetitive overhead activities or prior trauma. Initial management is conservative, incorporating physical therapy to strengthen periscapular muscles, anti-inflammatory medications, and activity modification, with surgical intervention—such as bursectomy or bony decompression—reserved for refractory cases to restore smooth articulation.^[60]

Comparative anatomy

In other mammals

In quadrupedal mammals such as dogs and horses, the scapula exhibits a more horizontal orientation compared to the vertical positioning in humans, facilitating greater mobility along the rib cage to support weight-bearing during locomotion.^[61] This lateral positioning allows the scapula to slide and rotate freely without bony articulation, contributing significantly to stride length in horses by enabling protraction and retraction of the forelimb.^[62] The scapular spine is elongated and prominent, extending from the dorsal border to enhance muscle attachments for trunk support, while the glenoid cavity shows reduced cranial inclination, orienting more caudally to distribute compressive forces from the forelimbs, which bear approximately 60% of body weight in static stance.^[61]^[63] Among primates, the scapula in apes and gibbons displays adaptations closer to humans but with modifications for suspensory behaviors like brachiation, featuring a broader overall structure to accommodate powerful shoulder rotators and flexors.^[64] In gibbons, the scapula is axially elongated with a cranially oriented glenoid cavity and increased breadth, promoting superior and lateral glenoid rotation during arm-swinging to maximize reach and stability in arboreal environments.^[64] This contrasts with the narrower human scapula, where the glenoid faces more laterally for overhead arm elevation in bipedal posture.^[64] Scapular variations across mammals reflect locomotor demands, with carnivores like felids possessing a prominent acromion process that extends ventrally for enhanced deltoid leverage during agile pursuits and climbing.^[65] In herbivores such as horses and tapirs, the scapula is generally larger and more robust, providing greater surface area for muscle origins to ensure stability under high body mass and sustained weight-bearing.^[66]^[61] Specialized mammals exhibit further adaptations; in bats, the scapula functions as a connecting rod in the shoulder girdle, undergoing anteroposterior shifts in the frontal plane during flight to synchronize with clavicular rotation and humerus excursion, though it is not markedly elongated relative to body size.^[67] In cetaceans like whales, the scapula remains a distinct yet robust element of the pectoral girdle, supporting the immobilized flipper as a hydrofoil for hydrodynamic stability without fusion to adjacent bones, but with strong muscular attachments like the triceps brachii caput longum originating from its caudal border.^[68]

In non-mammals

In non-mammalian vertebrates, the scapula exhibits significant variation reflecting diverse locomotor demands and evolutionary histories. In fish, the pectoral girdle primarily consists of dermal bones such as the cleithrum and supracleithrum, with the scapula represented as a rudimentary endochondral element or entirely absent in some primitive forms, serving mainly as a small cartilaginous support for the pectoral fin rays.^[69] This configuration underscores the girdle's origin from intramembranous ossification in the dermal armor of early osteichthyans, where the endochondral scapula evolves later to anchor fin musculature.^[70] In amphibians, the scapula remains small and cartilaginous in larvae, ossifying partially in adults as a thin, triangular plate fused proximally to the coracoid, but it lacks the robust structure seen in more derived tetrapods due to the girdle's reliance on persistent dermal components like the clavicle and interclavicle for stability during terrestrial transitions.^[71] Among reptiles, the scapula is typically small and triangular, particularly in lizards (Lacertilia), where it fuses with the coracoid in adulthood to form a compact scapulocoracoid unit.^[72] This fusion creates the supracoracoid fenestra, a perforation in the coracoid through which the tendon of the supracoracoideus muscle passes to facilitate forelimb elevation and retraction, essential for crawling and burrowing locomotion in forms like the horned lizard (Phrynosoma).^[73] In broader reptilian diversity, such as crocodilians, the scapula remains separate from the coracoid via a suture but shares the glenoid fossa, allowing greater mobility while maintaining structural integrity for semiaquatic propulsion.^[72] In birds, the scapula is highly reduced to a slender, flat plate-like structure, which articulates tightly with the elongated coracoid to form a rigid brace for the wing.^[74] This scapulocoracoid configuration, fused at the glenoid in many species, creates the triosseal canal—a key flight adaptation where the supracoracoideus muscle tendon passes to power the wing's upstroke, while the pectoralis drives the downstroke.^[74] For example, in eagles (Aquila spp.), the strut-like assembly withstands aerodynamic forces during soaring and diving, with the coracoid's brace-like elongation distributing stress across the keel of the sternum for efficient powered flight.^[75] Among dinosaurs, scapular morphology diverged markedly between major clades to support bipedal or quadrupedal gaits. In theropods, such as Tyrannosaurus rex, the scapula is elongated and blade-like, with a strap-shaped distal portion up to 82 cm long in large specimens, oriented nearly horizontally relative to the vertebral column to enhance forelimb reach and stability during predatory lunges.^[76] Fossil evidence from Allosaurus fragilis confirms this pattern, providing leverage for the reduced but muscular forelimbs in bipedal locomotion.^[77] In contrast, ornithischians exhibit broader, more fan-shaped scapulae for enhanced weight-bearing and stability, particularly in quadrupedal forms like ceratopsians and hadrosauroids, where the vertically inclined blade with a distal kink distributes forelimb load across a wider surface during grazing or charging.^[78] This robust design, evident in basal ornithopods like Thescelosaurus, contrasts with the slender theropod form by prioritizing postural support over agility.^[79]

Evolutionary aspects

The origins of the scapula trace back to the dermal pectoral girdle in early vertebrates, with the earliest evidence appearing in jawless fish approximately 430 million years ago (mya), where it served as an anchor to the dermal bones of the head.^[24] In sarcopterygian fish around 400 mya during the Devonian period, the structure began incorporating endoskeletal elements, supporting the robust paired fins that presaged the fin-to-limb transition.^[80] This evolutionary progression transformed the scapula into the primary endoskeletal component of the pectoral girdle in early tetrapods by approximately 373 mya, facilitating the shift from aquatic to terrestrial locomotion.^[81] Key transitions in scapular morphology occurred across major vertebrate clades. In amphibians, the scapula adopted a ventrally attached, free-floating configuration without direct bony linkage to the axial skeleton, relying instead on muscular suspension for stability during early terrestrial movement.^[24] Reptiles further refined this to a predominantly free-floating, dorsally positioned form, integrating dermal and endoskeletal components to support diverse locomotor modes such as sprawling gait.^[82] In mammals, the emergence of a prominent dorsal blade enhanced scapular mobility, complemented by ventral attachment through the clavicle to the sternum, allowing greater forelimb excursion.^[24] Birds represent a specialized adaptation, with the scapula fusing proximally to the sternal keel, optimizing muscle leverage for powered flight while maintaining dorsal positioning over the ribcage.^[83] Within primates, the scapula exhibited notable adaptations, including increased size and enhanced glenohumeral joint mobility to accommodate arboreal suspension and manipulative behaviors associated with tool use.^[24] Fossil evidence from Australopithecus afarensis, such as the juvenile scapulae from the Dikika site in Ethiopia dating to about 3.3 mya, reveals ape-like traits including a superiorly oriented glenoid fossa and elongated supraspinous fossa, indicative of retained climbing capabilities alongside emerging bipedalism.^[84] By approximately 4 mya in early hominins like Australopithecus anamensis, scapular proportions began approaching modern human-like configurations, with a laterally facing glenoid and broader blade supporting overhead arm positions.^[85] This gradual refinement reflects selective pressures for improved shoulder flexibility in open habitats. Functionally, the scapula transitioned from a primary weight-bearing role in quadrupeds—transmitting forelimb forces to the axial skeleton during terrestrial support—to a pendular mechanism in bipeds, enabling rhythmic arm swing and elevated reach for foraging and manipulation.^[86] In quadrupedal primates, the cranially oriented acromion and narrower blade prioritized stability and propulsion, whereas bipedal hominins evolved a more lateral acromion and expanded infraspinous fossa to facilitate rotator cuff efficiency and throwing motions.^[24] These shifts, occurring over the past 6–8 million years, profoundly influenced shoulder girdle evolution by emphasizing versatility over load distribution.^[85]

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