English draughts
English draughts, also known as American checkers or straight checkers, is a two-player abstract strategy board game played on an 8×8 checkered board using only the 32 dark squares, with each player starting with 12 pieces positioned on the three rows closest to them.[1] The objective is to capture all of the opponent's pieces or block them from making any legal moves, with gameplay involving diagonal forward movements for regular pieces (men) and mandatory captures by jumping over adjacent enemy pieces to an empty square beyond.[1] Pieces that reach the opponent's back row are promoted to kings, which can move and capture diagonally in any direction one square at a time; unlike in international draughts, there are no long "flying" moves for kings, and multiple captures must maximize the number taken without jumping the same piece twice.[1] Black typically moves first, and the game emphasizes tactical jumping sequences, with rules prohibiting passing over one's own pieces and requiring the maximum number of captures when multiple options exist.[1] English draughts evolved from earlier games like Alquerque in 12th-century France, initially known as Fierges or Ferses before becoming Jeu de Dames by the 15th century.[2] It gained popularity in Britain by the 17th century as "draughts," distinguishing it from the American term "checkers" brought by settlers.[3] Unlike the 10×10 board and 20 pieces of international draughts governed by the FMJD, English draughts uses an 8×8 setup with fewer pieces and simpler king mechanics, making it a foundational variant in the draughts family.[1] It is particularly popular in English-speaking countries and has organized competitive play through bodies like the English Draughts Association, with notable advancements including the 1952 development of the first computer program for the game by Arthur L. Samuel.[3]History
Origins and early development
English draughts, also known as checkers, traces its roots to the ancient board game of Alquerque, an Arabic strategy game known as El-Qirq or Quirkat, documented in texts like the Kitab al-Aghani around 950 AD and featuring a 5x5 board with 12 pieces per player moved diagonally and captured by jumping.[4] Alquerque's boards have been tentatively linked to carvings at the Egyptian temple of Kurna from circa 1400 BCE, though these may reflect later influences.[5] Introduced to Europe by the Moors during their conquest of Spain in the 8th century, Alquerque evolved under Islamic rule and spread northward, appearing in the 13th-century Spanish manuscript Libro de los Juegos (1283) commissioned by Alfonso X of Castile, which details its rules as "alquerque de doze" on an expanded board.[6] By the 12th to 13th centuries, the game merged with the 8x8 chessboard—adopted for its checkered pattern—transforming into early European draughts variants like "Fierges" or "Dames," with 12 pieces per side placed on dark squares and diagonal movement; by the 15th century, it was known as Jeu de Dames.[4] This adaptation distinguished it from Alquerque's smaller grid, emphasizing strategic positioning and captures. The game reached England by the 16th century, likely via trade and cultural exchanges with continental Europe, where it was played on the standard chessboard with the same 12 pieces per player.[5] The first significant printed reference influencing English rules appeared in 1535 with the French "Jeu Force," introducing compulsory capturing (huffing for non-compliance), a mechanic soon adopted in Britain.[4] Early development culminated in William Payne's Introduction to the Game of Draughts (1756), the first English-language book on the subject, which outlined positions, strategies, and 50 select games, solidifying the variant's core elements before later standardization.[7]Modern standardization
In the 19th century, the standardization of English draughts gained momentum through the establishment of organized clubs starting in the 1860s, which initially promoted the game locally before expanding to inter-club competitions across Britain.[8] These efforts were supported by a growing body of literature, including influential rule books and treatises such as those by early authors like William Sturges, William Drummond, Robert Kemp Hay, and Alexander Anderson, which helped codify strategies and variations for consistent play. By the late 1800s, the game's rules had largely stabilized, emphasizing an 8x8 board, diagonal movements, and the principle of mandatory captures, with huffing—the penalty of removing a piece for failing to capture—still in use but increasingly debated in competitive circles.[9] The early 20th century saw further institutionalization with the founding of the English Draughts Association (EDA) in 1898, dedicated to promoting and regulating the game across the British Isles and beyond.[10] Key milestones included the first international match between Great Britain and the United States in 1905, held in Boston, which featured team competitions and highlighted transatlantic rivalries.[11] This was followed by a second match in 1927 in New York City, further solidifying English draughts as a sport with global appeal and encouraging rule alignment between nations.[12] Post-World War II developments were shaped by the establishment of the American Checker Federation (ACF) in 1948, which organized tournaments and player ratings in the United States, influencing English draughts through shared conventions and cross-border events.[13] By the mid-20th century, official bodies like the EDA and ACF had adopted mandatory capturing as an absolute rule, abolishing huffing to streamline play and reduce disputes in tournaments.[14] These changes promoted fairness and accessibility, with minor adjustments—such as clarifications on multiple jumps—implemented for competitive consistency. English draughts spread widely within the British Commonwealth, where it retained the name "draughts," and in the United States as "checkers," becoming a staple parlor and tournament game embedded in cultural traditions. This popularity fostered variant tweaks in organized play, like enforced maximum captures in some U.S. events, while maintaining core rules to ensure interoperability across regions.[2]Equipment
The board
English draughts is played on an 8×8 checkered board comprising 64 alternating light and dark squares, with all movement and captures occurring solely on the 32 dark squares.[15] The board measures between 4.5 and 5 centimeters per square, yielding an overall size of approximately 36 to 40 centimeters square for official play. Tournament-standard boards are typically 16 inches square, ensuring squares are about 2 inches across for optimal piece handling.[15][16] In competitive settings, the board must be constructed from non-reflective, stable materials to prevent glare and maintain fairness under lighting conditions. Traditionally, light squares are white or off-white, while dark squares are green, though black is also common in non-tournament sets.[15] The board is oriented so that a dark square occupies the bottom-left corner from White's perspective, placing White's pieces on the first three rows of dark squares (positions 21–32) and Black's on the opposite side (positions 1–12).[15]The pieces
In English draughts, there are two types of pieces: men, which are the standard playing pieces, and kings, which are promoted men. Each player starts with 12 men and no kings, placed on the dark squares of the three rows closest to their side of the board.[17] The men are typically disc-shaped or cylindrical, designed to fit comfortably on the board's squares while allowing easy stacking for promotion.[18] Men are commonly made from wood, plastic, or metal, with official tournament pieces being cylindrical discs to minimize glare and ensure uniformity.[17] These pieces have a diameter ranging from 31 mm to 38 mm and a thickness of 5 mm to 9 mm, often flat or slightly raised for stability during play.[17] They are colored in contrasting shades—dark (traditionally black or red) for one player and light (white or off-white) for the other—to clearly differentiate sides against the board's alternating squares.[17] The player with the dark pieces makes the first move.[19] Kings are formed by crowning a man that reaches the opponent's king row, typically achieved by stacking a second man on top or using a distinct marker, taller piece, or crown-shaped topper to denote the promotion.[19] This distinction allows kings to be visually identifiable without altering the base design, maintaining the set's simplicity and portability.[19]Rules
Initial setup
The game of English draughts begins with the board oriented such that a dark square occupies the lower left corner and a light square the lower right corner from each player's perspective.[15] The 8×8 board features alternating light and dark squares, with play occurring exclusively on the 32 dark squares, which are conventionally colored green in tournament settings.[15] Each player deploys 12 men—cylindrical discs approximately 3–4 cm in diameter and 5–9 mm thick—on the dark squares of the three rows nearest to them.[15] The player assigned the red men positions theirs on squares 1 through 12 according to standard numbering, which labels the dark squares 1 to 32 starting from the red player's lower left, proceeding left to right and bottom to top in a pattern that accounts for the alternating colors.[15] The opponent, with white men, places theirs on squares 21–24, 25–28, and 29–32.[15] The player with the red men always initiates play, with colors assigned via random selection such as a coin toss; players alternate colors in subsequent games.[15] No captures are possible at the outset, as the pieces occupy non-adjacent positions, rendering the game ready for the opening move.[19]Movement of men
In English draughts, men— the uncrowned pieces—perform non-capturing moves by advancing diagonally forward one square to an adjacent empty dark square.[15] This movement is restricted to the forward direction only, with red men progressing toward the opponent's back row (row 8) and white men toward row 1, prohibiting any backward or sideways steps.[15] Such ordinary advances are permitted solely when no capturing opportunities exist elsewhere on the board for the player; capturing is mandatory if available, overriding simple movement.[15] The huffing rule, an older convention allowing the opponent to remove or "huff" a piece that failed to capture when required, is optional in casual play but has been eliminated from official tournament rules to streamline enforcement.[19] Upon reaching the king row—the farthest forward row (row 8 for red, row 1 for white)—a man is promoted to a king at the conclusion of that move, typically indicated by stacking another piece atop it or flipping it over, enhancing its mobility thereafter.[15] This promotion occurs immediately after the man lands on the designated square, without requiring an additional turn.[19]Kings
In English draughts, a man promotes to a king upon reaching the king row, which is the eighth row for red pieces advancing from rows 1–3 and the first row for white pieces advancing from rows 6–8. This promotion occurs at the end of the move, crowning the piece by placing another man of the same color atop it if available, or simply designating it as a king, thereby completing the player's turn. If promotion happens during a capturing sequence, the new king cannot continue capturing on that turn but may do so after the opponent has played.[15] Kings move one square diagonally to an adjacent empty square, either forward or backward, providing bidirectional flexibility that ordinary men lack due to their forward-only restriction. Unlike long-range kings in variants such as international draughts, English draughts kings advance or retreat only one square at a time, maintaining the same speed as men but gaining access to rearward positions.[15] Strategically, kings exert greater board control by navigating both directions, allowing them to blockade opponents, support forward pieces, or reposition effectively in midgame and endgame phases, though their short-range movement limits rapid traversal compared to faster variants. Accumulating kings markedly strengthens a player's position, as their versatility facilitates superior mobility and dominance over unpromoted men.[20] Once promoted, a king remains in that status permanently, with no provision for demotion or uncrowning during play.[15]Capturing
In English draughts, capturing occurs when a player's piece jumps over an adjacent opponent's piece to an empty square immediately beyond it on the diagonal, after which the jumped piece is removed from the board.[15] This mechanic applies to both men and kings, but with directional restrictions based on the piece type.[15] Men capture only in a forward diagonal direction, jumping over an opponent's man or king to the vacant square beyond, provided the landing square is empty.[15] During a single turn, a man may make multiple captures if additional opportunities arise from the landing position, allowing changes in direction but always maintaining a forward trajectory overall.[15] A man cannot capture backward or jump over its own pieces, nor can it jump over an empty square.[15] Kings, having greater mobility, can capture in any diagonal direction—forward or backward—jumping over an adjacent opponent's piece to the empty square immediately beyond, regardless of the distance in terms of board progression.[15] Like men, kings may perform multiple jumps in one turn, navigating in any direction to continue capturing as long as valid opportunities exist, but they are limited to jumping one square at a time per capture.[15] Kings also cannot jump over their own pieces or empty squares.[15] Capturing is mandatory whenever a jump is possible; a player must capture if an opportunity exists, and failure to do so results in penalties such as a warning or correction of the move.[15] Unlike some international variants, English draughts does not require selecting the sequence that maximizes the number of captures—any legal capturing path may be chosen, though all possible jumps in the chosen sequence must be completed.[15] In casual or historical play, an optional rule known as huffing allows the opponent to remove a piece that failed to make a mandatory capture, though this is not part of modern official rules and has been largely abolished.[19]End of the game
A player wins in English draughts by capturing all of the opponent's pieces or by maneuvering their pieces to block the opponent from making any legal move on their turn.[17] Conversely, a player loses if all their own pieces are captured or if none of their remaining pieces can legally move when it is their turn to play.[17] A player may also resign at any time by explicitly stating so or by stopping their clock in timed games, thereby conceding victory to the opponent if the position seems irredeemably lost.[17] Draws occur under specific circumstances to prevent indefinite play. These include mutual agreement by both players at any point in the game; the threefold repetition rule, where the exact same position (including whose turn it is) arises three times; or the 40-move rule, which declares a draw after 40 consecutive moves during which no uncrowned man has advanced toward the king row and no pieces have been captured.[17] Furthermore, a draw is mandated if insufficient material remains to achieve a win, such as when both players possess only kings that cannot force a capture or block the opponent.[17] If neither player can move but pieces remain on the board without captures possible, the game also ends in a draw.[17] In competitive tournaments governed by organizations like the World Checkers Draughts Federation, time controls regulate play to ensure timely conclusions. Standard controls allocate 30 moves per hour for the initial phase, followed by 15 moves per half-hour thereafter, often using analog or digital clocks; a player who exceeds their time limit without completing required moves loses the game.[17] These limits typically equate to 30-60 minutes per player for an entire game, depending on the event's format, with flag fall or clock expiration resulting in defeat.[17]Shortest possible game
In English draughts, the shortest possible game resulting in a win occurs through a series of blunders by black, leading to white capturing key pieces and forcing black into a position with no legal moves or material disadvantage that ends the game rapidly. One such line is found in the Kelso opening, where white can secure a win in 10 plies (5 full moves by white) if black errs on the fifth ply. The sequence is as follows:- Black 10-15
- White 23-19
- Black 6-10
- White 22-17
- Black 11-16 (blunder, exposing pieces to multiple captures)
- White 17-13 (initiating a capture sequence)
- Black 16-23
- White 13-6 (capturing black's piece on 9 or adjacent)
- Black 2-9
- White 27-2 (promotion to king, after which white's king dominates the center and captures remaining black pieces, leaving black unable to move or respond effectively).[21]
Variations
Rule differences
In English draughts, the huffing rule represents a significant historical deviation from modern standard play, particularly in casual or non-tournament settings. Under this rule, if a player overlooked a compulsory capture, the opponent could "huff" or remove the offending piece from the board without completing a full turn, enforcing the mandatory nature of jumps in a punitive manner. This practice originated in earlier forms of the game and was common in informal matches to prevent strategic avoidance of captures, but it was gradually abolished in official competitions between the mid-19th and mid-20th centuries, with the English Draughts Association fully eliminating it by the 1950s to streamline gameplay and reduce disputes.[23][24] The term "blow" is sometimes used interchangeably with "huff" in historical contexts to describe the same penalty of removing the piece.[25][26] Time limits also vary between formal and informal contexts, highlighting another rule difference. In competitive tournaments governed by the World Checkers Draughts Federation, time controls have evolved; as of the 2020s, common formats include fixed time such as 45 minutes per player with a 20-second increment per move, enforced via digital clocks to prevent stalling, though traditional move-based limits like 24 moves per hour may still apply in some events.[17][27] Exceeding these results in loss of the game. Conversely, casual home games often dispense with clocks entirely, permitting unlimited time per move to emphasize enjoyment over speed.Regional variants
English draughts, also known as American checkers in the United States, shares identical core rules with its North American counterpart, including an 8×8 board, 12 pieces per player, diagonal forward movement for men, short-range kings, and no backward captures for men.[19] However, some U.S. clubs and tournaments employ the three-move ballot system, where the first three moves are drawn from a predefined deck of 156 openings to prevent rote memorization of standard lines and promote varied play.[28] In contrast, international draughts, governed by the World Draughts Federation (FMJD), uses a larger 10×10 board with 20 pieces per side, allowing men to capture backward and kings to make long-range "flying" moves any number of unoccupied squares diagonally.[1] Additionally, international rules mandate the maximum capture rule (or majority rule), requiring players to select the sequence capturing the most opponent pieces when multiple options exist, unlike the choice-based approach in English draughts. Among other 8×8 variants, Brazilian draughts closely mirrors international rules but adapts to the smaller board with 12 pieces per player, incorporating backward captures for men, flying kings, and the maximum capture obligation, which English draughts omits.[1] Turkish draughts diverges further by using orthogonal (horizontal and vertical) movements and captures for both men and kings, with men advancing only forward or sideways one square and no diagonal play, features absent in English draughts.[29] Canadian checkers employs a 12×12 board with 30 pieces per side and follows international-style rules, including backward men captures and flying kings, representing a scaled-up adaptation rather than a direct regional tweak of English draughts.[1] Similarly, Malaysian draughts uses a 12×12 board with 30 pieces but introduces a minor variation by prohibiting unpromoted men from moving or capturing backward, aligning more closely with English draughts' forward-only restriction for men while expanding the board size.[1]Notation
Numbering system
In English draughts, the 32 dark squares of the 8×8 board are assigned unique numbers from 1 to 32 to facilitate precise notation and analysis. This official reference system, established by governing bodies, allows players and analysts to describe positions and record games without relying on visual aids. The playable squares are the dark ones, as pieces move only diagonally on them, and the numbering excludes the light squares entirely.[15] The board is oriented from White's perspective, with White positioned at the bottom and Black at the top; the lower-left corner must be a dark square, designated as number 1. Numbering proceeds row by row from the bottom upward, left to right across the dark squares in each row, skipping the light squares. Thus, row 1 (White's baseline) contains dark squares 1 (leftmost), 2, 3, and 4 (rightmost); row 2 has 5, 6, 7, and 8; row 3 has 9 through 12; row 4 has 13 through 16; row 5 has 17 through 20; row 6 has 21 through 24; row 7 has 25 through 28; and row 8 (Black's baseline) has 29 through 32. At the start, White's 12 pieces occupy squares 1–12, while Black's occupy 21–32. This fixed orientation ensures consistency across all notations, regardless of the player's side.[30][15] For visualization, the numbering appears as follows on the board (dark squares indicated with numbers; light squares left blank, rows numbered 1–8 from bottom to top, columns a–h left to right):| Row | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 8 | 29 | 30 | 31 | 32 | ||||
| 7 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | ||||
| 6 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | ||||
| 5 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | ||||
| 4 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | ||||
| 3 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | ||||
| 2 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | ||||
| 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 |
Recording moves
In English draughts, moves are typically recorded using a numerical notation system based on the standard board numbering from 1 to 32, where square 1 is located at the bottom-left from White's perspective (the single corner for White), and numbering proceeds left to right and bottom to top along the dark squares used for play.[15][30] A simple move is denoted by the starting square followed by a hyphen and the ending square, such as 11-15, which represents Black's common opening move from square 11 to square 15.[32][33] Captures are indicated similarly but with an "x" separator to distinguish the jumping action, for example, 11x18 for a piece on 11 jumping over an opponent's piece to land on 18; multiple captures in a single turn are recorded sequentially, such as 11x18 18x25.[33][34] This format, often referred to as Temple notation in historical contexts, allows for clear documentation of games on scoresheets, with Black's moves recorded first and each full turn (Black then White) typically numbered sequentially.[15] For computational and digital archiving purposes, the Portable Draughts Notation (PDN) serves as the standardized format, analogous to the Portable Game Notation (PGN) used in chess, and is widely adopted for English draughts under GameType identifier "21".[34] PDN files begin with header tags in square brackets, such as [Event "Example Game"], [Site "London"], [Date "2025.11.09"], [Round "1"], [Black "Player1"], [White "Player2"], [Result "1-0"], and [GameType "21,B,8,8,N1,0"] to specify the 8x8 board, Black moving first, and non-flying kings.[34] The movetext follows, with moves numbered starting from 1. for Black's turn (e.g., 1. 11-15 22-18), using hyphens for non-capturing moves and "x" for captures, and results viewed from Black's perspective (1-0 for Black win, 0-1 for White win, 1/2-1/2 for draw).[34][35] Variations or alternative lines are enclosed in parentheses, such as (15-19 24-15), enabling detailed analysis of alternative plays.[34] Alternative notations exist for specific contexts, including algebraic systems adapted from chess, where dark squares are labeled with letters a-h for files (from Black's left) and numbers 1-8 for ranks (1 being Black's side), resulting in moves like c3-d4 for a piece advancing from c3 to d4.[36] In such systems, Black's moves may be prefixed with an asterisk (*) in some publications to distinguish turns, though standard PDN continues unified numbering without prefixes.[35] These methods ensure precise reconstruction of positions and are essential for tournament scoresheets, where players must record moves legibly move-by-move, including clock times and draw offers if applicable.[15]Sample game
One illustrative example of English draughts play is the following game in the "Whilter" variation, demonstrating opening development, multiple captures, and a promotion leading to White's victory after 20 moves. The notation uses the standard Temple system, where Black moves first.-
11-15 21-17
Black's standard single-corner opening advances the center pawn. -
8-11 25-21
White counters by developing on the king side. -
4-8 29-25
Black builds a strong pawn structure. -
15-18 23-14
White exchanges to open lines. -
9-13 25-22
After move 5, Black has gained space in the center, but White's pieces are well-positioned for counterplay (key position: Black controls squares 9, 13, 15, 18, 4, 8; White holds 21, 22, 23, 25, 29). Black's development here pressures White's wing. -
11-15 22-18
White retreats to avoid isolation. -
8-11 26-23
Black continues aggressive pawn pushes. -
15-19 23-16
White initiates an exchange sequence. -
12-19 24-15
Black captures, gaining material but exposing the king row. -
10-19 32-28
After move 10, the board features multiple exchanges; Black leads in material but White threatens promotion on the edge (key position: Black pieces on 4, 8, 11, 19, 15; White on 16, 28, 32, 25, 21). This midpoint shows White's tempo gain through the prior trade. -
7-10 28-24
White recaptures, maintaining balance. -
3-7 24-20
Black supports the advance. -
10-14 20-16
White blocks central control. -
14-17 16-12
Black jumps to disrupt. -
17-21 27-23
White responds with a defensive move. -
21-25 23-19
Black advances toward promotion. -
25-29 19-15
White captures to force a trade. -
29-25 15-10
Black recaptures, but White gains an edge. -
6-15 31-26
White promotes a piece to a king on move 19, shifting momentum with long-range mobility. -
1-6 26-22
Black's final move cannot prevent the loss, as White's king dominates the endgame, securing the win. (Final position: White's promoted king on 22 controls key diagonals, trapping Black's remaining pieces.)