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Event tree analysis

Event tree analysis (ETA) is an inductive, graphical technique used in probabilistic risk assessment to systematically identify and evaluate all possible outcomes resulting from an initiating event, such as a system failure or external hazard, by modeling the success or failure of subsequent safety barriers and mitigating factors.^[1] This forward-looking method constructs a branching diagram where each node represents a critical event or safety function, with branches denoting binary outcomes (success or failure), ultimately leading to end states that quantify accident sequences, their probabilities, and associated consequences.^[2] ETA is particularly valuable in complex technological systems for revealing design weaknesses, optimizing protection strategies, and estimating overall system risk through probabilistic calculations along each pathway.^[1] Originating in the 1970s, ETA was developed as part of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission's Reactor Safety Study (WASH-1400), where it was integrated with fault tree analysis to assess potential accidents in nuclear power plants.^[3] Pioneered by researchers at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, including Howard Lambert, the technique addressed the need for a structured, visual approach to inductive risk modeling in high-stakes environments.^[3] Since its inception, ETA has evolved to incorporate quantitative tools like Monte Carlo simulations for handling uncertainties and has been standardized in guidelines for various regulatory frameworks.^[2] In practice, constructing an event tree begins with defining the scope, including the initiating event and key assumptions about system behavior, followed by qualitative analysis to map pathways and quantitative evaluation to assign probabilities (e.g., multiplying conditional probabilities along branches to derive frequency estimates).^[3] Branches must be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive to ensure comprehensive coverage, often using sub-trees for detailed failure modes like internal erosion in infrastructure.^[2] The method complements backward-looking tools like fault tree analysis by focusing on "what if" scenarios, enabling tradeoff studies and peer-reviewed decisions to enhance reliability.^[1] ETA finds broad applications across industries, including nuclear energy for accident sequence modeling, chemical engineering for process safety management, and civil engineering for dam and levee risk evaluation, where it integrates loading conditions, system responses, and consequence estimation to inform risk-informed decision-making.^[2] In healthcare and aviation, it supports workflow assessments and safeguards analysis, respectively, by identifying pathways to undesired end states like equipment malfunctions or security breaches.^[4]^[3] Overall, its structured visualization aids in prioritizing interventions, ensuring barriers are effective, and achieving compliance with safety standards like those from the International Atomic Energy Agency.^[1]

History and Development

Historical Origins

Event tree analysis emerged as a risk modeling technique influenced by post-World War II advancements in systems engineering and decision theory, particularly within the aerospace and chemical industries. In the aerospace sector, fault tree analysis—a related deductive method—was developed during the 1960s Minuteman missile program by Bell Laboratories for the U.S. Air Force to assess system reliability and failure paths, providing a foundation for broader probabilistic techniques.^[5] These approaches borrowed from decision analysis fields, influencing inductive risk assessment methods like ETA that trace outcomes from initiating events.^[6] In the chemical industry, probabilistic modeling techniques were applied in the late 1960s, such as General Electric's assessments for the N-Reactor at Hanford, which incorporated reliability analysis for safety in nuclear chemical processing.^[5] Concurrently, the U.S. nuclear industry, under the Atomic Energy Commission, began integrating these influences into reactor safety studies during the 1960s. Work at facilities like the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory (predecessor to the Idaho National Laboratory) contributed to early probabilistic evaluations of reactor accidents, emphasizing quantitative risk for experimental and production reactors.^[7]^[8] An early application of event tree analysis occurred in 1968 by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority for a whole-plant risk assessment to optimize the design of a 500 MW steam generating heavy water reactor.^[9] In the US, researchers at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, including Howard Lambert, advanced the technique in the early 1970s as part of efforts in probabilistic risk assessment.^[3] The technique was first formally applied in the nuclear domain through the 1975 Rasmussen Report (WASH-1400), commissioned by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission and led by Norman Rasmussen at MIT. This landmark probabilistic risk assessment of light-water reactors used event trees to systematically map accident sequences from initiating events, integrating them with fault tree analysis to quantify core melt probabilities and offsite consequences.^[10] The report's methodology marked event tree analysis as a standard tool for nuclear safety, building directly on the 1960s foundational work in related fields.^[5]

Key Milestones and Standards

During the 1980s, event tree analysis expanded beyond nuclear applications to chemical process safety, driven by major incidents such as Flixborough (1974) and Bhopal (1984), which highlighted the need for quantitative risk assessment (QRA) in handling hazardous materials. This period saw the integration of event trees with hazard identification methods like HAZOP studies to model accident sequences and consequences in chemical plants, complementing tools such as the Dow Fire and Explosion Index (developed in the 1960s and first formally published in 1976, with updates including in 1987 and 1994) for evaluating potential releases. The Dow Chemical Exposure Index, introduced in 1994, further supported this expansion by providing a simplified metric for acute toxicity risks, often used alongside event trees to prioritize scenarios in process safety management.^[11] In the 1990s, international bodies formalized the role of event tree analysis in risk management standards. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) incorporated event trees into probabilistic safety assessments (PSAs) through publications like IAEA-TECDOC-719 (1993), which addressed procedures for defining initiating events in PSAs for nuclear power plants, including light water reactors, emphasizing event trees for modeling post-initiator event sequences.^[12] Similarly, the groundwork for ISO 31010 laid in the late 1990s culminated in its 2009 publication as a standard for risk assessment techniques, explicitly including event tree analysis as a method to identify and evaluate possible outcomes from initiating events in various sectors, including energy and chemicals. The Chernobyl accident in 1986 accelerated regulatory adoption of event tree analysis in the nuclear sector, prompting mandates for comprehensive PSAs. In the United States, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) issued Generic Letter 88-20 in 1988, requiring utilities to perform Individual Plant Examinations (IPEs) using PRA techniques, including event trees, to identify vulnerabilities to severe accidents. Internationally, IAEA recommendations post-Chernobyl, such as INSAG-3 (1991), urged the use of event trees in risk evaluations for nuclear facilities. Following the Fukushima Daiichi accident in 2011, regulators worldwide strengthened these requirements; for instance, the NRC's 2012 orders (e.g., EA-12-049) mandated enhanced PSAs incorporating multi-unit and external hazard scenarios modeled via event trees, while IAEA's SSG-39 (2016) updated guidance to include such analyses for beyond-design-basis events in nuclear and broader energy sectors. In the 2020s, standards have evolved to incorporate advanced enhancements to event tree analysis for more dynamic risk assessments. Organizations like the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) updated IEC/ISO 31010 in 2019 to support advanced techniques, while the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) references such methods in its risk assessment standards like RA-S-2002 (reaffirmed in recent years) for improved uncertainty handling in energy systems. Recent research explores AI and Bayesian methods to enhance event tree analysis, enabling more efficient probabilistic modeling in various risk scenarios.

Fundamental Concepts

Core Principles

Event tree analysis (ETA) is a graphical and inductive technique employed in probabilistic risk assessment to systematically map all possible outcomes stemming from a specific initiating event, such as a system failure or external hazard, by considering the success or failure of subsequent safety barriers and mitigating systems.^[13] This method visualizes event sequences as a tree-like diagram, where branches represent binary decisions—typically success or failure—of protective functions, enabling the identification of accident scenarios and their relative likelihoods.^[1] Originating in nuclear safety assessments during the 1970s, ETA provides a structured framework for understanding how initial deviations can propagate through a system.^[14] At its core, ETA adopts an inductive reasoning approach, beginning with a defined initiating event and projecting forward to explore the full spectrum of potential consequences, rather than working backward from an end result.^[13] This forward-looking perspective allows analysts to enumerate all plausible paths, capturing dependencies among events and the dynamic responses of safety measures, thereby facilitating a comprehensive evaluation of system reliability and risk pathways.^[1] Unlike deductive methods, which dissect causes, ETA's inductive nature emphasizes outcome exploration, making it particularly suited for scenario development in complex, sequential processes.^[15] A key distinction of ETA from fault tree analysis lies in its focus on consequences rather than root causes; while fault tree analysis deductively traces backward from an undesired top event to its contributing failures, ETA inductively delineates the progression from an initiating event to diverse end states, such as safe recovery or severe incidents.^[13] The basic structure of an event tree comprises the initiating event as the starting node, intermediate events as branching points for safety functions (e.g., detection systems or containment barriers succeeding or failing), and terminal end states representing the ultimate results of each sequence, like no harm or core damage.^[1] This architecture ensures a logical, chronological depiction of event evolution, supporting qualitative and quantitative risk insights without delving into causal deconstructions.^[13]

Essential Components

Event tree analysis relies on a structured diagram composed of key elements that model the progression of potential accident scenarios from an initial perturbation to final outcomes. These components include the initiating event, branch points, paths, and end states, which together form a forward-looking, inductive framework to identify possible sequences of events in complex systems.^[16] The initiating event serves as the starting point of the event tree, representing an occurrence that disrupts normal system operation and potentially leads to adverse consequences if not mitigated. Examples include system failures such as loss of off-site power or external hazards like earthquakes, which trigger the need for safety functions to respond. This event is typically quantified by its frequency, derived from operational data or generic databases, and marks the origin from which all subsequent branches diverge.^[12]^[16]^[2] Branch points, often depicted as nodes in the diagram, are decision points that capture the success or failure of mitigating systems, operator actions, or other safety functions following the initiating event. These points can be binary (e.g., success or failure of emergency core cooling) or multi-state to reflect varying levels of performance, ensuring branches are mutually exclusive and exhaustive with probabilities summing to unity. They represent critical junctures where system responses are evaluated, such as the activation of high-pressure injection in a nuclear plant scenario.^[17]^[2]^[16] Paths consist of the sequences formed by connecting branches from the initiating event through successive branch points to an end state, each delineating a unique accident or success scenario. A path's likelihood is determined by the product of conditional probabilities along its branches, allowing analysts to trace how combinations of successes and failures unfold. For instance, in a loss-of-coolant accident, one path might involve successful reactor trip followed by failed containment, leading to a specific outcome.^[2]^[17]^[12] End states are the terminal outcomes of each path, characterizing the final consequences of the event sequence, such as no effect, marginal incident, or catastrophic failure. These states are often categorized by severity and impact, like safe shutdown versus core damage in nuclear applications, and provide the basis for risk quantification when combined with path frequencies. They encapsulate the spectrum of possible results, enabling prioritization of high-consequence scenarios.^[16]^[2]^[17]

Theoretical Framework

Underlying Theory

Event tree analysis (ETA) relies on Boolean logic to represent branching outcomes in a systematic, inductive manner, where each branch point corresponds to a binary decision—typically success or failure—of a safety function or system response following an initiating event. This logical framework enables the enumeration of combinatorial event sequences by constructing pathways that capture all possible combinations of these outcomes, effectively decomposing complex accident progressions into discrete, mutually exclusive paths. The use of Boolean operators, such as AND for sequential dependencies and OR for alternative failures, underpins the tree's structure, allowing for the qualitative mapping of scenarios before quantitative evaluation.^[18]^[1]^[14] Within systems theory, ETA integrates by modeling complex socio-technical systems through forward propagation from an initiating event, tracing how interactions among technical components, human actions, and organizational barriers influence system behavior over time. This approach treats the system as a dynamic network of safety functions, where branches represent critical junctures that propagate effects downstream, revealing emergent risks in interconnected environments such as nuclear facilities or process plants. By emphasizing chronological causality and barrier efficacy, ETA facilitates the exploration of socio-technical dependencies, aligning with broader systems engineering principles for holistic risk modeling.^[1]^[19] In probabilistic safety assessment (PSA), ETA plays a central role by estimating the likelihood of accident sequences through the chaining of conditional probabilities along each pathway, where the overall probability of an end state is the product of these interdependent event probabilities. This method supports the quantification of core damage frequency and release categories, enabling risk-informed decision-making in high-hazard domains by linking initiating events to final outcomes. The technique's forward logic ensures comprehensive scenario coverage, from negligible impacts to severe consequences, while integrating with complementary tools like fault trees for deeper failure analysis.^[19]^[14] ETA operates under key assumptions, including the independence of events unless explicitly modeled as dependent (e.g., via common cause failures), which simplifies probability calculations but requires validation in practice. Additionally, the analysis presumes completeness in identifying all relevant branches and outcomes, ensuring the tree exhaustively represents the system's possible responses without omitting plausible paths. These assumptions underpin the method's reliability for scenario exploration, though they necessitate careful scoping to maintain accuracy in real-world applications.^[18]^[1]^[14]

Mathematical Foundations

Event tree analysis relies on probabilistic modeling to quantify the likelihood of various outcome sequences following an initiating event. The frequency of a specific path through the event tree is determined by the product of the conditional probabilities associated with each branch along that path, multiplied by the initiating event frequency. Formally, for a path consisting of an initiating event with frequency \lambda_I and subsequent events E_1, E_2, \dots, E_n with success or failure branches, the path frequency is given by

f(\text{path}) = \lambda_I \times \prod_{i=1}^{n} P(E_i \mid I, E_1, \dots, E_{i-1}),

where P(E_i \mid I, E_1, \dots, E_{i-1}) represents the conditional probability of the i-th event given the initiating event I and the outcomes of the prior events. This multiplicative approach assumes that branch probabilities are conditional on the history of preceding events, enabling the representation of sequential dependencies within the system response.^[18] The expected frequency of reaching a particular end state is obtained by summing the frequencies of all paths that lead to that state. If multiple paths k converge on an end state S, the frequency f(S) is calculated as f(S) = \sum_{k} f(\text{path}_k). This aggregation provides a measure of how often the end state might occur, accounting for the combinatorial nature of the tree's branches.^[18] Overall risk in event tree analysis is quantified by integrating the frequencies of paths with the severity of consequences associated with each end state. The core risk metric, often expressed as expected consequence, follows the equation

\text{Risk} = \sum_{\text{paths}} \left[ f(\text{path}) \times C(\text{path}) \right],

where C(\text{path}) denotes the consequence magnitude (e.g., fatalities, economic loss) for the end state of that path.^[18] This formulation, rooted in probabilistic risk assessment, allows for the comparison of risks across different scenarios by weighting likelihood against impact.^[20] Dependencies between events, which violate independence assumptions, are addressed through conditional probabilities in the path calculations or by linking event tree branches to fault tree analyses for more complex subsystems. In cases of non-independent events, fault trees model the underlying failure modes, with their top-event probabilities serving as branch probabilities in the event tree, thus capturing correlations such as common-cause failures. This hybrid approach ensures that the joint probability space accurately reflects real-world interdependencies without overestimating or underestimating outcomes.^[20]

Methodology

Constructing Event Trees

Constructing an event tree begins with clearly defining the initiating event and the scope of the analysis to ensure a focused examination of potential accident progressions. The initiating event represents the first significant deviation from normal operations, such as a leak in a chemical process or a loss of offsite power in a nuclear facility, and must include specifics on its type, location, and timing.^[1] System boundaries are established to delineate the relevant components, dependencies, and responses, preventing the analysis from becoming overly broad.^[2] Next, critical safety functions or barriers are identified and listed as branch points, arranged in chronological or logical sequence to reflect the progression of the scenario. These branch points correspond to essential components like detection systems, alarms, or containment measures that could mitigate the initiating event.^[1]^[16] For instance, in a dam safety context, branch points might include spillway gate operation or erosion initiation checks, selected based on their potential to influence outcomes.^[2] Branches are then assigned to each branch point, typically as binary outcomes (success or failure) but potentially multi-state to capture nuanced possibilities, labeled qualitatively such as "functions" for success or "does not function" for failure.^[1] This step ensures the tree models realistic responses without implying quantitative measures.^[16] All possible paths are developed by combining branches to form complete sequences leading to distinct end states, which represent the final outcomes of each scenario, such as controlled recovery or uncontrolled release.^[2] Completeness is verified through expert review to confirm that the paths are mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive, covering all plausible event combinations.^[1]^[2] Event trees can be visualized using simple diagrammatic sketches on paper or whiteboard for initial development, or specialized software tools for more complex structures, facilitating clear representation of the branching logic.^[2]

Performing the Analysis

Once the event tree structure is established, the analysis proceeds by quantifying the branches to derive risk estimates. Probabilities are assigned to each branch, representing the likelihood of success or failure for the mitigating events or barriers. These probabilities are typically derived from historical data on similar systems or events, where available, to ensure empirical grounding. When data is sparse, especially for rare initiating events, expert elicitation is employed, involving structured interviews with domain specialists to estimate conditional probabilities based on their knowledge of system behavior. For instance, standards recommend using conditional probabilities that account for dependencies between events, such as the performance of a subsequent barrier given the failure of a prior one.^[1]^[2]^[21] With probabilities assigned, path frequencies are calculated by multiplying the initiating event frequency by the product of branch probabilities along each sequence leading to an end state. End states, which represent final outcomes such as controlled recovery or severe accident, are then aggregated by summing the frequencies of all paths terminating in the same state, providing an overall likelihood for each consequence. This quantification highlights the relative contributions of different sequences to total risk.^[1]^[22]^[2] To assess the robustness of these results, sensitivity analysis is conducted by systematically varying input probabilities within plausible ranges, often derived from uncertainty distributions like log-normal or triangular, to observe impacts on end-state frequencies. This identifies critical branches whose changes most influence overall risk, aiding prioritization of data refinement or mitigation efforts. Such analysis is particularly valuable when inputs rely heavily on expert judgment.^[22]^[2] Even without complete quantification, qualitative assessment of the event tree reveals insights by examining path structures to identify dominant sequences—those with high-frequency paths—and weak barriers, such as single points of failure that propagate to adverse end states. This approach emphasizes system vulnerabilities and supports preliminary risk reduction strategies through visual inspection of the tree.^[1]^[22]^[2]

Applications

In Risk Assessment

Event tree analysis serves as a foundational tool in probabilistic risk assessment (PRA), particularly when integrated with fault tree analysis to systematically identify and quantify potential accident sequences stemming from initiating events. In the nuclear industry, this combination models the progression of scenarios such as reactor trips or system failures, enabling the estimation of sequence frequencies by linking event tree branches to fault tree top events for detailed failure modeling. Similarly, in the chemical industry, event trees are employed alongside fault trees to assess process deviations leading to hazardous releases, such as vessel ruptures or overpressure events, facilitating a comprehensive evaluation of accident pathways in facilities handling toxic substances.^[23]^[24]^[25] A primary contribution of event tree analysis within PRA is the quantification of key risk metrics, including core damage frequency (CDF) in nuclear applications, which represents the annual probability of events leading to significant reactor core degradation. For instance, event trees model mitigation system responses to initiating events like loss of off-site power, aggregating sequence probabilities to derive CDF values typically on the order of 10^{-4} to 10^{-5} per reactor-year for modern plants. In chemical contexts, event trees help estimate probabilities of loss-of-containment accidents, such as those involving coolant loss in exothermic reactions, by branching outcomes based on safety system successes or failures to inform release likelihoods.^[23]^[26]^[27] Regulatory frameworks mandate or strongly recommend event tree analysis in PRA for high-hazard industries to ensure compliance and risk-informed decision-making. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) requires PRA methodologies, including event trees, in licensing and oversight processes for nuclear power plants, as outlined in Regulatory Guide 1.174, which uses CDF and other metrics to evaluate proposed changes to plant operations. For chemical facilities, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) incorporates event tree analysis in its guidelines for hazards analysis under the Risk Management Program (40 CFR Part 68), particularly for evaluating offsite consequences of accidental releases of regulated substances, to prioritize prevention measures and emergency planning.^[24]^[25] Event tree analysis integrates effectively with bow-tie analysis in risk assessment to bridge causal factors and consequential outcomes, where the bow-tie structure uses fault trees to depict threats and preventive barriers on one side and event trees to outline consequences and recovery measures on the other. This hybrid approach enhances visualization of risk pathways in PRA, allowing analysts to quantify barrier effectiveness across both pre- and post-event phases in nuclear and chemical scenarios.^[28]

In Safety Engineering and Other Fields

In safety engineering, event tree analysis (ETA) is widely applied to model potential accident sequences in high-risk operations such as aviation and the oil and gas sector. In aviation, ETA facilitates the assessment of runway incursion risks by diagramming sequences of events following an initiating incident, such as an unauthorized aircraft crossing an active runway, with branches representing detection and resolution by pilots or air traffic controllers. For instance, traditional ETA estimates the probability of conflict resolution at approximately 99.96% for pilots and 52% for controllers, yielding an overall accident risk of about 2.2 × 10^{-6} per incursion, though it may underestimate dynamic interactions among agents.^[29] In the oil and gas industry, ETA supports blowout prevention by tracing outcomes from initiating events like well kicks or overpressure zones, evaluating the success or failure of independent protection layers such as blowout preventers (BOPs). This approach quantifies pathways to consequences like well shut-in or uncontrolled releases, with failure frequencies for BOP components informing design and maintenance decisions, such as an estimated overpressure event with BOP failure at 1.05 × 10^{-5} per year.^[30]^[31] In healthcare, ETA aids workflow analysis to identify and mitigate medical errors by mapping branching paths in clinical processes, as outlined in the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) guidelines. It structures scenarios around key decision nodes—such as treatment administration or diagnostic steps—to reveal how deviations can lead to adverse outcomes, enabling proactive redesign of protocols to enhance patient safety. For example, AHRQ's Workflow Assessment for Health IT Toolkit recommends ETA to evaluate post-implementation risks in electronic health record systems, focusing on success/failure branches that could result in errors like medication misdosing.^[32] Emerging applications of ETA extend to cybersecurity and AI systems, where it models threat propagation and failure cascades in complex, evolving environments. In cybersecurity threat modeling, ETA constructs event sequences from initiating cyber incidents, such as unauthorized access to control systems, branching through detection, response, and mitigation layers to assess outcome probabilities; for instance, in critical infrastructure like hydrogen storage, it evaluates paths involving alarms, network failures, and attacks like man-in-the-middle, guiding controls such as intrusion detection systems.^[33] Post-2020 developments in AI safety leverage ETA within probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) frameworks to analyze failure paths, such as model mispredictions or cascading errors in autonomous systems, by identifying hazard sequences and quantifying risks through event trees combined with fault trees. This adaptation supports verification of AI-generated PRA artifacts, ensuring reliability in high-stakes deployments like human-AI collaboration.^[34]^[35] A notable retrospective application of ETA is the analysis of the 1988 Piper Alpha disaster, where an initial gas condensate pump failure escalated into explosions and the loss of 167 lives on the offshore platform. Post-mortem event tree modeling reconstructed the accident sequence, starting from the initiating pump trip and branching through safety system failures—like inadequate fire suppression and evacuation barriers—to highlight how procedural gaps and barrier breakdowns led to total platform loss, informing subsequent regulatory reforms in offshore safety.^[36]

Evaluation

Advantages

Event tree analysis (ETA) provides a systematic visualization of potential scenarios following an initiating event, represented through a branching diagram that illustrates sequences of successes and failures in safety barriers or system responses. This graphical structure facilitates clear communication among stakeholders, including engineers, managers, and regulators, by making complex event progressions intuitive and accessible without requiring deep technical expertise.^[37]^[2]^[1] A key strength of ETA lies in its comprehensive coverage of possible outcomes, as the method employs mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive branches that enumerate all conceivable pathways from the initiating event, including low-probability, high-consequence events that might otherwise be overlooked in less structured analyses. By systematically mapping these paths, ETA ensures that rare but severe scenarios, such as cascading failures in safety systems, are explicitly identified and assessed for their risk contributions. This thorough enumeration supports prioritized mitigation efforts in high-stakes environments like nuclear facilities or chemical plants.^[2]^[38]^[39] ETA's flexibility allows it to be adapted for either qualitative evaluations, where outcomes are described narratively to highlight key risks, or quantitative assessments, incorporating probabilities and consequences to compute overall system risk metrics. This adaptability makes it suitable across varying levels of data availability and analytical depth, from preliminary hazard screenings to detailed probabilistic risk assessments.^[39]^[1] In analyzing complex systems, ETA enhances efficiency by focusing on critical branching points rather than requiring exhaustive simulations of every possible interaction, thereby reducing computational demands while still capturing essential dependencies and multiple failure modes. This targeted approach streamlines the identification of ineffective countermeasures and high-impact vulnerabilities, enabling more resource-effective decision-making in intricate engineering contexts.^[37]^[2]

Limitations and Challenges

Event tree analysis (ETA) assumes that successive events in the tree are independent, which can lead to overlooking common-cause failures where multiple components or systems fail due to a shared root cause, such as environmental factors or design flaws.^[40] This limitation is particularly evident in complex systems like nuclear power plants, where dependencies between events may result in underestimated risks if not addressed.^[41] To mitigate this, ETA is often integrated with fault tree analysis (FTA), which explicitly models common-cause failures through shared basic events, enabling a more comprehensive probabilistic risk assessment (PRA).^[42] A major challenge in ETA is scalability, stemming from the combinatorial explosion of possible outcomes as the number of branching points increases. In large-scale systems with numerous initiating events and mitigation barriers, the resulting tree can generate an exponentially large number of sequences—potentially exceeding 10^7 states—making manual construction and visualization impractical without approximations or cut-off criteria for low-probability paths.^[41] This issue imposes significant computational demands, especially in quantitative analyses, and can lead to oversimplification if analysts limit the depth of branching to manage complexity.^[40] ETA's reliance on accurate probability data for each branch introduces uncertainty, particularly for rare or unprecedented events where historical data is scarce or unreliable. Probabilities are typically assigned via expert judgment or conditional estimates, but these can vary subjectively and fail to capture the full range of uncertainties in low-frequency scenarios, such as those in beyond-design-basis accidents.^[43] For instance, inefficient sampling methods like basic Monte Carlo may require excessive computations to achieve precise estimates for rare event frequencies below 10^{-6} per year, necessitating advanced variance reduction techniques.^[41] The static nature of traditional ETA further limits its applicability to systems involving dynamic interactions, time-dependent processes, or human factors, as it predetermines event sequences and probabilities without accounting for evolving conditions or feedback loops.^[1] This can inadequately represent operator responses, process variable changes, or non-binary outcomes in real-time scenarios, potentially underestimating risks in human-machine interfaces.^[41] Post-2010 developments in hybrid methods, such as dynamic event trees (DETs) combined with simulation tools, address these by incorporating time dependencies and stochastic modeling to generate sequences adaptively, though they increase analytical complexity.^[44]

Tools and Implementation

Software Tools

Several specialized software tools facilitate the creation, quantification, and analysis of event trees in probabilistic risk assessment (PRA). These tools range from commercial applications tailored for nuclear and industrial safety to open-source frameworks that promote accessibility and customization. Key features across these tools include graphical interfaces for building event tree diagrams, automated computation of sequence probabilities, integration with fault tree models for hybrid analyses, and support for uncertainty propagation via Monte Carlo simulations. Many also enable export of results to risk matrices for visualization and decision-making.^[45]^[46]^[47] Among commercial options, SAPHIRE (Systems Analysis Programs for Hands-on Integrated Reliability Evaluations) is a prominent tool developed by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and the Idaho National Laboratory (INL) specifically for nuclear PRA. It supports comprehensive event tree construction, linking to fault trees, and quantitative analysis including minimal cut set generation and importance measures. SAPHIRE automates probability calculations for accident sequences and integrates Monte Carlo methods for uncertainty analysis, making it suitable for large-scale Level 1 PRA models. The software is widely used in regulatory assessments and has evolved through versions like SAPHIRE 8, which includes enhanced editors for event trees and export capabilities to risk summary reports.^[45]^[48]^[49] Isograph's Reliability Workbench, particularly its FaultTree+ module, offers another commercial solution optimized for reliability engineering across industries like aerospace and oil & gas. The event tree module handles primary and secondary event trees with multiple branches and consequence categories, enabling linkage to fault trees for integrated analyses. It features automated probability propagation, cut set minimization, and Monte Carlo simulation for handling dependencies and uncertainties, while supporting export to risk matrices and importance rankings. This tool is noted for scaling to complex, large-scale problems without performance degradation.^[46]^[50]^[51] Open-source alternatives provide cost-effective options for researchers and practitioners. OpenPRA, an initiative from North Carolina State University and collaborators, is a web-based framework for PRA that unifies event tree, fault tree, and Markov chain modeling in a collaborative environment. It supports hybrid PRA models, automated quantification of event sequences, and integration of Monte Carlo sampling for dynamic scenarios, with results exportable to risk assessment matrices. OpenPRA emphasizes modularity and community-driven development, facilitating extensions for advanced analyses.^[52]^[47]^[53] For Python-based implementations, tools like the Risk Analysis and Virtual Control Environment (RAVEN), developed by INL, enable scripting of event tree analyses within dynamic PRA workflows. RAVEN integrates event tree generation with simulation models, supporting automated probability calculations via Python scripts and Monte Carlo methods for uncertainty quantification, often linked to export functions for risk matrices. Complementing this, PyFTA (Public Fault Tree Analyser) serves as a lightweight Python library primarily for fault tree analysis but adaptable for event tree linkages in reliability studies, focusing on efficient cut set computation. These Python tools lower barriers for custom integrations in research settings.^[54]^[55]^[56] As of 2025, market trends in event tree software reflect a shift toward dynamic and hybrid models, with tools like OpenPRA and RAVEN incorporating advanced quantification engines for time-dependent analyses, though widespread AI enhancements remain in early research stages for automating tree generation in complex systems.^[57]^[58]

Practical Considerations

Implementing event tree analysis (ETA) effectively requires a multidisciplinary team to ensure comprehensive coverage and reduce bias in assessments. Such teams typically include domain experts in engineering, operations, safety, and management to provide diverse perspectives on system behaviors and failure modes.^[21] Involving reviewers from these areas helps validate assumptions and identify overlooked pathways, enhancing the reliability of the analysis.^[21] Best practices emphasize iterative refinement throughout the process, where the event tree is periodically updated to incorporate system changes or new data, ensuring ongoing relevance.^[21] Thorough documentation of assumptions, data sources, and reasoning is essential to maintain transparency and facilitate peer review.^[21] Validation against historical data or expert judgment strengthens probability estimates and outcomes, with stakeholder reviews confirming the model's accuracy.^[21] ETA is most beneficial for complex systems with multiple safety layers or potential for novel risks, where its structured approach uncovers sequences that simpler methods might miss; however, for routine assessments of well-understood processes, checklists offer a more cost-effective alternative due to their efficiency in leveraging prior knowledge without extensive modeling.^[59]^[60] Practitioners can access training and certification through resources like the American Society for Quality (ASQ) Risk Management Specialized Credential, which covers risk assessment techniques including ETA fundamentals.^[61] Additionally, ISO 31010 provides guidance on risk assessment techniques such as ETA, with various certified training programs available to build proficiency.^[62] Software tools can support these efforts by automating tree construction, though selection should align with project scale.^[21]

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[PDF] Tutorial on Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRA)
– Event trees to model the sequence of events from an initiating event to an end state. – Fault trees to model failure of mitigating functions, including ...
[15]
[PDF] Defining initiating events for purposes of probabilistic safety ...
One of the areas where the level of completeness and the accuracy of the analysis could greatly influence a PSA model is the selection of the initiating events.
[16]
[PDF] SAPHIRE 8 Basics - - INL Research Library Digital Repository
Event tree and fault tree analysis are most commonly used in Level 1 PRA. 7. Page 14. SAPHIRE 8 Basics. Idaho National Laboratory.
[17]
[PDF] Event Tree Analysis
Event Tree Analysis is an inductive modeling technique that uses. Boolean logic to evaluate a sequence of events. • Frequently used concepts and techniques ...
[18]
[PDF] probabilistic safety assessment
These different PSA applications set new requirements on the scope of PSAs, the necessary level of detail, quality and coverage of data, and the ...
[19]
https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/te_737_web.pdf
[20]
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0951-8320(98)00010-6
[21]
[PDF] RISK ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW
An event tree starts with the initiating event and progresses through the scenario, a series of successes or failures of intermediate events (also called ...
[22]
Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRA) | Nuclear Regulatory ...
An analysis is performed for each top event in the event tree. This analysis is graphically represented with a fault tree. The frequency for each core damage ...
[23]
[PDF] U.S. Nuclear Industry Processes for Probabilistic Risk Assessment
• Congress establishes the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) as part of the Atomic Energy Act. (AEA) of 1946 for the responsibility of nuclear regulation ...
[24]
[PDF] Technical Guidance for Hazards Analysis
This current guide supplements NRT-1 by pro viding technical assistance to LEPCs to assess the lethal hazards related to potential airborne releases of ...
[25]
Backgrounder on Probabilistic Risk Assessment
Jan 19, 2024 · We reduce risk by making a bad event less likely or by reducing its consequences. The NRC and the nuclear industry use PRA as one way to ...Background · Risk Assessment Methods · Types of Risk Assessments
[26]
[PDF] Nuclear Safety and Reliability —Dan Meneley Page 1 of 10 Rev. 1 ...
The following event tree considers only those events that occur inside containment. It lists those systems or functions required to minimize fission product.Missing: mandates | Show results with:mandates
[27]
The bowtie method: A review - ScienceDirect.com
It uses boolean logic to construct a tree of possible failure paths leading to a single top event at the end (usually a critical failure or loss of control).Missing: theoretical | Show results with:theoretical
[28]
Contrasting Safety Assessments of a Runway Incursion Scenario by ...
Recently we compared safety analyses for a runway incursion scenario based on an event sequence analysis, as a key exponent of a traditional risk assessment ...
[29]
[PDF] Probabilistic Risk Assessment: Applications for the Oil & Gas Industry
May 1, 2017 · Event Tree Analysis. Graphical model represents the various event chains that can occur as a result of an initiating event. Used ...
[30]
Providing a comprehensive approach to oil well blowout risk ...
Dec 20, 2023 · Numerous distinct and unchanging methodologies have been devised for risk assessment, including event tree analysis (ETA), fault tree analysis ( ...
[31]
Risk Assessment - Digital Healthcare Research - AHRQ
An event tree analysis (ETA) examines the different paths that can be taken in a given scenario. Each step consists of a node and corresponding exit lines ...Missing: construct | Show results with:construct
[32]
[PDF] Large-Scale Hydrogen Storage Cyber Risk Assessment - OSTI
Finally, this report uses event tree analysis to assess cyber risk, providing a systematic approach to understanding the possible threat outcomes their ...
[33]
https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/2480226
[34]
[PDF] Impact of Generative AI (Large Language Models) on the PRA ...
In simple terms, a Fault Tree can be seen as a very specific representation of a system that aims to explain how a system function can fail given the failures ( ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
[35]
[PDF] A Post-Mortem Analysis of the Piper Alpha Accid..
Structure of an event tree for a risk analysis for an offshore platform; identification of the Piper Alpha main accident sequence. 58. Figure 5: Event ...
[36]
[PDF] Analysis of Safety Decision-Making Data Using Event Tree Analysis
The next four steps of the event tree construction involve the calculation ... Quantified risk assessment techniques – Part 2 – Event tree analysis – ETA.
[37]
[PDF] Uncertainty Importance Analysis for Aviation Event Trees
One application of these results is to prioritize nodes for quantification via expert elicitation exercises. Event trees are often used in the assessment of ...
[38]
[PDF] Introduction To Risk Assessment Concepts, Tools, and Techniques
Nov 3, 2015 · Event tree analysis is generally applicable for almost any type of risk assessment application, but used most effectively to model accidents.
[39]
[PDF] Limitations of traditional tools for beyond design basis external ...
The fault and event trees described above are used to examine the traditional approach for risk assessment in order to outline the underlying assumptions and ...
[40]
[PDF] dynamic event tree analysis method (detam) - CORE
Thus, the DETAM analysis indeed can identify sources of dependency between event tree top events that are not modeled in current analyses. 5.7 Summary. The ...
[41]
[PDF] Guidelines on Modeling Common-Cause Failures in Probabilistic ...
This report provides a set of guidelines to help probabilistic risk assessment. (PRA) analysts in modeling common cause failure (CCF) events in commercial.
[42]
[PDF] Event Tree Analysis - mcsprogram
Event Tree Analysis is a forward-looking, logical method that starts with an initiating event and explores subsequent event sequences through a series of ...
[43]
Quantification of Dynamic Event Trees - ScienceDirect.com
Dynamic event trees (DETs) provide the means to simulate physical system evolutions, the evolution of system states due to stochastic events, ...
[44]
[PDF] SAPHIRE Basics an Introduction to Probabilistic Risk Assessment ...
◊. Event trees relate systems/functions to a sequence progression. ... Uncertainty analysis calculates the variability of a fault tree top event probability.
[45]
Event Tree Analysis in Reliability Workbench - Isograph
The event tree module in Reliability Workbench handles both primary and secondary event trees, multiple branches and multiple consequence categories.
[46]
Event Tree | OpenPRA Docs
Event trees cannot be seen as a static description formalism like fault trees. Rather, they should be seen as a kind of graphical programming language.Missing: analysis source
[47]
SAPHIRE | FAQ
SAPHIRE's purpose is to create and analyze probabilistic risk assessments (PRA), primarily for nuclear power plants.
[48]
[PDF] OVERVIEW OF THE SAPHIRE PROBABILISTIC RISK ANALYSIS ...
Oct 7, 2016 · SAPHIRE 8 contains improved editors for creating event trees and fault trees, defining accident sequences and basic event failure data, solving ...
[49]
Introduction to Event Tree Analysis in Reliability Workbench - Isograph
... Event Tree Analysis in Reliability ... Sensitivity analysis allowing the automatic variation of event failure and repair data between specified limits.
[50]
Linking Fault Tree and Event Tree - Isograph
May 26, 2016 · FaultTree+ in Reliability Workbench includes integrated event tree analysis. The event tree model may be linked to the fault tree model by ...
[51]
OpenPRA: Open-Source Framework for Probabilistic Risk Assessment
Sep 10, 2020 · OpenPRA goals. Open source and free software supported by an international community. Unified analytical environment with hybrid PRA models.
[52]
Introducing OpenPRA: A Web-Based Framework for Collaborative ...
Feb 5, 2024 · The platform offers unique features including support for various risk models such as event trees, fault trees, Markov chains, Bayesian networks ...
[53]
[PDF] Automatic Generation of Event Trees and Fault Trees - OSTI.GOV
State-of-practice probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) approaches commonly used by the regulators and industry [1, 2] for such systems use the event tree (ET) ...Missing: underlying | Show results with:underlying
[54]
pfta - PyPI
Public Fault Tree Analyser (PFTA). Free and open-source fault tree analysis. For rudimentary documentation, see DOCS.md . For an overview of the mathematics ...
[55]
rakhimov/scram: Probabilistic Risk Analysis Tool (fault tree ... - GitHub
This project aims to build a command line tool for probabilistic risk analysis. SCRAM is capable of performing event tree analysis, static fault tree analysis, ...
[56]
Full article: A Systematic Diagnostics and Enhancement Framework ...
Aug 29, 2025 · While this methodology is applied to SCRAM-CPP, which is an OpenPRA open-source quantification engine, as a case study, it is designed for broad ...
[57]
A combined strategy for dynamic probabilistic risk assessment of ...
This paper introduces and demonstrates an integrated framework for the dynamic modeling of fission battery designs.
[58]
Process Hazard Analysis - Primatech
Typically, ETA is used to analyze complex processes that have several layers of safety systems or emergency procedures to respond to starting events. ETA is not ...
[59]
[PDF] Major risk categories and associated critical risk event trees to quantify
Feb 1, 2011 · Checklists can be very efficient in terms of the time taken to complete them. They generally use knowledge gained from the analysis of other ...
[60]
https://www.exeter.ac.uk/v8media/universityofexeter/emps/research/cws/downloads/Deliverable_2_3_1_Version_2_1.pdf
[61]
[PDF] ISO 31010 Risk assessment techniques 1
analysis. A combination of fault and event tree analysis that allows inclusion of time delays. Both causes and consequences of an initiating event are ...