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Evolutionary radiation

Evolutionary radiation refers to a rapid increase in the taxonomic diversity of a biological clade, characterized by elevated rates of speciation that exceed extinction rates, resulting in a proliferation of species over a relatively short evolutionary timescale.^[1] This process shapes much of the history of life on Earth, contributing to major bursts of biodiversity in the fossil record and modern ecosystems.^[2] Evolutionary radiations can be triggered by a combination of biotic and abiotic factors, including key evolutionary innovations that enable exploitation of new resources, release from competitive pressures, environmental changes such as climate shifts or mass extinctions, and geographic isolation through barriers like islands or tectonic movements.^[3] Various subtypes exist, such as adaptive radiation, where ecological opportunities drive sympatric speciation and morphological divergence to fill vacant niches; geographic radiation, involving allopatric speciation due to physical separation; climatic radiation, linked to environmental fluctuations that promote isolation; and others like exaptive or pseudoradiation, where pre-existing traits or reduced extinctions play key roles.^[3] These mechanisms often interact, amplifying diversification rates within a lineage relative to its relatives.^[2] Notable examples illustrate the phenomenon across taxa and geological eras, including the diversification of placental mammals following the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event approximately 66 million years ago, which vacated terrestrial niches and led to the evolution of diverse forms from bats to whales.^[4] In more recent times, the adaptive radiation of Darwin's finches on the Galápagos Islands demonstrates how a single ancestral species can speciate into over a dozen forms adapted to varied food sources via beak morphology changes.^[2] Similarly, cichlid fishes in East African rift lakes have radiated into more than 600 species, specializing in diverse feeding strategies from algae scraping to egg mimicry, driven by ecological opportunities in isolated waters.^[4] Ancient cases, such as the Cambrian explosion of trilobites around 540 million years ago, highlight how radiations can fundamentally alter ecosystem structures.^[2]

Definition and Fundamentals

Core Definition

Evolutionary radiation is defined as the rapid proliferation of taxa from a single ancestral lineage, resulting in a marked increase in species diversity within a clade, often following a period of relative stasis or low diversity. This process typically involves accelerated rates of speciation that outpace extinction, leading to greater species richness compared to closely related lineages. Unlike gradual evolutionary change, which occurs at a steady pace over long periods, evolutionary radiation is characterized by bursts of diversification, where descendant species rapidly occupy diverse ecological roles or geographic spaces. Key features of evolutionary radiation include elevated speciation rates, increased morphological disparity among descendants, and ecological divergence, which collectively distinguish it from evolutionary stasis or slow, incremental adaptation. Speciation rates during radiation exceed background levels, enabling cladogenesis—the branching of lineages into new species—while morphological changes may or may not align closely with ecological shifts, depending on the drivers involved. This contrasts with non-radiative evolution, where diversification remains modest and niches are filled incrementally without pronounced bursts. Adaptive radiation represents a common subtype, where diversification is tightly linked to ecological adaptation and niche exploitation. Understanding evolutionary radiation requires foundational concepts such as speciation, the process by which populations evolve reproductive isolation to form distinct species, as articulated in Ernst Mayr's biological species concept, which defines species as groups of interbreeding populations reproductively isolated from others. Cladogenesis underpins the branching patterns observed in radiations, while G. G. Simpson's framework of evolutionary tempo and mode highlights how rates of change can accelerate during adaptive bursts on conceptual adaptive landscapes, where populations shift toward new fitness peaks. These elements provide the basis for recognizing radiation as a departure from uniform evolutionary tempos. Mathematically, evolutionary radiation can be quantified using lineage-through-time (LTT) plots derived from phylogenetic trees, which visualize the accumulation of lineages over geological time and reveal significant upturns indicative of diversification bursts. Radiation is identified when the net diversification rate, defined as r = \lambda - \mu > 0 (where \lambda is the speciation rate and \mu is the extinction rate), shows a substantial positive shift relative to ancestral or background rates. This approach allows detection of radiations by comparing observed lineage accumulation against null models of constant diversification.

Historical Development of the Concept

The concept of evolutionary radiation originated in the mid-19th century, building on Charles Darwin's ideas in On the Origin of Species (1859), where he described how natural selection drives the divergence of descendants from a common ancestor into varied forms adapted to different ecological roles, thereby increasing the chances of survival and perpetuation of the lineage.^[5] This foundational mechanism emphasized branching evolution as a response to environmental pressures, setting the stage for later formalizations of rapid diversification events. The specific term "adaptive radiation," often used interchangeably with evolutionary radiation in early literature, was coined by paleontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn in 1902 to characterize the rapid proliferation of descendant lineages into unoccupied adaptive zones, drawing from patterns observed in mammalian fossil records.^[6] In the 1930s, Alfred Sherwood Romer advanced these ideas within vertebrate paleontology, portraying major radiations—such as those of early tetrapods and amniotes—as pivotal bursts in evolutionary history driven by key anatomical transitions, as detailed in his influential textbook Vertebrate Paleontology (first edition, 1933). George Gaylord Simpson provided a rigorous theoretical framework in the mid-20th century, notably in Tempo and Mode in Evolution (1944), where he introduced adaptive landscapes to model how populations shift across fitness peaks, enabling rapid morphological and ecological divergence during radiations. He further elaborated in The Major Features of Evolution (1953), defining adaptive radiation as the contemporaneous evolution of multiple descendant species from a single ancestor into diverse niches, distinguishing it from gradual phyletic change and emphasizing its role in macroevolutionary patterns. E. O. Wilson, collaborating with Robert H. MacArthur, extended the concept to biogeographic contexts in The Theory of Island Biogeography (1967), modeling how immigration, extinction, and speciation rates on isolated habitats promote radiation events, particularly when ancestral lineages encounter novel ecological opportunities. This work highlighted the interplay between population dynamics and evolutionary divergence, influencing studies of insular and peripheral radiations. Post-1980s developments marked a shift toward phylogenetic and molecular approaches, with cladistic methods—pioneered by Willi Hennig but widely adopted in the 1980s—allowing reconstruction of radiation topologies through shared derived characters, revealing non-random branching patterns. The incorporation of molecular clocks from the 1980s onward, building on Zuckerkandl and Pauling's 1965 framework, enabled temporal calibration of these phylogenies to identify synchronous diversification bursts. In the 1990s, cladistic analyses of fossil and extant clades demonstrated "burst" radiations as episodes of elevated speciation rates early in a lineage's history, often quantified via lineage-through-time plots and disparity metrics. By the 2000s, integration with evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo) illuminated the genetic underpinnings of radiations, showing how regulatory changes in conserved developmental genes, such as Hox clusters, facilitate morphological innovations that unlock new adaptive zones. Since the 2010s, advances in population genomics and phylogenomics have further refined the concept, enabling detailed reconstruction of genetic mechanisms underlying radiations through whole-genome sequencing and comparative analyses. For instance, studies as of 2024 have used population genomic data to explore gene flow, selection pressures, and hybridization in adaptive radiations across diverse taxa.^[7]

Mechanisms Driving Radiation

Ecological Opportunities

Ecological opportunities arise when environmental changes create vacant ecological niches, allowing lineages to diversify rapidly by exploiting previously inaccessible resources or habitats. These opportunities often stem from disruptions that reduce interspecific competition or open new adaptive spaces, promoting speciation and phenotypic divergence. Such conditions are fundamental to initiating evolutionary radiations, as they shift selective pressures toward niche exploitation rather than mere survival.^[8] Major triggers include mass extinctions, which eliminate dominant taxa and release resources for survivors, and geographic isolation, which fragments populations and creates isolated ecosystems. The end-Permian mass extinction, approximately 252 million years ago, exemplifies this by wiping out 80–96% of marine species and paving the way for the post-Permian radiation, where modern evolutionary faunas diversified to fill emptied ecospace.^[9]^[10] Similarly, the formation of island archipelagos, such as the Hawaiian Islands, provides geographic isolation that limits colonization and fosters allopatric speciation, enabling rapid divergence in novel environments with low competition.^[11] Niche availability is central to these processes, conceptualized through adaptive zones—discrete environmental partitions that become accessible when unoccupied, allowing lineages to evolve specialized traits for exploitation. George Gaylord Simpson introduced this idea in 1944, emphasizing that entry into an empty adaptive zone, often post-disruption, drives major evolutionary shifts by permitting adaptation to new ecological roles without immediate competitive constraints. Complementing this, the key innovation hypothesis posits that certain traits enable access to these zones; for instance, a novel morphological feature can unlock resource use, accelerating diversification by reducing barriers to niche entry. Morphological innovations, such as specialized feeding structures, can thus briefly enable such exploitation before further ecological sorting occurs.^[12]^[13] Ecological sorting further shapes radiations through mechanisms like competitive release, where reduced competitor density allows populations to expand their niches and diverge phenotypically, and character displacement, where sympatric species evolve greater trait differences to minimize resource overlap. These processes promote coexistence by partitioning niches, often intensified by abiotic factors such as climate shifts that alter habitat availability or resource distribution, thereby creating transient windows for divergence. For example, cooling climates can fragment habitats, enhancing isolation and selection for specialized adaptations.^[14]^[15]^[16] Quantitative models, such as adaptations of the Lotka-Volterra equations to multispecies systems, illustrate how niche partitioning facilitates coexistence during radiation phases. These models extend the classic predator-prey framework to competitive interactions, incorporating trait-based competition where species with differentiated resource use achieve stable equilibria, reflecting the eco-evolutionary dynamics of diversification in open niches. Simulations show that initial low competition allows branching into multiple stable states, mirroring observed radiations where early colonists partition resources to sustain high diversity.^[17]^[18]

Morphological and Genetic Innovations

Morphological innovations, such as the evolution of jaws in early vertebrates, have served as pivotal traits that unlocked new ecological niches and propelled diversification by enabling predatory feeding strategies and resource exploitation previously inaccessible to jawless ancestors.^[19] Similarly, the development of powered flight in insects represents a key innovation that facilitated rapid colonization of aerial and terrestrial habitats, contributing to their extraordinary species richness through enhanced dispersal and evasion capabilities.^[20] These traits often arise from modifications in developmental pathways, allowing lineages to radiate by occupying distinct adaptive zones without direct competition. At the genetic level, duplications of Hox gene clusters have underpinned morphological variation by providing raw material for the evolution of novel body plans, as seen in vertebrate lineages where post-duplication adaptive shifts in homeodomain proteins enabled diversification of axial structures.^[21] Regulatory evolution, particularly through changes in cis-regulatory elements, promotes modular phenotypic adjustments that fine-tune gene expression without altering protein-coding sequences, thereby facilitating rapid diversification during radiations.^[22] In plants, whole-genome duplications have played a crucial role, as evidenced by the angiosperm radiation where such events preceded pulses of increased diversification rates, likely by generating gene redundancy that supported the evolution of floral and reproductive innovations.^[23] Morphological disparity during radiations is quantified through metrics like morphospace occupation, which visualizes the range of phenotypic variation in multidimensional trait space, and disparity indices such as the sum of variances derived from principal component analysis of landmark or linear measurements.^[24] These approaches reveal that clades often achieve peak disparity early in their evolutionary history, reflecting the rapid exploration of available phenotypic space before subsequent refinements.^[25] From an evo-devo perspective, small genetic perturbations—such as mutations in regulatory regions—can engender disproportionately large phenotypic shifts by altering developmental timing, spatial patterning, or gene interactions, thereby accelerating the generation of novel forms that drive radiation.^[22] This integration highlights how developmental constraints and potentials shape the trajectory of diversification, with innovations manifesting effectively amid ecological opportunities.^[24]

Patterns and Types

Adaptive Radiation

Adaptive radiation represents a primary form of evolutionary radiation in which descendants from a common ancestor diversify to occupy distinct ecological niches, often resulting in ecological speciation and rapid lineage multiplication. This process is characterized by the evolution of ecological and phenotypic diversity within a rapidly diversifying clade, driven by natural selection in response to available resources and environmental variation.^[26] A classic model illustrating this phenomenon is provided by David Lack's analysis of Darwin's finches, where beak morphology diversified in correlation with seed size and food availability on the Galápagos Islands.^[27] Key hallmarks of adaptive radiation include the emergence of high phenotypic diversity that directly correlates with diverse ecological roles, enabling efficient niche exploitation. For instance, in certain fish lineages, trophic specialization—such as adaptations for feeding on algae, plankton, or other prey—underpins this divergence, with morphological traits like jaw structure aligning closely with dietary habits.^[28] These patterns reflect adaptive responses to ecological opportunities, where phenotypic variation enhances survival and reproductive success in specific habitats, distinguishing adaptive radiation from other diversification modes that lack strong ecological ties.^[26] The underlying processes in adaptive radiation often begin with anagenesis, involving gradual trait modification within a lineage as it adapts to new conditions, transitioning to cladogenesis as populations split and speciate into discrete branches. Habitat heterogeneity plays a crucial role by providing varied selective pressures across space, promoting divergent adaptations, while sexual selection can accelerate divergence through mate choice based on ecologically relevant traits, further reinforcing reproductive isolation.^[26]^[29] The theoretical framework for identifying adaptive radiations, as outlined by Dolph Schluter, emphasizes four diagnostic criteria: monophyletic common ancestry of the diversifying group; a correlation between phenotypic traits and environmental factors; the adaptive utility of those traits in enhancing fitness within specific niches; and, typically, a pace of speciation that is unusually rapid relative to background rates.^[30] These criteria provide a rigorous basis for distinguishing true adaptive radiations from mere bursts of speciation, ensuring that observed diversity is ecologically driven rather than neutral.^[26]

Non-Adaptive Radiation

Non-adaptive radiation describes the rapid proliferation of species within a lineage driven primarily by non-ecological forces, such as sexual selection or genetic drift, rather than adaptation to new ecological niches. This process results in diversification from a single ancestor with minimal or negligible ecological differentiation, often leading to allopatric or parapatric taxa that retain similar resource use but diverge in reproductive traits. The distinction between adaptive and non-adaptive radiation is sometimes debated, as it involves nuanced interpretations of the roles of ecological versus stochastic processes in diversification.^[31]^[32] Unlike adaptive radiation, the dominant pattern involving ecological divergence, non-adaptive radiation emphasizes neutral or sexually mediated mechanisms that promote speciation without functional shifts in morphology related to survival or foraging.^[33] Key drivers include runaway sexual selection, which fosters proliferation through divergence in mating signals and structures, as exemplified in damselflies where wing coloration and genital morphology evolve rapidly to enhance premating isolation without altering habitat preferences.^[33] Genetic drift in small, isolated populations can also accelerate speciation by eroding species recognition barriers, particularly in fragmented environments like islands or temporary habitats.^[33] Additionally, allopatric speciation via vicariance—geographic isolation without subsequent adaptation—drives diversification, as observed in annual killifishes of the genus Nothobranchius, where over 70 species arose through spatial fragmentation and environmental fluctuations, retaining ancestral ecological traits like body size optima under stabilizing selection.^[34] Characteristics of non-adaptive radiation include morphological stasis in ecologically relevant traits, such as feeding or locomotion structures, coupled with pronounced divergence in non-functional or mating-related features, leading to lower overall disparity in functional morphology.^[31] In damselfly genera like Calopteryx and Enallagma, species exhibit overlapping habitats and diets but distinct behavioral and color patterns that reinforce reproductive isolation, highlighting how sexual traits can generate diversity independently of ecological pressures. Recent studies as of 2025, such as those on insect lineages, further support this by showing phenotypic diversification driven by geographic isolation and sexual selection without significant ecological shifts.^[33]^[35] Phylogenetic studies provide robust evidence for non-adaptive radiation, revealing constant speciation rates across varied environments in arthropod groups, without bursts tied to ecological opportunities. For instance, analyses of damselflies (Calopteryx, Enallagma, Ischnura) show diversification linked to sexual selection on reproductive traits, with homogeneous rates (e.g., no significant γ statistic deviation) and minimal niche shifts.^[33] Similarly, in Aegean land snails (Mastus and Albinaria), phylogenetic reconstructions indicate equal speciation across islands, driven by genetic drift and allopatry rather than adaptation, resulting in endemic clusters with conserved shell functions but isolated distributions.^[31]

Evidence in the Fossil Record

Major Historical Events

The Cambrian Explosion, occurring between approximately 541 and 485 million years ago, represents one of the most profound evolutionary radiations in Earth's history, characterized by the abrupt appearance of nearly all major metazoan phyla in the fossil record. This event witnessed the emergence of diverse animal body plans, including bilaterians with complex structures like segmentation and appendages, over a span of about 20–25 million years. Key drivers included a significant rise in atmospheric oxygen levels during the late Proterozoic, which enabled the metabolic demands of larger, more active organisms, and the advent of macrophagous predation, which initiated ecological arms races fostering innovations in defense, mobility, and mineralized skeletons.^[36]^[37] The Ordovician Radiation, spanning roughly 485 to 443 million years ago, followed environmental stabilization after the intense glaciations of the Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth episodes, leading to a marked diversification of marine invertebrate lineages. This period, often termed the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event, saw exponential increases in the abundance and disparity of skeletal groups such as brachiopods, cephalopods, and echinoderms, with global marine diversity rising by up to an order of magnitude. Bottom-up ecological processes, including nutrient enrichment from continental weathering and the expansion of habitable seafloor environments, provided opportunities for niche partitioning and trophic complexity among these invertebrates.^[38] In the Mesozoic era, two notable radiations reshaped terrestrial and marine ecosystems. The angiosperm explosion during the Cretaceous period (ca. 145–66 million years ago) involved the rapid proliferation of flowering plants from a few lineages to over 10,000 species by the period's end, driven by coevolutionary innovations in pollination and seed dispersal that exploited new ecological opportunities in disturbed habitats. Concurrently, the radiation of placental mammals accelerated after the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) extinction at 66 million years ago, with crown-group placentals and major orders emerging in the ensuing Paleocene and Eocene; this burst filled vacant ecological roles previously occupied by non-avian dinosaurs, evidenced by a diversification rate increase of up to 5–10-fold in the first 10 million years post-extinction.^[39]^[40]^[41]^[42] Cenozoic radiations among ungulates, particularly following the Eocene epoch (after ca. 34 million years ago), highlighted adaptive responses to global cooling and habitat shifts, with genus-level turnover rates peaking at 20–30% per million years during the Oligocene-Miocene transition. This diversification encompassed the evolution of diverse artiodactyl and perissodactyl lineages, adapting to emerging grasslands through innovations in dentition and locomotion, ultimately leading to the dominance of modern herbivore guilds.^[43]^[44]

Detection Methods

Detecting evolutionary radiations in the fossil record requires careful consideration of sampling biases and incomplete preservation, which can obscure true patterns of diversification. Stratigraphic approaches standardize fossil sampling to estimate origination rates reliably, using techniques like rarefaction or the shareholder quorum subsampling to control for variations in collection effort and outcrop area. These methods allow paleontologists to compute boundary-crosser metrics, such as the proportion of new taxa appearing at stage boundaries, providing a proxy for radiation pulses independent of absolute diversity counts.^[45]^[46] A key challenge in these analyses is the Signor-Lipps effect, where the last occurrences of taxa appear staggered due to sporadic fossil preservation, potentially masking abrupt radiations as gradual increases. Mitigation strategies include constructing confidence intervals around first and last appearances using stratigraphic range data and Jaccard similarity indices to assess completeness, or applying Bayesian models that incorporate preservation probability as a parameter. Turnover metrics, particularly per-capita origination rates (calculated as the number of new lineages divided by the standing diversity per million years), then quantify the intensity of radiations by comparing rates against background levels; elevated rates exceeding 0.1 per million years often signal significant events.^[47]^[48]^[49] Phylogenetic methods leverage time-calibrated trees incorporating fossil tip-dating to infer diversification dynamics, fitting birth-death models that parameterize speciation (λ) and extinction (μ) rates over time. The fossilized birth-death (FBD) process extends traditional models by jointly estimating diversification rates and fossil sampling rates (ρ), accommodating incomplete records through likelihood-based inference; for instance, maximum clade credibility trees are generated to test for rate shifts using Akaike information criteria. A widely used test for burst-like speciation is the Pybus-Harvey gamma (γ) statistic, which compares the distribution of internode distances in an ultrametric tree to a null Yule model—negative γ values (e.g., γ < -1.96 for significance) indicate an early diversification burst followed by deceleration.^[50] Morphometric analysis detects radiations by tracking changes in morphological disparity, the multivariate spread of form in phenotypic space, often using landmark-based geometric methods on fossil specimens. Disparity through time (DTT) plots partition total clade disparity among contemporaneous subclades at successive nodes, revealing patterns like rapid early expansion where relative disparity exceeds 0.5 in initial intervals, signaling adaptive exploration of niches. Canonical variate analysis (CVA) further discriminates evolutionary bursts by maximizing between-group variance in shape coordinates (e.g., Procrustes-aligned landmarks) relative to within-group variation, applied to serial sections of fossil assemblages to identify discrete morphological radiations.^[51]^[52] Integrating geochemistry enhances detection by correlating biotic signals with environmental proxies, such as carbon isotope (δ¹³C) excursions that reflect global perturbations in the carbon cycle. Negative δ¹³C shifts (e.g., excursions to -5‰ or lower) often precede radiations, indicating enhanced primary productivity or ocean anoxia that liberates ecological space; these are aligned with stratigraphic turnover using chemostratigraphy to test causality, as seen in alignments where origination spikes follow excursions by 1-5 million years. Such multidisciplinary approaches, applied to major historical events, confirm radiations as responses to abiotic triggers.^[53]^[54]

Contemporary Examples

Island and Lake Systems

Island and lake systems provide isolated habitats that facilitate evolutionary radiation through geographic barriers, limited gene flow, and abundant ecological niches, enabling rapid diversification from few colonizers. These environments exemplify adaptive radiation, where species evolve to exploit diverse resources, often leading to high endemism and observable speciation processes. Classic cases include the Hawaiian Drosophila, African rift lake cichlids, and Galápagos finches, each demonstrating how founder events and ecological opportunities drive proliferation of species with specialized traits.^[55] The Hawaiian Drosophila radiation is one of the most extensive among insects, with approximately 800 native species in the genera Drosophila and Scaptomyza descending from a single ancestral colonizer that arrived around 25 million years ago.^[55] This diversification was propelled by shifts in host plant utilization, particularly in the picture-winged Drosophila clade, which adapted to specific saprophagous niches on decaying fruits and stems across the archipelago's varied ecosystems.^[56] The founder effect played a key role, as small initial populations underwent genetic bottlenecks that accelerated morphological innovations, such as elaborate wing patterns and courtship behaviors, resulting in sequential speciation across islands.^[57] Microbial interactions with host plants further influenced this radiation, enhancing ecological specialization and reproductive isolation.^[57] In the African rift lakes, cichlid fishes exhibit parallel adaptive radiations characterized by explosive speciation and trophic specialization. Lakes Tanganyika, Malawi, and Victoria host over 1,200 endemic species collectively, with Lake Malawi alone supporting around 1,000 species that arose within the past 1.2 million years through diversification into niches defined by feeding habits, such as scraping algae or preying on fish.^[58]^[59] These radiations show convergent evolution in jaw morphology and coloration, often linked to sexual dimorphism and mate choice, with genomic studies revealing standing genetic variation that enabled rapid adaptation to lake-specific conditions.^[60] Lake Victoria's radiation, producing over 500 species in less than 15,000 years, highlights the role of environmental fluctuations in promoting isolation and divergence.^[61] The Galápagos finches, or Darwin's finches, represent a terrestrial island radiation with 18 extant species evolved from a single South American ancestor that colonized the archipelago 1–2 million years ago.^[62] Beak morphology has diversified dramatically to exploit varied food sources, from large seeds cracked by robust bills in ground finches to insect-probing tools in warbler finches, with natural selection observed in real time through studies by Peter and Rosemary Grant since the 1970s.^[63] This radiation underscores behavioral flexibility alongside morphological change, as species shift diets in response to environmental pressures like droughts.^[63] Across these systems, founder effects initiate radiation by reducing genetic diversity in colonizing populations, fostering rapid speciation through drift and selection in unoccupied niches. Molecular evidence from mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) clocks indicates speciation rates up to 10 times the background vertebrate average, as seen in cichlids where divergences occurred every few thousand years.^[64]^[65] In Hawaiian Drosophila and Galápagos finches, mtDNA analyses confirm accelerated evolution during early colonization phases, linking founder events to bursts of diversification.^[66] These patterns reveal how isolation amplifies evolutionary processes, producing biodiversity hotspots observable over ecological timescales.^[64]

Human-Influenced Radiations

Human activities have profoundly altered natural ecosystems, creating novel ecological opportunities that can trigger or accelerate evolutionary radiations in various taxa. By introducing species to new habitats, modifying landscapes through agriculture, urbanization, or pollution, and facilitating gene flow via translocations, humans inadvertently or intentionally provide conditions akin to those that historically drove classic radiations, such as island colonizations. These anthropogenic influences often lead to rapid phenotypic divergence and speciation, though they can also homogenize niches and reverse diversification trends. Unlike natural radiations, human-influenced ones frequently occur over contemporary timescales, offering unique insights into evolution in real time.^[67] A prominent example involves the introduction of Anolis lizards to non-native regions, where human-mediated dispersal has enabled the early stages of adaptive radiation. In south Florida, introduced populations of Anolis sagrei and A. cristatellus from the Caribbean have diversified morphologically, exhibiting character displacement in limb length and body size to partition perching habitats and reduce interspecific competition. This convergence toward ecomorphs—specialized forms adapted to crown, trunk-ground, or grass-bush niches—mirrors the independent radiations on Caribbean islands, demonstrating how human introductions replicate ecological release from competitors. Similarly, A. carolinensis introduced to the Ogasawara Islands of Japan in the 1960s has shown rapid limb elongation and increased sprint speed, adaptations to novel vertical habitats, highlighting the role of anthropogenic dispersal in unlocking latent genetic variation for diversification.^[68]^[69] In freshwater systems, human translocations have facilitated hybridizations that promote adaptive radiations in fish. Alpine whitefish (Coregonus spp.) provide a clear case: historical anthropogenic stocking from Lake Constance into Lake Thun in the 19th century introduced genetic variation, enabling the evolution of a novel "large-pelagic" ecomorph (C. acrinasus) through introgression of adaptive alleles at loci like edar, which influence gill raker number and spawning depth.^[70] This hybridization overcame genetic constraints, allowing rapid niche expansion into previously unoccupied pelagic zones and contributing to the ongoing radiation comprising over 30 species across multiple Swiss lakes, with up to 6 sympatric species per lake. Conversely, eutrophication from human pollution has reversed aspects of this radiation by homogenizing habitats, increasing hybridization, and causing the loss of approximately 14-18 endemic species across Swiss lakes, though restoration efforts have begun to restore divergent selection via re-emerging ecological gradients.^[71]^[72] Urbanization and pollution also drive micro-radiations in insects and plants, though often at subspecific levels. For instance, in Darwin's finches (Geospiza spp.) on the Galápagos, human settlement has altered seed distributions by introducing intermediate-sized foods, smoothing adaptive landscapes and eroding beak size bimodality in G. fortis, potentially stalling further speciation. These cases underscore the dual nature of human influence: while some activities spur diversification by opening niches, others impose barriers, emphasizing the need for conservation to preserve evolutionary potential in anthropogenically modified environments.^[73]

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Jan 9, 2019 · Lineage diversification is coupled with body size evolution, which was also found to be homogeneous through time, with no rapid body size ...
[35]
Oxygen, ecology, and the Cambrian radiation of animals - PMC
Jul 29, 2013 · Ecological triggers focused on escalatory predator–prey “arms races” can explain the evolutionary pattern but not its timing, whereas ...
[36]
Escalation and ecological selectively of mineralogy in the Cambrian ...
The rise of predation of metazoans by metazoans (macrophagous predators), although impossible without sufficient oxygen and other prerequisite conditions, has ...
[37]
Bottom-up controls, ecological revolutions and diversification in the ...
Oct 11, 2021 · Here, we review modern and fossil evidence for hypothesized bottom-up pathways, and we assess the ramifications of these processes for four key intervals in ...
[38]
The angiosperm radiation played a dual role in the diversification of ...
Jan 22, 2024 · We found that angiosperms played a dual role that changed through time, mitigating insect extinction in the Cretaceous and promoting insect origination in the ...
[39]
The angiosperm radiation revisited, an ecological explanation for ...
The mid- and Late Cretaceous radiations of flower visiting insects and seed dispersing animals may have facilitated angiosperm diversification and expansion, ...
[40]
The placental mammal ancestor and the post-K-Pg radiation of ...
We obtained a phylogenetic tree that, when calibrated with fossils, shows that crown clade Placentalia and placental orders originated after the K-Pg boundary.
[41]
A timescale for placental mammal diversification based on Bayesian ...
Aug 7, 2023 · The Explosive Model (Figure 1A) of placental mammal evolution suggests that most or all of the placental radiation occurred after the K-Pg mass ...
[42]
Molecules and fossils tell distinct yet complementary stories of ...
Oct 11, 2021 · Cenozoic fossil diversification rates roughly follow the genus richness curves, with the highest increase of λ occurring in the 66–61 Ma ...Results · Discussion · Star Methods
[43]
Cenozoic climate change influences mammalian evolutionary ... - NIH
This study demonstrates the profound influence of climate on the diversity patterns of North American terrestrial mammals over the Cenozoic.Results · Table 1 · DiscussionMissing: post- rates<|control11|><|separator|>
[44]
Dynamics of origination and extinction in the marine fossil record
Aug 12, 2008 · First, origination rates may correlate negatively with preceding diversity levels (8, 11). An equilibrium will result, because high diversity ...
[45]
Accurate and precise estimates of origination and extinction rates
May 7, 2014 · Paleobiologists have used many different methods for estimating rates of origination and extinction. Unfortunately, all equations that ...
[46]
Sampling bias, gradual extinction patterns and catastrophes in the ...
Jan 1, 1982 · Catastrophic hypotheses for mass extinctions are commonly criticized because many taxa gradually disappear from the fossil record prior to the extinction.
[47]
Estimating times of extinction in the fossil record - PMC
Apr 4, 2016 · The recognition of this so-called Signor–Lipps effect stimulated an interest in estimating true extinction times with high precision, which has ...
[48]
Origination and extinction components of taxonomic diversity
Feb 26, 2019 · Particular attention is focused on the independent estimation of origination and extinction rates. Modeling supports intuitive and empirical ...
[49]
Testing macro–evolutionary models using incomplete molecular ...
Here we develop and use new statistical methods to infer past patterns of speciation and extinction from molecular phylogenies.
[50]
Diversity and disparity through time in the adaptive radiation of ... - NIH
In the course of an adaptive radiation, diversification and morphological evolution are expected to slow down after an initial phase of rapid adaptation to ...
[51]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4407914/
[52]
13C minima follow extinction events: A clue to faunal radiation ...
The δ13C values drop from a high level, reach a minimum after the time boundary, and then increase to a new level. These changes reflect variations in the ...
[53]
Sea level controls on Ediacaran-Cambrian animal radiations - Science
Jul 31, 2024 · This is expressed as large, negative δ238Ucarb excursions (of magnitude up to approximately −0.6‰) correlated with positive δ13Ccarb excursions ...Introduction · Results · Discussion
[54]
An Adaptive Radiation Has Led to a Dramatic Diversification of the ...
Hawaiian drosophilids diversified due to adaptive radiation, the founder effect, ecological diversity, and lack of competitors, all from a single ancestral ...
[55]
Rapid adaptive radiation and host plant conservation in the ...
The Hawaiian picture wing Drosophila are a striking example of adaptive radiation in specialist saprophages on an island system.Missing: evolutionary | Show results with:evolutionary
[56]
Microbial interactions and the ecology and evolution of Hawaiian ...
Dec 18, 2014 · The Hawaiian Drosophilidae is a classic adaptive radiation; a single ancestral species colonized Hawaii approximately 25 million years ago and ...
[57]
Phylogenomic analysis of Lake Malawi cichlid fishes
The incredibly species rich radiation of cichlid fishes in Lake Malawi (∼1000 species) has been hypothesized to provide a model of ecological divergence that ...
[58]
Environmental change explains cichlid adaptive radiation at Lake ...
Oct 6, 2016 · Environmental change explains cichlid adaptive radiation at Lake Malawi over the past 1.2 million years.
[59]
The genomic substrate for adaptive radiation in African cichlid fish
Sep 3, 2014 · Cichlid fishes are famous for large, diverse and replicated adaptive radiations in the Great Lakes of East Africa.
[60]
Process and pattern in cichlid radiations – inferences for ...
May 13, 2015 · In Lake Victoria alone, more than 500 phenotypically distinct putative species have originated, probably within the past 15 000 yr (Johnson et ...
[61]
Study of Darwin's finches reveals that new species can develop in ...
Nov 27, 2017 · All 18 species of Darwin's finches derived from a single ancestral species that colonized the Galápagos about one to two million years ago.
[62]
The tale of the finch: adaptive radiation and behavioural flexibility
Darwin's finches may have arrived earliest, and encountered no competitors (Lack 1947). They had plenty of opportunity to occupy and adapt to different ...
[63]
Explosive Radiations and the Reliability of Molecular Clocks: Island ...
We found no evidence of consistent differences in the patterns or rates of molecular evolution in the island endemic radiations.
[64]
African cichlid fish: a model system in adaptive radiation research
The number of species in cichlid radiations increases with lake size ... species arises every 46 years in Lake Malawi (Won et al. 2005), a TFS similar ...
[65]
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2006.3539
[66]
Anthropogenic Change and the Process of Speciation
Oct 3, 2023 · PATTERNS AND CONSEQUENCES OF HYBRIDIZATION DUE TO ANTHROPOGENIC CHANGE. IN WHITEFISH-ADAPTIVE RADIATION IN PERI-ALPINE LAKES. Anthropogenic ...
[67]
Observing character displacement from process to pattern in a novel ...
Nov 14, 2024 · Ecological opportunity and adaptive radiations reveal eco-evolutionary perspectives on community structure in competitive communities.Missing: sorting | Show results with:sorting
[68]
Inferring evolutionary responses of Anolis carolinensis introduced ...
Dec 21, 2017 · In the 1960s, Anolis carolinensis was introduced onto one of the Ogasawara Islands, Japan, and subsequently expanded its range rapidly ...
[69]
Genomic architecture of adaptive radiation and hybridization in ...
Aug 2, 2022 · ... adaptive radiation. In ... acrinasus involved the historical anthropogenic translocation of fish from Lake Constance into Lake Thun.
[70]
Possible human impacts on adaptive radiation: beak size bimodality ...
We hypothesize that human activities can smooth adaptive landscapes, increase hybrid fitness and hamper evolutionary diversification.Missing: induced | Show results with:induced