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Extensor hallucis longus muscle

The extensor hallucis longus muscle is a slender muscle located in the anterior compartment of the lower leg, responsible for extending the great toe (hallux) at the metatarsophalangeal and interphalangeal joints while also contributing to dorsiflexion of the foot at the ankle joint.^[1]^[2]^[3] It originates from the middle third of the anterior surface of the fibula and the adjacent interosseous membrane, forming a thin, elongated belly that lies deep to the tibialis anterior and extensor digitorum longus muscles.^[1]^[2]^[3] The muscle's tendon passes anterior to the ankle joint, running between the tendons of the tibialis anterior and extensor digitorum longus, before inserting on the dorsal aspect of the base of the distal phalanx of the great toe.^[1]^[2]^[3] Innervated by the deep fibular (peroneal) nerve (L4-S1 nerve roots), the extensor hallucis longus receives its blood supply primarily from muscular branches of the anterior tibial artery, with possible contributions from the fibular artery.^[1]^[2]^[3] In addition to its primary roles in toe extension and foot dorsiflexion, it provides weak inversion of the foot and plays a key role in the swing phase of gait by helping to clear the toes from the ground.^[1]^[2] Clinically, the muscle is relevant in conditions such as foot drop due to deep fibular nerve injury, extensor hallucis longus tendonitis from overuse, and anterior compartment syndrome, where increased pressure can impair its function; anatomical variants, including multiple tendon slips, occur in up to 35% of cases and may affect surgical tendon transfers.^[1]^[2]

Overview

Description

The extensor hallucis longus is a thin, elongated skeletal muscle located in the anterior compartment of the lower leg, serving as one of four muscles in this region responsible for dorsiflexion and extension movements of the foot and toes.^[1] It lies deep within the compartment, positioned lateral to the tibialis anterior muscle and medial to the extensor digitorum longus muscle.^[1] This muscle plays a key role in the coordinated action of the lower limb's extensor group, contributing to upright posture and gait.^[1] The nomenclature "extensor hallucis longus" derives from Latin anatomical terms: "extensor" for its action of extension, "hallucis" as the genitive of "hallux" referring to the great toe, and "longus" indicating its length.^[3]

Location

The extensor hallucis longus muscle is situated in the anterior compartment of the leg, specifically occupying a position lateral to the tibialis anterior muscle and medial to the extensor digitorum longus muscle.^[1] This compartment is bounded medially by the tibia, laterally by the anterior intermuscular septum and fibula, posteriorly by the interosseous membrane, and anteriorly by the deep crural fascia.^[4] The muscle originates from the middle half of the anterior surface of the fibula and the adjacent interosseous membrane, placing it along the lateral aspect of the anterior crural region.^[1] From its origin, the muscle belly courses distally and medially through the anterior compartment, with its tendon emerging to travel toward the ankle.^[1] The tendon passes beneath the superior and inferior extensor retinacula at the ankle, which anchor it to prevent displacement, before continuing onto the dorsum of the foot.^[1] Along its path in the leg, the muscle lies in close proximity to the anterior tibial artery and vein, as well as the deep peroneal nerve, which course between the extensor hallucis longus and the tibialis anterior.^[1] Distal to the ankle, the tendon crosses over the ankle joint and extends along the medial aspect of the dorsum of the foot to reach the base of the distal phalanx of the hallux (big toe).^[5] This trajectory positions it superficially on the foot's dorsal surface, adjacent to the tendons of the extensor digitorum longus laterally.^[6]

Anatomy

Origin

The extensor hallucis longus muscle originates primarily from the middle half of the anterior surface of the fibula.^[1] This attachment provides a stable proximal base along the lateral aspect of the lower leg, contributing to the muscle's positioning within the anterior compartment.^[7] An additional origin arises from the adjacent interosseous membrane, located between the tibia and fibula and medial to the origin of the extensor digitorum longus muscle.^[7]^[8] The muscle fibers from these origins run obliquely downward and medially, forming a fusiform belly that transitions distally into a tendon.^[1]

Insertion

The extensor hallucis longus muscle terminates distally via a long, slender tendon that inserts primarily at the dorsal aspect of the base of the distal phalanx of the hallux (big toe). This attachment allows for targeted extension at the interphalangeal joint of the hallux.^[1]^[2] The tendon emerges from the muscle belly in the anterior compartment of the leg, coursing inferomedially across the ankle and foot; it passes deep to both the superior and inferior extensor retinacula to prevent bowstringing and maintains stability during movement. Along the dorsum of the foot, the tendon runs medial to the extensor digitorum longus tendon and lateral to the tibialis anterior tendon, where the dorsalis pedis artery lies between them. Prior to its main insertion, the tendon frequently emits accessory slips, most commonly to the dorsal base of the proximal phalanx of the hallux or the base of the first metatarsal, though variations may include slips extending to adjacent structures such as the second toe.^[1]^[2]^[9] This tendon is notably thin and unipennate in structure, facilitating precise control, and is clinically palpable along the medial aspect of the dorsum of the foot or over the hallux during active extension, aiding in diagnostic assessments of motor function.^[10]^[11]

Relations

The extensor hallucis longus muscle occupies a central position within the anterior compartment of the leg, lying deep and medial to the extensor digitorum longus while being positioned lateral to the tibialis anterior. This arrangement places it adjacent to the extensor digitorum longus laterally, facilitating coordinated extension of the toes during dorsiflexion, and next to the tibialis anterior medially, which supports inversion movements.^[1]^[12] The anterior tibial vessels and the deep fibular nerve course anterior to the muscle between the tibialis anterior and extensor hallucis longus along the interosseous membrane; the deep fibular nerve, which pierces the intermuscular septum to enter the anterior compartment, travels alongside these structures along the interosseous membrane. This proximity can lead to interactions during muscle contraction, though detailed nerve dynamics are addressed in innervation discussions.^[1]^[2]^[13] At the ankle, the extensor hallucis longus tendon passes beneath the superior and inferior extensor retinacula, sharing compartments with the tendons of adjacent muscles to maintain alignment during foot movements. Near the ankle joint, the tendon crosses the anterior tibial artery and vein from lateral to medial, potentially altering vascular dynamics.^[12]^[14]^[15]

Innervation and Vascular Supply

Nerve Supply

The extensor hallucis longus muscle receives its primary motor innervation from the deep branch of the fibular nerve (also known as the deep peroneal nerve), which is a terminal division of the common fibular nerve originating from the sciatic nerve in the posterior thigh.^[1] This nerve provides exclusive motor supply to the muscle, innervating all of its fibers to facilitate extension of the great toe at the metatarsophalangeal and interphalangeal joints. In most cases (about 90%), a single branch supplies the muscle, though dual innervation occurs in approximately 10% of individuals.^[16] The deep fibular nerve courses through the anterior compartment of the leg, adjacent to the muscle, before branching to the extensor hallucis longus typically in the proximal third of the leg, approximately 7-10 cm distal to the fibular head.^[17]^[16] The spinal root contributions to this innervation are primarily from the L5 nerve root, with variable contributions from L4 and S1 levels, reflecting the segmental organization of the lumbosacral plexus.^[1] These root levels can be clinically tested through isolated extension of the great toe, as weakness in this action often indicates L5 radiculopathy or deep fibular nerve dysfunction.^[18] Electrophysiological studies confirm that the extensor hallucis longus is predominantly supplied by L5, making it a reliable indicator for assessing lower lumbar nerve root integrity in conditions like disc herniation.^[19] Entrapment of the deep fibular nerve can lead to sensory and motor deficits affecting the extensor hallucis longus, manifesting as weakness in great toe extension and potential foot drop due to involvement of adjacent anterior compartment muscles.^[20] Common sites of compression include the anterior tarsal tunnel at the ankle or fascial septa in the leg, where hypertrophic muscles or fibrous bands may impinge the nerve, resulting in isolated or partial palsy of the extensor hallucis longus.^[21] Diagnosis typically involves electromyography to confirm denervation in the muscle, with surgical decompression considered for refractory cases to restore innervation and function.^[22]

Blood Supply

The extensor hallucis longus muscle receives its primary blood supply from the muscular branches of the anterior tibial artery, which arises from the popliteal artery and courses through the anterior compartment of the leg to nourish the muscle belly.^[1] These branches provide essential perfusion to the muscle fibers, ensuring adequate oxygenation and nutrient delivery during dorsiflexion and toe extension activities.^[1] Additional vascular contributions come from branches of the fibular (peroneal) artery, which help supplement the blood flow to the muscle, particularly in its deeper aspects.^[2] Perforating branches from the fibular artery pass through the interosseous membrane to reach the muscle belly, enhancing overall arterial distribution within the anterior compartment.^[10] In the distal portion, the tendon of the extensor hallucis longus receives further supply from the dorsalis pedis artery, the direct continuation of the anterior tibial artery, which runs adjacent to the tendon on the dorsal aspect of the foot.^[1] Due to its location and shared vascular territory with other anterior compartment muscles, the extensor hallucis longus is particularly susceptible to ischemia in cases of anterior compartment syndrome, where elevated intracompartmental pressure compromises arterial perfusion and can lead to muscle necrosis if not addressed promptly.^[1] This condition underscores the importance of the anterior tibial artery's role, as any disruption in its flow can rapidly affect the muscle's viability.^[1]

Function

Primary Actions

The extensor hallucis longus (EHL) muscle's primary action is the extension of the hallux, or big toe, at both the metatarsophalangeal (MTP) and interphalangeal (IP) joints, allowing the toe to lift dorsally relative to the foot.^[1] This movement is essential for precise toe positioning and is facilitated by the muscle's long tendon.^[1] The EHL also weakly inverts the foot at the subtalar joint.^[1] In addition to hallux extension, the EHL assists in dorsiflexion of the foot at the ankle joint, contributing to overall elevation of the foot during locomotion.^[1] This dual role is particularly evident during the gait cycle: the muscle activates around toe-off (pre-swing phase) to stabilize and extend the hallux, aiding propulsion by maintaining toe alignment for efficient push-off.^[23] During the swing phase, EHL contraction lifts the hallux to clear the ground, preventing tripping and ensuring smooth forward progression.^[1]

Antagonists and Synergists

The extensor hallucis longus (EHL) muscle primarily opposes the flexor hallucis longus (FHL), which flexes the interphalangeal and metatarsophalangeal joints of the hallux, directly countering the EHL's extension action.^[24]^[25] This antagonistic relationship is essential for balanced toe movement during gait, where the FHL dominates in propulsion phases like push-off.^[26] Additional antagonists include the flexor hallucis brevis and other intrinsic foot flexors, such as the lumbricals and interossei, which flex the hallux at the metatarsophalangeal joint and stabilize the toe against extension.^[26]^[11] These muscles collectively oppose EHL activity to prevent excessive hallux extension and maintain arch integrity during weight-bearing.^[1] In synergy, the EHL collaborates with the tibialis anterior and extensor digitorum longus to dorsiflex the foot at the talocrural joint, enabling efficient toe clearance in the swing phase of walking.^[2]^[27] This cooperative action among anterior compartment muscles ensures coordinated elevation of the forefoot.^[1] The EHL also integrates functionally with the peroneus tertius (fibularis tertius) during combined movements, where the peroneus tertius contributes eversion alongside shared dorsiflexion to refine foot positioning and reduce inversion torque in dynamic activities.^[28]^[29]

Variations

Anatomical Variations

The extensor hallucis longus (EHL) muscle exhibits several anatomical variations, primarily involving its tendon morphology and insertions. The most common variation is the presence of accessory tendinous slips, often arising from the main tendon and inserting into adjacent structures such as the base of the proximal phalanx or the extensor hood of the great toe. Studies report a prevalence ranging from 10% to 81% for these accessory slips.^[30]^[12] Fusion or accessory slips connecting the EHL to the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscle represent a less frequent but documented deviation, typically involving a tendinous band from the EDL joining the EHL tendon in the distal leg or ankle region. This interconnection has been observed in isolated case reports, suggesting a low overall prevalence, potentially under 5%, though systematic large-scale studies are limited.^[31] Rare variations include complete absence (aplasia) of the EHL muscle, which is exceptionally uncommon and reported in bilateral cases during surgical or cadaveric examinations, with no established population prevalence due to its scarcity.^[32] Additionally, doubled or tripled tendons may occur, where the EHL divides into multiple slips inserting onto the distal and proximal phalanges or even extending to the second toe; in one cadaveric study of 104 specimens, two tendons were observed in 42.3% and three in 1.9%.^[12] Detection of EHL variations typically occurs through cadaveric dissection in anatomical studies or advanced imaging modalities such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which can visualize tendon multiplicity and insertions with high resolution, or ultrasound for dynamic assessment.^[30]

Clinical Implications of Variations

Anatomical variations in the extensor hallucis longus (EHL) muscle, particularly accessory tendons or fused slips, carry significant clinical implications, especially in surgical and diagnostic contexts. These variations are notably prevalent in Asian populations, with studies reporting accessory tendons in 67.1% of Korean cadavers, 97.92% of Taiwanese specimens, and 100% of Chinese cases, compared to lower rates in other ethnic groups.^[9]^[33]^[34] Such prevalence underscores the need for population-specific awareness in clinical practice to avoid misinterpretation of normal anatomy as pathology. Surgical risks are heightened by these variations, as fused or accessory tendons can complicate procedures like tendon repair, transfer, or anterior compartment release. For instance, bifid or multiple slips (e.g., Type IIb or III variations) may lead to incomplete repairs, iatrogenic damage to adjacent structures such as the extensor hallucis brevis, or neurovascular injury during foot and ankle surgeries.^[35] In cases of merged slips, such as the extensor primi internodii hallucis fusing with the extensor hallucis brevis, operative management of deformities like clawed hallux becomes more challenging, potentially requiring modified approaches to prevent adverse outcomes.^[36] Diagnostic challenges arise when variations mimic tendon ruptures on imaging, particularly ultrasound, where accessory slips or thin structures can appear discontinuous, leading to erroneous diagnoses of tears or tenosynovitis.^[35]^[37] This is especially relevant in trauma evaluations, where failure to recognize these variants may prompt unnecessary interventions. Effective management involves preoperative imaging to delineate variations, with high-resolution ultrasound or 3T MRI recommended to identify slip configurations and reduce surgical risks in affected patients.^[36]^[35] This approach is particularly valuable before elective foot surgeries in high-prevalence groups, ensuring tailored operative planning.

Clinical Significance

Injuries and Pathology

The extensor hallucis longus (EHL) muscle is susceptible to tendon strains and ruptures, which are relatively uncommon but can arise from acute trauma or chronic overuse. Acute injuries often result from direct penetrating trauma, such as lacerations from sharp objects impacting the dorsum of the foot, leading to partial or complete tendon disruption.^[38] Overuse-related strains and ruptures are more prevalent in athletes engaging in repetitive activities, including runners and martial artists, where hyperplantarflexion or forceful dorsiflexion during kicking or foot strike exacerbates tendon stress.^[39]^[40] In pathological conditions, the EHL is implicated in anterior compartment syndrome, where swelling and increased intracompartmental pressure compromise muscle perfusion and function, often following trauma like tibial fractures.^[41] This syndrome primarily affects the anterior leg compartment, which houses the EHL alongside other dorsiflexors, leading to ischemia if untreated.^[42] Symptoms of EHL injuries typically include sharp or aching pain along the dorsum of the foot and ankle, particularly during toe extension or walking, accompanied by localized swelling and tenderness.^[43] Weakness in great toe extension is a hallmark, with severe cases contributing to foot drop due to impaired dorsiflexion, resulting in a slapping gait and increased fall risk.^[44] Risk factors for EHL pathology encompass biomechanical issues like foot overpronation, which alters load distribution and heightens tendon strain during propulsion, as well as tight or ill-fitting footwear that compresses the dorsum.^[45] Repetitive hyperextension of the toes or ankle, common in endurance sports, further predisposes the tendon to microtrauma and degeneration.^[46] The muscle's relatively tenuous blood supply may exacerbate ischemic risks in these scenarios.^[42]

Diagnostic and Surgical Relevance

Diagnosis of extensor hallucis longus (EHL) muscle and tendon issues typically involves a combination of clinical examinations, electrophysiological studies, and imaging modalities. Clinical tests, such as resisted extension of the great toe at the metatarsophalangeal joint, assess muscle strength using the Medical Research Council scale to identify weakness indicative of tendon rupture or nerve involvement.^[47]^[44] Electromyography (EMG) evaluates nerve function by detecting denervation patterns, such as fibrillations and positive sharp waves, in the EHL; optimal needle insertion occurs at the junction of the middle and lower third of the tibia, approximately 12 cm above the bimalleolar line, to reliably diagnose deep peroneal nerve or L5/S1 root lesions.^[48]^[44] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides detailed visualization of tendon integrity, revealing disruptions in EHL fibers, fluid collections, or compartmental edema in cases of rupture or compartment syndrome.^[49]^[50] In surgical contexts, the EHL plays a key role in procedures addressing foot drop and compartment syndrome. Tendon transfer surgeries, such as splitting the tibialis posterior tendon and suturing one slip to the EHL, restore dorsiflexion in cases of peroneal nerve palsy; this interosseous or circumtibial route approach allows active dorsiflexion to a neutral position (90°) or beyond in over 85% of patients.^[51] For anterior compartment syndrome involving the EHL, fasciotomy decompresses the affected fascial compartment through incisions to release pressure, preventing muscle necrosis; isolated EHL compartment syndrome, though rare, follows similar principles but requires prompt intervention to avoid contracture.^[52]^[41] Postoperative rehabilitation emphasizes progressive dorsiflexion strengthening to optimize recovery. Protocols typically begin with immobilization in a posterior splint for 2-4 weeks, followed by passive stretching and electrical muscle stimulation, advancing to active range-of-motion exercises, gait training, and strengthening (e.g., toe crunches and static cycling) by weeks 6-12, enabling full weight-bearing with supportive footwear.^[53] Early intervention, including surgical repair within weeks of EHL rupture, significantly improves functional outcomes, with patients achieving near-normal American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society scores (mean 97/100) and restored hallux extension, compared to delayed cases prone to contracture.^[50]^[49]

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