FWD Model B

The FWD Model B was a pioneering American four-wheel-drive truck produced by the Four Wheel Drive Auto Company (FWD) of Clintonville, Wisconsin, beginning in 1912, designed as a 3-ton utility vehicle that revolutionized military and commercial transport with its innovative all-wheel-drive system.^[1]^[2] Introduced as one of the earliest successful production 4x4 trucks, the Model B evolved from FWD's experimental "Battleship" design of 1908 and quickly gained recognition for its rugged capabilities, including a full-time four-wheel-drive setup with a lockable center differential, a three-speed constant-mesh transmission, and a single-speed transfer case providing a 2.06:1 ratio.^[1]^[2] Powered by a mid-mounted four-cylinder Wisconsin gasoline engine displacing 389 cubic inches (6,375 cc) and producing 36 to 50 horsepower at 1,300 rpm with 222 lb-ft of torque, it featured solid rubber tires on wood-spoke wheels in early models, later upgraded to pneumatic tires and cast wheels for improved performance.^[1]^[3] The truck's utilitarian design included right-hand drive, bench seating for a crew of one (with options for additional passengers), a switchable drive mode for front, rear, or four-wheel operation, and power take-off capabilities, though it was prone to overheating in warm conditions and had poor fuel efficiency in four-wheel-drive mode.^[1]^[3] Production of the Model B totaled approximately 17,555 units, with around 16,000 built during World War I alone—half by FWD and the rest under license by manufacturers such as Kissel, Premier, and Mitchell—allowing it to become the standard 4x4 truck for the U.S. Army after passing a grueling 1912 endurance test covering 260 miles from Dubuque to Sparta, Wisconsin.^[1]^[2] Manufacturing continued into the 1920s, with surplus vehicles refurbished and sold commercially until at least 1939, often modernized with higher-speed gearing for road speeds exceeding 25 mph and engine upgrades.^[1] Militarily, the FWD Model B saw extensive service starting with the U.S. Army's Punitive Expedition against Pancho Villa in 1916, where it proved invaluable for off-road supply hauling, and during World War I (1917–1918), when over 14,000 units were delivered as the "Truck, 3 ton, Model 1917" for transporting artillery, ammunition, and pontoon bridges on the Western Front.^[1]^[3] The British Army acquired 2,925 examples starting in 1914, using 1,599 primarily in France for heavy haulage, while Russia received 82 units; a total of about 3,000 went to the United Kingdom, with 60 returned to the U.S. after its 1917 entry into the war.^[3]^[2] Some survived into World War II for secondary roles, underscoring its durability and historical impact on motorized warfare.^[2]

Development

Origins

The Badger Four Wheel Drive Auto Company was founded in 1909 in Clintonville, Wisconsin, by Otto Zachow, a local blacksmith and machinist, and his brother-in-law William Besserdich, who together operated a machine shop where they experimented with vehicle propulsion systems.^[4] The company was established to commercialize their innovative drive technology, initially focusing on automobiles capable of better traction in challenging conditions.^[5] In 1910, the name was changed to the Four Wheel Drive Auto Company, commonly abbreviated as FWD, reflecting its core mission.^[4] Prior to the company's founding, Zachow and Besserdich had developed a pioneering full-time four-wheel-drive system, which they patented on December 29, 1908, under U.S. Patent No. 907,940 for a "Power-Applying Mechanism."^[6] This invention featured a power-splitting gearbox that delivered constant power to all four wheels without requiring driver intervention to engage or disengage the system, addressing limitations of rear-wheel-drive vehicles in slippery or uneven terrain such as mud and sand prevalent in rural Wisconsin.^[5] The design incorporated universal joints within a ball-and-socket arrangement to allow steering on the front axle while maintaining drive, marking a significant advancement over earlier partial-drive attempts.^[7] Building on this technology, FWD introduced the Model B in 1912 as its first purpose-built four-wheel-drive truck, rated for a 3-ton capacity and targeted at practical applications in demanding environments.^[1] A key design principle of the Model B was the use of Timken worm-drive axles on all four wheels, which provided robust torque distribution and durability for true all-wheel propulsion, enabling the vehicle to function effectively across varied surfaces without compromising stability or control.^[1] This truck represented the commercial realization of Zachow and Besserdich's vision, shifting from experimental passenger cars to heavy-duty utility vehicles suited to the agricultural and logging demands of the region.^[5]

Early Testing

In 1912, the U.S. Army organized an endurance test for early four-wheel-drive trucks, including the FWD Model B, to evaluate their potential as replacements for mule-drawn wagons in supplying an infantry regiment. The test route ran approximately 150 miles from Dubuque, Iowa, to Sparta, Wisconsin, encompassing challenging terrain with heavy clay, sandy roads, mud, and hills.^[1] The Model B, a 3-ton 4x4 truck, outperformed two-wheel-drive competitors such as White, Sampson, Autocar, Kelly-Springfield, Mack, and Kato models by maintaining mobility where others became mired, often requiring the FWD to tow them while continuing its supply duties.^[8] Regimental officers praised its reliability, noting it completed the march without significant breakdowns, though the Army issued no large orders immediately due to ongoing evaluation of motorized transport.^[8] Following the military test, the FWD Model B underwent early commercial demonstrations in demanding off-road environments, such as logging operations, where its four-wheel-drive system proved essential for navigating rough, forested terrain inaccessible to conventional trucks.^[5] These trials highlighted the vehicle's durability and traction in real-world heavy-duty applications, contributing to initial sales beyond military circles and validating its design for industrial use.^[5] Feedback from the 1912 test and subsequent demonstrations prompted refinements to the Model B between 1914 and 1915, enhancing its practicality for varied conditions. Key updates included the adoption of solid rubber tires mounted on cast-iron wheels, which improved load-bearing capacity and resistance to punctures compared to earlier spoked designs, while maintaining simplicity for maintenance.^[1]

Design and Specifications

Powertrain

The powertrain of the FWD Model B centered on a four-cylinder T-head engine produced by Wisconsin Motors, featuring a cast-iron block and side-valve configuration for durability in demanding conditions. This engine displaced 389 cubic inches, generating 50 horsepower at 1,300 rpm and 222 lb-ft of torque at 1,200 rpm, with a bore and stroke of 4.75 inches by 5.5 inches and a compression ratio of 4:1.^[1] The fuel system supported reliable operation with a 30-gallon tank, a 1¼-inch Stromberg updraft carburetor that enabled gravity-fed fuel delivery, and magneto ignition for consistent spark in off-road environments.^[1] A three-speed manual transmission transferred power to a single-speed transfer case with a 2.06:1 reduction ratio, providing full-time four-wheel drive and incorporating a lockable center differential to manage torque split between axles.^[1] Timken worm-drive axles, full-floating on both front and rear with a standard 4.30:1 ratio (options up to 12.05:1 available), equipped all four wheels to enable direct torque distribution, particularly suited for low-speed off-road traction without conventional differential reliance in challenging terrain.^[1]

Chassis and Body

The FWD Model B utilized a robust ladder-frame chassis measuring 124 inches in wheelbase, designed to accommodate a 3-ton payload while maintaining stability across varied terrains. This construction supported a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of 14,510 pounds and a curb weight of 7,308 pounds, emphasizing durability for heavy-duty applications.^[1]^[1] The suspension system featured semi-elliptic leaf springs at all four corners in later models, with early versions using platform-type springs at the rear, connected to full-floating Timken axles, without independent suspension components to prioritize ruggedness and load-bearing capacity over ride comfort. This setup effectively handled the vehicle's 3-ton payload, distributing weight evenly across the all-wheel-drive configuration for off-road reliability.^[9]^[1] The standard body configuration consisted of an open cargo platform with wooden side panels and a right-hand drive cab, facilitating easy loading and operation in military and industrial settings. Initial equipment included 6x36-inch solid rubber tires mounted on cast-iron wheels for puncture resistance, though pneumatic tire options, such as 8x40-inch diamond-tread variants, became available later for improved traction.^[1]^[1] Braking was managed via mechanical external contracting bands applied to all four wheels, providing essential stopping power for the heavy loads, while a hand lever operated the parking brake for secure immobilization.^[10]^[5]

Production

Manufacturing

The Four Wheel Drive Auto Company constructed its initial production facility in Clintonville, Wisconsin, in 1911, laying the groundwork for manufacturing the Model B truck. This factory enabled the launch of serial production in 1912, with early assembly processes focusing on the vehicle's innovative four-wheel-drive chassis. Workers employed rudimentary assembly line techniques for tasks such as chassis riveting and axle installation, which improved efficiency over the handmade prototypes of prior years.^[11]^[1] Key components were sourced strategically to support the truck's rugged design, with the 389-cubic-inch four-cylinder engine manufactured by the Wisconsin Motor Company using castings from local foundries in the state. The full-floating front and rear axles, essential for load-bearing and off-road performance, were produced to FWD's specifications, drawing on suppliers from Ohio for specialized parts like bearings. Quality control emphasized durability for the 4WD system, including rigorous fitting of the worm gear differentials to minimize wear under heavy loads; vehicles underwent U.S. Army endurance testing in 1912 to validate these measures.^[1]^[3] Production transitioned dramatically in 1917 amid World War I demands, as the company received a $65 million military truck order and established dedicated assembly lines in the Clintonville plant for expedited output of Model B variants. This surge transformed the facility from small-scale operations to a key wartime supplier, with assembly workers focusing on military configurations like ammunition bodies. Overall, approximately 16,000 Model B trucks were manufactured during the conflict.^[12]^[13]^[1]

Scale and Licensing

The FWD Model B entered production in 1912 and continued through the 1920s, achieving a total output of approximately 17,500 units, which marked a significant scale for an early four-wheel-drive vehicle in an era dominated by rear-wheel-drive designs. This volume reflected the model's transition from limited civilian applications to a cornerstone of military logistics, particularly during World War I when demand escalated dramatically. Production was concentrated at the Four Wheel Drive Auto Company's facilities in Clintonville, Wisconsin, but the company's initial capacity proved insufficient for wartime needs, leading to strategic expansions and partnerships.^[1]^[11] Wartime requirements drove a production peak of around 12,000 units between 1917 and 1918, as the U.S. Army ordered thousands for artillery towing and supply transport in Europe. To meet this surge—amid initial contracts exceeding 30,000 vehicles, though deliveries totaled fewer—the FWD company licensed the Model B design to additional manufacturers, enabling parallel output. Key licensees included Kissel Motor Car in Hartford, Wisconsin; Premier Motor Manufacturing in Indianapolis, Indiana; Mitchell Motor Car in Racine, Wisconsin; and Peerless Motor Company in Cleveland, Ohio. These agreements, combined with FWD's own facility expansions, allowed roughly half of the wartime Model Bs to be built outside Clintonville, ensuring timely fulfillment of military contracts while distributing manufacturing risks across established automotive firms.^[14]^[1]^[11] Following the Armistice in 1918, the U.S. military faced a surplus of Model B trucks, with thousands of units returned stateside and subsequently refurbished for civilian markets. These overhauled vehicles found roles in logging, road construction, and oilfield operations, sustaining the model's utility into the 1930s despite the end of new military production. Primary manufacturing of the Model B wound down around 1924 as postwar economic shifts and technological advancements prompted FWD to prioritize updated designs, with full phase-out of the model by 1930 to accommodate more specialized successors.^[1]^[8]^[15]

Operational History

World War I Service

The FWD Model B saw extensive adoption by Allied forces during World War I, beginning with early orders from Britain in 1914 as the conflict erupted in Europe. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) acquired approximately 2,925 units primarily for artillery towing and supply transport in the trenches, leveraging the truck's four-wheel-drive capability to navigate the challenging terrain of the Western Front. These early acquisitions marked the vehicle's transition from civilian use to a critical military asset, with production ramping up under license to meet demand.^[14]^[1] In the United States, the Army initially deployed 147 Model B trucks during the 1916 Punitive Expedition against Pancho Villa in Mexico, serving as a precursor to broader wartime mobilization. Following America's entry into the war in 1917, the U.S. ordered 15,000 units designated as the "Truck, 3 ton, Model 1917," with over 14,000 ultimately delivered; approximately 11,000 of these were supplied to the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) in France for combat and logistics support. The vehicle's robust four-wheel-drive system proved invaluable in the mud-churned battlefields, enabling reliable performance where two-wheel-drive alternatives often failed.^[16]^[14] The Model B played a pivotal role in major AEF operations, including hauling heavy guns and supplies during the Saint-Mihiel Offensive in September 1918 and the Meuse-Argonne Offensive later that year, where its traction facilitated rapid advances across devastated landscapes. British units similarly relied on the truck for trench supply lines, underscoring its versatility in sustained frontline service. Adaptations for wartime conditions included canvas covers for weather protection against rain and cold, as well as machine gun mounts on select units to enhance defensive capabilities during transport duties. These modifications, combined with the base design's durability, contributed to the Model B's reputation as one of the first successful military four-wheel-drive vehicles.^[16]^[14]

Post-War Applications

Following World War I, the U.S. government disposed of surplus FWD Model B trucks at significantly reduced prices amid military demobilization, enabling their transition to civilian and municipal applications during the interwar period.^[1] The Four Wheel Drive Auto Company actively repurchased these vehicles, refurbishing them with enhancements including pneumatic tires for improved traction on unpaved surfaces, high-speed gearing capable of exceeding 25 mph, and optional enclosed cabs for operator protection against weather, extending their viability into the 1930s as documented in 1939 sales literature.^[1] Refurbished Model Bs found extensive use in U.S. road building projects and logging operations throughout the 1920s, where their four-wheel-drive system excelled in hauling materials over muddy or forested terrain; for instance, advertisements from 1920 highlighted their role in lumber transport for companies like Lake County Lumber Co.^[17] In northern U.S. states, surplus Model Bs were adapted as snowplow variants, often fitted with Sargent plows on the chassis circa 1920 to clear snow from rural roads, remaining in service for winter maintenance until at least 1939.^[18] A British subsidiary, Four Wheel Drive Lorry Company Ltd., established in 1921, imported and refurbished surplus Model Bs for resale in the UK, converting some for specialized infrastructure tasks such as beach-launched Coast Guard rescue boats and half-track artillery tractors tested by the War Office in 1926.^[19] During World War II, a limited number of refurbished Model Bs continued in secondary U.S. military roles, including support for the Army Signal Corps, though production had shifted to newer FWD designs by the early 1940s.^[11] Civilian conversions also included fire apparatus chassis, with surplus Model Bs adapted for emergency services in the interwar years, building on their rugged design for urban and rural firefighting needs.^[8]

Variants and Legacy

Model Variants

The FWD Model B platform was adapted into several core variants to address varying payload capacities and operational needs, primarily through adjustments to chassis components, engines, and drivetrain elements. The Model G served as the lighter-duty counterpart, rated at 1.5 tons with a 318-cubic-inch engine, lighter transfer case, and reinforced springs for enhanced maneuverability in demanding conditions.^[1] It underwent early U.S. Army testing in 1912 and entered commercial sales at $3,600 per unit by 1915.^[1] The standard Model B retained its baseline 3-ton capacity, featuring a 389-cubic-inch Wisconsin T-head engine producing approximately 50 horsepower, a three-speed transmission, and full-time four-wheel drive via a Morse silent chain-driven transfer case.^[11] For heavier applications, the Model M expanded the lineup to 5-6 ton ratings, sharing the platform's core four-wheel-drive architecture while incorporating scaled-up components for industrial and military hauling.^[1] During World War I, the Model B chassis accommodated specialized military configurations, including ambulance bodies for medical evacuation and repair truck setups equipped with tools and spares for frontline maintenance.^[1] Post-1918 civilian derivatives introduced performance enhancements, such as high-speed gearing that elevated top speeds beyond 25 mph from the original's 14 mph limit, alongside options for pneumatic tires and engine power kits to suit commercial transport.^[1] Production demands during World War I led FWD to license the Model B design to Kissel, Premier, and Mitchell, who manufactured approximately 8,000 units adhering closely to the original specifications for military standardization.^[11]^[1]

Technological Impact

The FWD Model B pioneered the concept of full-time four-wheel drive (4WD) in a production truck, distributing power evenly to all four wheels via a patented system developed by inventors Otto Zachow and William Besserdich in 1908 (Patent No. 882,986). This innovation allowed the vehicle to maintain traction in challenging off-road and muddy conditions, a capability demonstrated during its widespread use in World War I, where over 16,000 units were produced under U.S. Army contracts. During World War I, the U.S. Army licensed the Model B design to manufacturers like Kissel, Mitchell, Peerless, and Premier, enabling rapid scaling of 4WD production and establishing the Model B as a foundational platform for military logistics vehicles. After the war, the Army acquired the patents for continued use in future 4WD developments.^[11] This technological foundation directly influenced the development of subsequent 4WD military vehicles, including the iconic Willys MB Jeep and other WWII trucks. The Model B's proven reliability in combat environments, such as the 1916 Punitive Expedition and Western Front operations, validated 4WD for reconnaissance and supply roles, prompting the U.S. Army to incorporate similar specifications into future truck designs during the interwar period and World War II. For instance, while the Army shifted toward 6x6 configurations for heavier loads, the Model B's shaft-driven 4WD system informed lighter 4x4 adaptations, contributing to the Jeep's emergence as a versatile scout vehicle that echoed the earlier truck's all-terrain ethos.^[1] The Model B's patent legacy extended beyond immediate wartime production, with its transfer case design (Patent No. 907,940) adapted for chain-driven variants in later FWD vehicles supplied to Allied forces during WWII, such as the SU-COE model used by the U.S. Marine Corps in the Pacific. By showcasing the practical viability of 4WD for logistics in adverse conditions, the truck spurred an industry-wide shift toward integrated drivetrains in commercial and military applications, influencing standards for load capacity and traction that persisted into postwar truck engineering. This emphasis on robust, full-time 4WD helped transition the technology from niche military use to broader adoption in civilian sectors like construction and firefighting.^[11] In recognition of its enduring contributions, the FWD Model B is regarded as a landmark in automotive history for establishing scalable 4WD production, with its innovations underpinning modern all-wheel-drive systems in trucks and SUVs. The vehicle's success in producing thousands of units under licensed manufacturing highlighted the potential for 4WD in high-volume applications, setting precedents for U.S. Army procurement specifications that prioritized multi-axle drive for enhanced mobility.^[1]