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1918

1918 marked the culmination of the First World War, with the Central Powers suffering decisive defeats that prompted the Armistice of 11 November, signed at 5:00 a.m. in a railway car at Compiègne and effective at 11:00 a.m., thereby halting hostilities on the Western Front after over four years of attrition.^[1] This agreement required Germany to withdraw from occupied territories, surrender substantial military equipment, and accept Allied occupation of regions like the Rhineland, setting the stage for the Treaty of Versailles.^[2] Concurrently, the year witnessed the disintegration of the German Empire under Kaiser Wilhelm II, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the onset of the Ottoman Empire's partition, as internal revolutions and ethnic nationalisms eroded their cohesion amid military collapse.^[3] The influenza pandemic, originating in early 1918 and peaking in waves through 1919—often termed the "Spanish Flu" despite its origins in a U.S. Army camp in Kansas—struck with unprecedented virulence, infecting roughly one-third (~600 million) of the global population of approximately 1.8 billion and causing between 50 and 100 million deaths, disproportionately among young adults due to a hyperactive immune response known as cytokine storm.^[4]^[5] In the United States alone, it claimed approximately 675,000 lives, exceeding wartime fatalities and temporarily slashing life expectancy.^[6] These cataclysmic events unfolded against revolutionary ferment: in Russia, the Bolshevik regime consolidated power amid civil war following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk; in Germany, the November Revolution toppled the monarchy and birthed the Weimar Republic; while new sovereign states like Poland, Czechoslovakia, and the Baltic republics emerged from imperial ruins, reshaping Europe's geopolitical landscape.^[7] Beyond warfare and pestilence, 1918 saw incremental social shifts, including women's suffrage advancements in Britain and the U.S., though causal links to wartime necessities remain debated; and cultural milestones like the premiere of Stravinsky's incomplete L'Histoire du soldat, reflecting modernist fragmentation. Yet, the year's defining legacy lies in its causal chain: imperial overreach and total war precipitated both the flu's unchecked spread via mobilized troops and the ideological vacuums enabling communist and nationalist surges, with enduring repercussions for 20th-century conflicts.^[8]^[9]

Events

January

On January 8, 1918, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson delivered an address to Congress outlining the Fourteen Points, a program emphasizing open covenants of peace, freedom of the seas, removal of economic barriers, arms reduction, impartial colonial adjustments, evacuation and restoration of occupied territories, self-determination for various nationalities, restoration of Belgium, evacuation of Alsace-Lorraine for autonomous development, redrawing of Italian borders, autonomy for peoples of Austria-Hungary, Balkan territorial adjustments, autonomous development for non-Turkish peoples in the Ottoman Empire, establishment of an independent Poland, and formation of a general association of nations to guarantee political independence and territorial integrity.^[10] ^[11] The points aimed to serve as a basis for negotiating an end to World War I, prioritizing liberal internationalist principles over punitive measures.^[12] In Russia, the All-Russian Constituent Assembly, elected in November 1917 with Socialist Revolutionaries holding a majority, convened on January 18 but lasted only one day; Bolshevik forces, lacking a parliamentary majority, dispersed the assembly on January 19 after it proclaimed Russia a republic and rejected Bolshevik decrees on land and peace.^[13] This suppression consolidated Bolshevik control under Vladimir Lenin, prioritizing soviet governance over elected representation amid ongoing civil strife and German advances on the Eastern Front.^[14] On January 22, the Central Rada of the Ukrainian People's Republic issued the Fourth Universal, formally declaring complete independence from Bolshevik-controlled Russia following earlier autonomy proclamations and amid invasions by Soviet forces.^[15] The declaration asserted sovereignty over Ukrainian territories, rejecting Russian central authority and seeking international recognition, though it faced immediate military challenges from both Bolsheviks and Central Powers.^[16] Late in the month, from January 25 to February 1, mass strikes paralyzed major German cities, beginning in Berlin's munitions and metal industries and spreading nationwide to involve approximately one million workers influenced by the Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD); demands centered on immediate peace without annexations, democratic reforms, and relief from wartime hardships like food shortages.^[17] ^[18] The government responded with military suppression, arrests of leaders, and imposition of martial law, averting broader revolution but highlighting deepening domestic unrest and war fatigue on the home front.^[19] On January 27, the Finnish Civil War commenced when Red Guards, aligned with socialist workers and supported by Bolshevik elements, seized Helsinki and industrial southern regions, clashing with White forces loyal to the conservative Senate and backed by German troops later in the conflict.^[20] The war stemmed from post-independence class tensions after Finland's December 1917 separation from Russia, resulting in over 38,000 deaths by May and White victory, which entrenched conservative rule.^[21]

February

On February 1, the Cattaro mutiny erupted in the Austro-Hungarian Navy's Adriatic fleet at the Gulf of Cattaro (modern Kotor, Montenegro), where approximately 4,000 sailors aboard 40 warships seized control, raised red flags, and issued demands for immediate peace, better rations, and political reforms inspired by the Bolshevik Revolution.^[22] The uprising spread to multiple vessels but was suppressed by February 3 through naval bombardment and arrests, resulting in four executions of ringleaders and over 300 imprisonments, highlighting growing war exhaustion among multi-ethnic Central Powers forces.^[23] Negotiations at Brest-Litovsk intensified amid Russia's Bolshevik government seeking exit from World War I; on February 9, the Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR), asserting independence from Bolshevik influence, signed a separate peace treaty with the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire), securing recognition of Ukrainian sovereignty in exchange for military aid against the Bolsheviks and grain shipments to alleviate Central Powers' food shortages.^[24] This marked the first peace accord of the war, ceding no territory from Ukraine but enabling Central Powers intervention in Ukraine, which they occupied soon after despite Bolshevik protests.^[25] The next day, February 10, Soviet Foreign Commissar Leon Trotsky abruptly ended Russia's talks with the Central Powers, declaring that Soviet Russia would neither sign a peace nor resume hostilities, ordering full demobilization of its armies while repudiating tsarist debts and imperial annexations to appeal for global proletarian revolution.^[26] This "no peace, no war" stance prompted Germany to resume its offensive on February 18, advancing deep into Ukraine and Belarus, which pressured the Bolsheviks toward eventual capitulation in March.^[27] On February 11, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson outlined his Four Principles in a congressional address, emphasizing settlements based on justice without secret diplomacy, rejection of annexations lacking the consent of involved populations, self-determination for ethnic minorities within states, and post-war economic restoration without punitive indemnities, as a supplement to his January Fourteen Points aimed at clarifying Allied war aims amid peace overtures from Austria-Hungary and Germany.^[28] In the Middle Eastern theater, British Empire forces, including Australian Light Horse, captured Jericho from Ottoman control on February 21 after a flanking maneuver across the Judean Hills, securing a bridgehead for further advances toward Damascus and marking a rare mobile victory in the stagnant Sinai-Palestine campaign.^[29]

March

On March 3, the Bolshevik government of Soviet Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers, formally ending Russia's involvement in World War I.^[30] The treaty compelled Russia to cede vast territories, including Ukraine, Poland, the Baltic states, and Finland, amounting to about one million square miles and approximately 56 million people, in exchange for peace amid the Russian Civil War.^[30] This agreement allowed Germany to redirect troops to the Western Front, exacerbating Allied pressures later in the month.^[31] The first documented major outbreak of the influenza pandemic, later known as the Spanish Flu, occurred at Camp Funston, Fort Riley, Kansas, beginning March 4 with Private Albert Gitchell reporting symptoms of sore throat, fever, and headache.^[32] Within three weeks, over 1,100 cases emerged among the 56,222 troops at the camp, marking the initial wave of a virus that would eventually claim tens of millions of lives worldwide.^[33] The outbreak's military setting facilitated rapid spread to Europe via troop movements.^[34] From March 21, Germany launched Operation Michael, the opening phase of its Spring Offensive on the Western Front, with a five-hour artillery bombardment involving over 6,000 guns along a 40-mile front from Arras to Noyon.^[35] Approximately 62 German divisions assaulted British lines, achieving rapid penetrations and capturing key positions, including crossings of the Somme River by March 24.^[36] The offensive, commanded by Erich Ludendorff, aimed to divide Allied forces before significant American reinforcements arrived, advancing up to 40 miles in initial days but straining German logistics.^[35]

April

On April 1, the British Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service merged to establish the Royal Air Force, creating the first independent air service of any major power and unifying aerial operations under a single command structure.^[10] This reorganization aimed to streamline command amid intensifying air warfare on the Western Front, where British pilots had conducted over 100,000 sorties since 1914.^[37] The German Spring Offensive persisted into early April, with the Somme Defensive phase concluding on April 6 after Allied forces, including French and British units, repelled further advances toward Amiens following initial German gains in late March.^[38] German commanders shifted focus northward, launching Operation Georgette—known as the Battle of the Lys—on April 9 against the British Fifth Army in Flanders.^[39] The assault involved 46 German divisions under the Sixth Army, targeting a sector held by exhausted British troops and the understrength Portuguese Expeditionary Corps; a four-hour artillery barrage preceded infantry advances that overran Portuguese positions near Estaires and Messines, advancing up to 6 miles in places and capturing key ridges.^[38]^[40] Allied counterattacks, bolstered by arriving reserves from the Third Army and French divisions, stalled the German momentum by mid-April, though fighting continued until April 29 with Germans reaching within 3 miles of Hazebrouck before withdrawing due to supply strains and mounting losses.^[41] The battle inflicted approximately 80,000 British casualties, including many from gas attacks, while German forces suffered comparable attrition, weakening their overall offensive capacity.^[41] On April 21, German fighter ace Manfred von Richthofen, known as the Red Baron with 80 confirmed aerial victories, was shot down and killed near Vaux-sur-Somme during low-level combat; Canadian pilot Captain Roy Brown received credit, though evidence suggests possible ground fire contribution.^[42] His death marked a psychological blow to German morale amid escalating air losses. Other notable incidents included April 4 food riots in Amsterdam amid wartime shortages and April 14 when U.S. pilot Douglas Campbell became the first American flying ace by downing his fifth aircraft.^[43] In Russia, German-backed forces captured Ekaterinoslav on April 3, consolidating control in Ukraine post-Brest-Litovsk Treaty.^[39]

May

On 1 May, German forces under General Rüdiger von der Goltz captured Sevastopol in the Crimea from Bolshevik control, seizing several ships of the former Russian Black Sea Fleet as part of the Central Powers' intervention in the Russian Civil War.^[44] On 2 May, at the Abbeville Conference in France, Allied leaders including U.S. General John J. Pershing resolved disputes over American troop deployment; Pershing agreed to place U.S. divisions under French and British command for immediate counteroffensives, while insisting on eventual formation of a unified American army.^[45] On 7 May, Romania signed the Treaty of Bucharest with the Central Powers, ending its participation in World War I on the Allied side; the treaty forced Romania to cede southern Dobruja to Bulgaria, grant transit rights through Wallachia to Germany, lease Ploiești oil fields to Germany for 99 years, and demobilize its army, though King Ferdinand refused to ratify it and Romania later denounced the agreement after Bulgaria's capitulation in September.^[46] On 10 May, British forces conducted the Second Ostend Raid, scuttling the obsolete cruiser HMS Vindictive to block the Ostend harbor canal entrance and disrupt German U-boat operations, though strong currents and German fire prevented full success and resulted in heavy Royal Navy losses including over 100 killed.^[47] The Finnish Civil War concluded in mid-May with a White Guard victory; German expeditionary forces under General Carl Gustaf Mannerheim assisted White forces in capturing Helsinki on 12–13 May, leading to the Reds' surrender by 15 May and the execution or imprisonment of thousands of Red prisoners in subsequent "White Terror."^[48] On 16 May, the U.S. Congress passed the Sedition Act, amending the Espionage Act of 1917 to criminalize disloyal or abusive language against the government, flag, or military uniform, resulting in over 1,500 prosecutions during the war to suppress anti-war dissent.^[49] From 27 May to 5 June, Germany launched Operation Blücher, the third phase of its Spring Offensive known as the Third Battle of the Aisne; initial advances of up to 30 miles toward Paris captured Chemin des Dames heights and reached the Marne River, but at high cost exceeding 130,000 German casualties amid supply shortages and Allied reinforcements.^[37] On 28 May, U.S. forces under Colonel Robert R. McCoy launched the Battle of Cantigny, the first major independent American offensive of the war; the 28th Infantry Regiment of the 1st Division captured the village from German defenders after heavy artillery preparation, holding it against counterattacks at a cost of about 1,600 U.S. casualties including 305 killed.^[34]

June

June 1: The Battle of Belleau Wood commenced near the Marne River in France, marking one of the first major engagements for United States forces in World War I, as the U.S. 2nd Division, including Marines, countered a German advance during the Third Battle of the Aisne.^[50]^[51] June 2: American troops halted a German attempt to cross the Marne River at Château-Thierry, contributing to the stabilization of the Allied line southeast of Paris amid the ongoing German spring offensives.^[11] The battle persisted through June 26, resulting in heavy casualties—over 1,800 American dead and 8,000 wounded—while inflicting significant losses on German forces and earning U.S. Marines the nickname "Devil Dogs" from their adversaries.^[50] June 7: British forces landed at Kem in northern Russia as part of the initial phase of Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, aimed at reopening the Eastern Front against Germany and supporting anti-Bolshevik elements.^[52] On the same day, Czech Legion forces occupied the key Siberian railway town of Omsk, advancing their control amid clashes with Bolsheviks.^[52] June 9–13: German forces launched the Noyon-Montdidier Offensive (Operation Gneisenau), attacking along a 25-kilometer front between Noyon and Montdidier, achieving initial advances of up to seven kilometers before Allied counterattacks, including French and American units, contained the push with limited German gains.^[53]^[54] June 10: Italian torpedo boats MAS-15 and MAS-20 sank the Austro-Hungarian dreadnought SMS Szent István in the Adriatic Sea near Premuda, using two torpedoes that caused the ship to capsize after three hours; this action prevented Austro-Hungarian naval support for a planned bombardment of the Otranto Barrage and resulted in 89 crew deaths.^[55]^[56] These engagements on the Western Front and in peripheral theaters underscored the shifting momentum, with increasing Allied manpower and resolve blunting German initiatives as the war entered its final phase.^[38]

July

On July 6–7, members of the Left Socialist Revolutionary Party (Left SRs), opposed to the Bolsheviks' Brest-Litovsk Treaty with Germany, launched an uprising in Moscow, assassinating the German ambassador Wilhelm von Mirbach and seizing key buildings to provoke renewed war with the Central Powers. ^[57] The Bolsheviks, led by Felix Dzerzhinsky's Cheka, quickly suppressed the revolt, executing over 500 Left SRs and arresting leaders, solidifying Bolshevik control amid the Russian Civil War. ^[57] The Ottoman Sultan Mehmed V died on July 3 from heart failure, ending his 30-year reign during World War I; he was succeeded by his brother Mehmed VI, who faced mounting internal pressures as the empire neared collapse. In Russia, on the night of July 16–17, Bolshevik forces under Yakov Yurovsky executed Tsar Nicholas II, Tsarina Alexandra, their five children, and four retainers in the basement of the Ipatiev House in Yekaterinburg, motivated by fears of rescue by advancing White Army forces amid the civil war. The Romanov family's bodies were concealed and later desecrated to prevent veneration as martyrs. On the Western Front of World War I, Germany initiated the Marne-Reims Offensive on July 15 with 52 divisions in a two-pronged assault flanking Reims, aiming to split Allied lines and secure a decisive victory before anticipated U.S. reinforcements arrived in force. ^[10] Allied intelligence, including French intercepts of German plans, enabled a preemptive response; French, American, and British forces repelled the attack by July 18, inflicting heavy casualties and capturing 15,000 German prisoners during the Champagne-Marne phase. ^[58] ^[10] The failure prompted an immediate Allied counteroffensive, the Aisne-Marne Offensive starting July 18 under General Ferdinand Foch, involving over 20 divisions including significant U.S. troops, which pushed German forces back across the Marne River by July 20 and marked the beginning of sustained Allied momentum leading to the Hundred Days Offensive. ^[38] ^[34]

August

The Battle of Amiens commenced on August 8, involving the British Fourth Army, supported by Canadian, Australian, French, and American units, in a surprise assault against German positions east of Amiens, France.^[59] This operation, utilizing over 500 tanks, 2,000 artillery pieces, and 100,000 troops, achieved an initial advance of up to 11 kilometers on the first day, capturing approximately 13,000 German prisoners and 400 guns.^[60] German commander Erich Ludendorff later termed August 8 the "Black Day of the German Army" due to the scale of the collapse in morale and the breakthrough in lines previously held firmly.^[61] The battle concluded by August 11 with Allied forces securing a salient around 16 kilometers deep, though exploitation was halted to preserve surprise for subsequent offensives.^[62] The success at Amiens initiated the Hundred Days Offensive, a coordinated series of Allied attacks that continued through August, pushing German forces back across multiple sectors of the Western Front.^[63] British and Dominion troops advanced in the Battle of Albert starting August 21, recapturing key positions like Bapaume by late August, while French and American forces struck at Noyon and on the Aisne River.^[64] By month's end, the Allies had advanced up to 50 kilometers in places, inflicting over 200,000 German casualties and capturing vast quantities of materiel, exposing the exhaustion of German reserves after their earlier spring offensives.^[65] These gains shattered the Hindenburg Line's forward defenses, compelling German High Command to contemplate withdrawal to stronger positions.^[66] On August 30, Socialist Revolutionary Fanni Kaplan attempted to assassinate Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin outside a Moscow factory, firing three shots that wounded him in the neck and shoulder.^[67] Kaplan, motivated by opposition to Bolshevik policies she viewed as betraying the revolution, was arrested and executed days later, though debates persist over her sole responsibility due to inconsistencies in her confession and eyesight.^[68] The incident, coinciding with the murder of Petrograd Cheka head Moisei Uritsky, prompted Lenin to authorize intensified repression, inaugurating the Red Terror with mass executions of perceived enemies by the Cheka.^[67] This policy shift resulted in thousands of summary killings in September alone, consolidating Bolshevik control amid the Russian Civil War.^[69]

September

![Canadian troops advancing along the Arras-Cambrai road in 1918][float-right] In September 1918, Allied forces intensified their offensives against the Central Powers, marking a decisive phase in World War I. The United States Army's First Army, under General John J. Pershing, launched the Battle of Saint-Mihiel from September 12 to 16, the first independent major operation by American troops. Involving over 550,000 U.S. soldiers alongside French support, the offensive eliminated the Saint-Mihiel salient, a German-held bulge in the lines since 1914, capturing 15,000 German prisoners and inflicting approximately 22,000 casualties on the enemy while suffering around 7,000 American losses. Concurrently, in the Middle East, British Empire forces under General Edmund Allenby conducted the Battle of Megiddo from September 19 to 25, shattering Ottoman defenses in Palestine and Syria. The campaign, featuring surprise attacks, cavalry charges, and air support, resulted in the capture of 75,000 Ottoman prisoners and the destruction of five Turkish armies, accelerating the collapse of Ottoman resistance in the region.^[70] On the Western Front, the massive Meuse-Argonne Offensive commenced on September 26, mobilizing over 1.2 million American troops in the largest U.S. military operation to date. This attack aimed to breach German lines along a 24-kilometer front, ultimately contributing to the war's end despite initial setbacks and heavy casualties exceeding 26,000 Americans in the first weeks.^[71] British, Australian, and American units achieved a breakthrough on September 29 by crossing the St. Quentin Canal, puncturing the Hindenburg Line after a prolonged artillery barrage. This success, part of the broader Hundred Days Offensive, forced German retreats and signaled the impending defeat of the Imperial German Army.^[72] The month also saw the escalation of the second wave of the influenza pandemic in the United States, with explosive outbreaks in military camps and urban centers. In Philadelphia, following a large public Liberty Loan parade on September 28, influenza cases surged from hundreds to thousands within days, overwhelming hospitals and contributing to over 12,000 deaths in the city by year's end.^[73]

October

On October 1, Allied forces under British and Arab command captured Damascus from Ottoman control, marking a significant advance in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign.^[74] This victory weakened Ottoman positions in the Middle East and contributed to the broader collapse of their fronts.^[10] In the Balkans, King Ferdinand I of Bulgaria abdicated on October 3, following the recent armistice signed on September 29, which had already exited Bulgaria from the war; his son Boris III ascended the throne amid internal pressures from military defeats.^[74] Concurrently, on October 4, Germany formally requested an armistice from the Allies through neutral intermediaries, signaling the impending end of hostilities on the Western Front as defeats mounted and domestic unrest grew.^[37] Allied offensives intensified on the Western Front, with breakthroughs against the Hindenburg Line achieved by October 5, as American, British, and French forces pushed German defenses back.^[10] By October 8, British Third and Fourth Armies captured 8,000 German prisoners while advancing toward Cambrai and Le Cateau, part of the broader Hundred Days Offensive that reclaimed much of occupied France and Belgium.^[10] These gains, supported by Canadian Corps operations along the Arras-Cambrai road, eroded German morale and logistical capacity.^[75] On the Italian Front, the Battle of Vittorio Veneto commenced on October 24, involving Italian, British, French, and American troops against Austro-Hungarian forces; this offensive ultimately led to the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian army and hastened the empire's dissolution. American units within the Italian 31st Division participated actively in the initial assaults.^[76] Political upheavals accelerated toward month's end. On October 28, Czech politicians in Prague proclaimed the independent Czechoslovak state, capitalizing on the weakening Habsburg monarchy and Allied recognition of national self-determination.^[77] The German Revolution ignited on October 29 with a sailors' mutiny in the High Seas Fleet at Wilhelmshaven and Kiel, as crews refused orders for a final suicidal sortie against the Royal Navy; this defiance spread rapidly, forming workers' and soldiers' councils that challenged imperial authority.^[78] The mutiny reflected widespread war fatigue, food shortages, and demands for democratic reforms, setting the stage for the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II.^[79] Throughout October, the Spanish influenza pandemic peaked globally, with the United States recording nearly 200,000 deaths, exacerbating military and civilian strains; however, its impacts are detailed separately.^[80]

November

On November 3, Austria-Hungary signed the Armistice of Villa Giusti with the Allies at Padua, Italy, effectively ending hostilities on the Italian Front effective the following day.^[81] This agreement came amid internal collapse, with mutinies and ethnic demands for independence accelerating the dissolution of the Dual Monarchy.^[37] The German Revolution ignited on November 3 when sailors in Kiel mutinied against orders to engage in a final suicidal fleet action, seizing the city and sparking workers' councils across northern Germany.^[82] By November 7, revolutionary fervor reached Berlin, where crowds demanded the Kaiser's abdication. On November 9, Friedrich Ebert and Philipp Scheidemann proclaimed a German Republic to preempt a socialist takeover, while Kaiser Wilhelm II fled to exile in the Netherlands.^[10] These events marked the end of the German monarchy and the transition to a provisional government under the Social Democratic Party. Amid these political upheavals, the Spanish Influenza pandemic surged in November, fueled by Armistice celebrations and troop demobilizations that facilitated viral spread.^[83] In the United States, cities like Philadelphia reported daily death tolls exceeding 700, with global estimates attributing over 50 million fatalities to the disease by its conclusion.^[84] On November 11, at 5:45 a.m., German delegates signed the Armistice of Compiègne in a railway carriage in the Forest of Compiègne, France, halting fighting on the Western Front six hours later at 11 a.m.^[85] The terms required Germany to evacuate occupied territories, surrender military hardware, and accept Allied occupation of regions like the Rhineland, effectively ending World War I.^[86] Celebrations erupted worldwide, though underlying exhaustion and influenza tempered the euphoria. Elsewhere, national independence movements gained momentum: on November 6, the Regency Council in Warsaw dissolved itself, paving the way for an independent Polish republic under Józef Piłsudski.^[82] In Hungary, the Aster Revolution culminated on November 16 with Mihály Károlyi proclaiming a republic, dissolving the union with Austria.^[82] These shifts reflected the broader fragmentation of empires, setting the stage for redrawn European borders under the Paris Peace Conference.

December

On December 1, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was proclaimed in Belgrade, uniting the formerly separate states of Serbia, Montenegro, and the provisional State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs into a constitutional monarchy under King Peter I, with Alexander I as regent; this entity later became known as Yugoslavia.^[87] The same day, the Act of Union was signed between Iceland and Denmark, establishing a personal union that granted Iceland full legislative independence while retaining the Danish monarch as head of state.^[88] Allied forces continued their occupation of German territory in accordance with the Armistice terms; British troops entered Cologne on December 6, while French forces occupied Mainz on December 9, securing the Rhineland and bridgeheads across the Rhine to enforce demilitarization.^[89] ^[90] President Woodrow Wilson arrived in France on December 13 to engage directly in preliminary peace negotiations, marking the first visit by a sitting U.S. president to Europe, where he aimed to promote his Fourteen Points and the establishment of a League of Nations amid postwar reconstruction efforts.^[91] The Greater Poland Uprising erupted on December 27 in the Province of Posen (Poznań), as ethnic Poles, inspired by the recent restoration of Polish statehood and ignited by a patriotic speech from Ignacy Jan Paderewski on December 26, clashed with German authorities and paramilitary units, seeking to incorporate the region into the newly independent Second Polish Republic; the conflict arose from longstanding territorial disputes exacerbated by the collapse of German imperial control.^[92] Throughout December, demobilization of Allied and Central Powers troops accelerated, facilitating the spread of the ongoing influenza pandemic as returning soldiers mingled in ports and cities, contributing to sustained high mortality rates in Europe and beyond despite the war's end.^[83]

Date unknown

The Nakajima Aircraft Company, a pioneering Japanese manufacturer that later contributed to Subaru's origins, was established in 1918 by naval engineer Chikuhei Nakajima in Ota, Gunma Prefecture, initially as an aircraft research laboratory before formal incorporation.^[93] This venture represented one of Japan's early private efforts in aviation amid post-Russo-Japanese War industrialization, focusing on aircraft design and production without reliance on state subsidies at inception.^[94] The company's formation lacked a precisely documented date, reflecting the informal startup practices of the era's entrepreneurial landscape.^[95]

Spanish Influenza Pandemic

Origins and Global Spread

The first documented outbreak of the 1918 influenza pandemic occurred at Camp Funston, part of Fort Riley in Kansas, United States, where on March 4, 1918, U.S. Army Private Albert Gitchell reported flu-like symptoms including fever, headache, and muscle pain while working as a cook.^[96] ^[97] Within days, over 100 soldiers at the camp fell ill, with cases escalating to 1,100 hospitalizations by mid-March amid the crowded conditions of the 50,000-troop training facility.^[33] The causative agent was an H1N1 strain of influenza A virus of avian origin, distinct from seasonal flu due to its novel antigenic properties that evaded prior population immunity.^[98] Although Camp Funston marks the earliest well-documented cluster, hypotheses for the virus's true geographic origin include earlier circulation in British military camps in France or even China, based on retrospective reports of mild respiratory illnesses in late 1917 or early 1918; however, genetic analyses of preserved samples and phylogenetic reconstructions support the virus's emergence in the United States or Europe shortly before the Kansas outbreak, with no conclusive evidence for an Asian progenitor beyond avian reservoirs.^[99] ^[100] The misnomer "Spanish flu" arose not from Spain as the source but because that neutral country, unlike wartime-censored allies, permitted open press reporting of the disease's impact starting in May 1918.^[101] Initial spread within the U.S. accelerated through military mobilization, with infected troops from Camp Funston deploying to other domestic bases; by April 1918, outbreaks hit over 200 U.S. Army camps, infecting tens of thousands and killing around 45,000 soldiers overall during the war.^[33] ^[102] The first wave remained relatively mild, resembling a three-day fever with low mortality, but facilitated viral adaptation and seeding in civilian populations via returning personnel.^[4] Global dissemination was propelled by World War I's mass troop movements, as ships carrying American Expeditionary Forces transported the virus across the Atlantic; cases appeared in Brest, France, by April 1918 among arriving U.S. soldiers, then spread to British, French, and other Allied forces in Europe.^[83] By May, the pandemic reached Spain, Portugal, and the United Kingdom, with subsequent waves hitting Africa via colonial ports, India through British garrisons, and Asia including China and Japan by summer, ultimately encircling the globe within months and infecting one-third of the world's population.^[103] ^[9] Overcrowded trenches, hospitals, and transport networks amplified transmission, with demobilization after the November armistice triggering further surges in 1919.^[83]

Waves of Infection

The first wave of the 1918 H1N1 influenza pandemic occurred in the spring, beginning with cases detected on March 4, 1918, at Camp Funston, Fort Riley, Kansas, where over 100 U.S. Army recruits fell ill within days.^[104] The virus spread through American military camps and was transported to Europe via troop movements during World War I, affecting populations in Britain by May-June.^[105] Symptoms resembled seasonal influenza, with relatively low mortality; in the United States, approximately 75,000 influenza-related deaths occurred in the first half of 1918, comparable to prior years' averages of around 63,000.^[96] However, epidemiological data from New York City reveal excess all-cause mortality from February to April 1918, totaling about 4,600 deaths, with a notable shift toward younger adults aged 15-44, indicating an atypical early surge preceding broader recognition.^[106] The second wave emerged in late summer 1918, peaking from September to November and causing the majority of pandemic fatalities.^[104] Originating possibly from mutated strains in locations such as Brest, France, or Freetown, Sierra Leone, in August, it rapidly globalized through returning soldiers and shipping routes.^[107] This phase featured heightened virulence, with rapid onset of severe pneumonia, cyanosis, and hemorrhaging, disproportionately killing healthy young adults aged 20-40 via cytokine storms—overzealous immune responses leading to lung destruction.^[108] In the United States, October 1918 saw the deadliest concentrations, contributing most of the estimated 675,000 total deaths.^[104] A third wave commenced in the winter of 1918-1919, with initial escalations in December 1918 in some regions, though its primary impact extended into early 1919.^[104] Overall, the pandemic infected roughly one-third of the world's population, resulting in 50 million deaths globally, with the fall wave driving the exceptional lethality due to viral evolution and secondary bacterial infections.^[108]

Mortality and Demographic Impacts

The 1918 influenza pandemic caused an estimated 15 to 50 million deaths worldwide, with recent reassessments suggesting a lower figure of around 15 million when including comprehensive data from regions like India, corresponding to an excess death rate of approximately 788 per 100,000 population.^[5] ^[109] Earlier estimates, derived from incomplete records, often cited 50 million or more fatalities, reflecting the pandemic's disproportionate impact amid World War I disruptions to vital statistics collection.^[110] Excess mortality patterns revealed a stark deviation from typical seasonal influenza, with all-cause deaths surging by 86% in affected European populations during 1918–1919.^[111] Mortality exhibited a distinctive W-shaped age distribution, with elevated rates among young adults aged 20–40 years, contrasting the usual U-shaped curve dominated by infant and elderly deaths.^[111] In the United States, vulnerable groups under 1 year, 1–4 years, and over 65 years accounted for about two-thirds of total deaths, yet the prime-age cohort suffered unusually high per capita losses due to bacterial superinfections and cytokine storms.^[112] Globally, young adults bore a heavy toll, with some regions reporting mortality peaks in this group exceeding those in the elderly.^[109] Demographic impacts included significant orphanhood, particularly affecting children who lost parents in their prime working years, leading to emotional and economic hardships for survivors.^[113] Urban areas generally experienced higher mortality rates than rural ones, with cities showing up to 1% population loss compared to lower rural figures, though isolated rural communities sometimes faced extreme outbreaks with 90% fatality in small groups.^[114] ^[115] Regional variations were pronounced; for instance, Chile recorded a cumulative excess mortality of 93.9 deaths per 10,000 from 1918–1921, while U.S. urban Black populations saw elevated infectious disease deaths relative to whites, though overall racial disparities in influenza-pneumonia mortality narrowed during the event.^[116] ^[117] The pandemic contributed to short-term fertility declines in affected areas, exacerbating population stagnation in high-mortality regions like Europe and North America.^[111]

Public Health Responses and Government Policies

Public health authorities worldwide implemented non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) to curb the spread of the 1918 influenza pandemic, including school and business closures, bans on public gatherings, mask mandates, and quarantine measures, as no vaccines or antiviral treatments existed.^[118] These responses varied by locality and timing, with empirical evidence indicating that early and sustained NPIs reduced peak mortality rates; for instance, cities enforcing closures of schools, churches, and theaters before widespread transmission experienced lower death rates compared to those delaying action.^[119] In the United States, the Public Health Service under Surgeon General Rupert Blue coordinated federal efforts, issuing guidelines on September 27, 1918, urging citizens to avoid crowds and practice hygiene, while Congress allocated $1 million in October 1918 to recruit over 1,000 doctors and 700 nurses for emergency response.^[120]^[121] Local government policies in U.S. cities exemplified the impact of decisive action. St. Louis closed schools, theaters, and churches on October 5, 1918, shortly after detecting cases, resulting in a peak mortality rate of about 0.18% of population, far below Philadelphia's 0.74% after city officials permitted a Liberty Loan parade on September 28, 1918, amid rising cases, which accelerated transmission and led to over 12,000 deaths in that city alone by year's end.^[122] San Francisco enacted a mask ordinance on October 19, 1918, requiring gauze masks in public indoor spaces and streetcars, enforced by fines up to $100, though compliance waned and sparked the Anti-Mask League by late 1918 due to discomfort and doubts over efficacy.^[118] Federal oversight emphasized supportive care in emergency hospitals, such as those at Camp Funston, Kansas, where military bases isolated infected personnel and treated thousands, though overall U.S. mortality reached approximately 675,000.^[121] In Europe, wartime conditions constrained responses, with governments prioritizing military needs over civilian health; Britain implemented port quarantines and school closures in affected areas from July 1918, while France relied on military hospitals for triage but saw limited civilian lockdowns due to ongoing hostilities.^[118] Neutral Spain's uncensored reporting highlighted the pandemic's severity, prompting King Alfonso XIII's quarantine, yet the disease killed over 260,000 there amid resource shortages.^[123] Australia's federal policy of closing ports to infected ships from August 1918 prevented the second wave's arrival, averting widespread domestic mortality estimated at under 15,000, demonstrating the causal role of border controls in isolation.^[122] Across regions, inconsistent enforcement and public resistance—often fueled by war fatigue—limited NPI success, with retrospective analyses confirming that interventions delayed peaks but did not eradicate transmission without pharmaceutical aids.^[119]^[124]

Historiographical Debates and Myths

The designation "Spanish flu" is a historiographical misnomer, stemming from wartime censorship in belligerent nations during World War I, which suppressed reporting on the disease to maintain morale, while neutral Spain's uncensored press, including coverage of King Alfonso XIII's illness in May 1918, highlighted its severity.^[125] This led to erroneous association with Spain, despite no evidence of origination there; Spanish health officials themselves traced early cases to France in 1916–1917.^[100] Debates on the pandemic's origins persist among epidemiologists and historians, with hypotheses including a U.S. military camp in Kansas (first documented outbreak at Camp Funston on March 4, 1918, affecting 1,100 soldiers), a British Army base in Étaples, France (linked to "purulent bronchitis" cases from 1916–1917), or earlier circulation in China (pulmonary disease outbreaks in 1917–1918, potentially exported via Chinese laborers to Europe).^[100] ^[126] Genetic analyses of reconstructed 1918 H1N1 virus segments indicate an avian origin, possibly through reassortment with human strains, but lack definitive proof of geographic epicenter, complicated by incomplete pre-1918 records and wartime troop movements.^[127] ^[128] Historians caution that overemphasis on military origins may reflect bias toward Western sources, underplaying potential Asian precursors documented in Chinese medical reports.^[100] Mortality patterns fuel ongoing debates, with the pandemic's anomalous W-shaped age-specific curve—sparing infants and elderly while disproportionately killing young adults (20–40 years old, who comprised 50–60% of U.S. deaths despite lower overall susceptibility)—attributed variably to cytokine storms overwhelming immune responses in healthy individuals, secondary bacterial pneumonias (e.g., from Haemophilus influenzae), or environmental factors like wartime malnutrition and overcrowding.^[107] ^[114] Recent analyses challenge the "healthy young victim" narrative, showing frail or pre-existing condition bearers faced elevated risks, with excess frailty-linked deaths evident in U.S. data; global estimates range 50–100 million, varying by underreporting in regions like India (18 million claimed).^[129] ^[130] ^[131] A persistent myth attributes significant deaths to aspirin overuse, positing that doses up to 31.2 grains daily (8–31 grams, far exceeding modern limits) caused salicylate toxicity mimicking flu symptoms like pulmonary edema and hemorrhaging; however, this overlooks uniformly high fatality rates in aspirin-scarce regions (e.g., Africa, Asia) and the virus's direct cytopathic effects confirmed via lung pathology.^[132] ^[133] Quinine, promoted as a prophylactic (e.g., 5-grain doses multiple times daily in U.S. guidelines), represented another ineffective remedy borrowed from malaria protocols, with no antiviral efficacy against influenza despite widespread adoption.^[134] ^[135] Early conspiratorial claims, such as German-engineered bioweapons or U.S. vaccine experiments, emerged amid public distrust but lack empirical support, refuted by virological reconstruction showing natural H1N1 evolution.^[136] Historiographical critiques highlight how war-era propaganda skewed narratives, minimizing the pandemic's 675,000 U.S. toll relative to combat deaths to sustain enlistment, a pattern echoed in biased academic emphases on non-pharmacological interventions over viral agency.^[107]

End of World War I

German Spring Offensives

The German Spring Offensives, launched between 21 March and 18 July 1918, represented the Imperial German Army's final major attempt to secure victory on the Western Front before the arrival of substantial American reinforcements could tip the balance.^[66] General Erich Ludendorff, as First Quartermaster General, directed the operations, drawing on approximately 50 divisions redeployed from the Eastern Front following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918, which provided a temporary numerical edge of about 192 divisions against the Allies' 170.^[35] The strategy emphasized Stosstruppen (stormtrooper) infiltration tactics, involving small, mobile units bypassing fortified positions to exploit gaps, supported by a massive artillery barrage of over 6,000 guns firing more than one million shells in the initial assault.^[137] These tactics yielded rapid initial advances but strained German logistics and manpower, as divisions advanced up to 60 kilometers without adequate supply lines, leading to high attrition rates.^[138] The first phase, Operation Michael, commenced at 4:40 a.m. on 21 March with a five-hour bombardment targeting the British Third and Fifth Armies between Arras and La Fère, shrouded in fog that aided German surprise.^[139] German forces under Crown Prince Rupprecht advanced nearly 40 miles in places, capturing 1,100 square miles of territory, 90,000 prisoners, and over 1,300 guns, while inflicting approximately 200,000 British casualties.^[139] However, Ludendorff diverted reserves prematurely toward Arras instead of pressing toward the key rail junction at Amiens, halting the offensive on 5 April after German casualties reached 239,000, with exhausted troops unable to consolidate gains amid lengthening supply lines vulnerable to Allied interdiction.^[138] Subsequent operations sought to maintain momentum but yielded diminishing returns. Operation Georgette (Lys Offensive), from 9 to 29 April, targeted the British First and Second Armies in Flanders, advancing to within sight of Ypres and capturing Kemmel Hill after heavy fighting, but faltered against reinforced positions, costing another 110,000 German casualties.^[66] The Third Offensive in May–June, including assaults near Amiens and Noyon-Montdidier, involved diversionary attacks that recaptured Chemin des Dames but advanced only 10–15 kilometers before stalling due to French counterattacks and artillery superiority.^[35] The final push, the Champagne-Marne Offensive on 15–18 July, pitted 31 German divisions against Allied forces, including U.S. units, but collapsed after minimal gains of 6–8 kilometers amid fierce resistance and flanking maneuvers, marking the offensives' strategic failure.^[38] Across all phases, German forces suffered over 680,000 casualties, depleting elite units and eroding morale, while Allied defenses, bolstered by rapid reinforcements and improved coordination under Ferdinand Foch, held critical lines despite 850,000 losses.^[137] Ludendorff's lack of a unified operational objective—shifting between separating Anglo-French armies and capturing Paris—compounded logistical overextension, as horse-drawn supply columns could not sustain motorized Allied mobility, ultimately transferring the initiative to the Allies by midsummer.^[138]

Allied Counteroffensives

Following the halt of the German Spring Offensives, which had depleted German manpower and resources, Allied Supreme Commander Ferdinand Foch initiated a series of coordinated counterattacks on the Western Front starting in July 1918. The first major action was the Allied counteroffensive at the Second Battle of the Marne on July 18, where French and American forces, supported by British units, pushed back German advances, recapturing key territory and inflicting approximately 168,000 German casualties while suffering around 95,000 of their own.^[64]^[10] This success marked the turning point, as Allied forces now held numerical superiority with over 2 million fresh American troops arriving and superior artillery and tank capabilities. The pivotal Battle of Amiens commenced on August 8, 1918, involving the British Fourth Army—comprising Canadian, Australian, and British divisions—alongside French units, launching a surprise assault with over 500 tanks, extensive air support, and infantry tactics emphasizing infiltration. In the first day, Allies advanced up to 8 miles, capturing 13,000 German prisoners, 400 guns, and inflicting 27,000 German casualties, including 12,000 surrenders, in what German Quartermaster General Erich Ludendorff later termed "the black day of the German Army." Allied losses at Amiens totaled about 12,000, but the rapid breakthrough shattered German morale and defensive lines, enabling continued momentum.^[61]^[140]^[59] This initiated the broader Hundred Days Offensive, a relentless series of attacks from August 8 to November 11, 1918, involving British, French, American, Belgian, and Commonwealth forces that advanced over 60 miles, liberating key towns and breaching the Hindenburg Line through operations like the Battle of the Canal du Nord in late September and the Meuse-Argonne Offensive starting September 26. German forces suffered over 760,000 casualties, including 386,000 prisoners, compared to approximately 700,000 Allied losses, as supply lines stretched thin and desertions increased amid collapsing logistics and influenza-weakened units.^[64]^[141] These offensives compelled Germany to seek an armistice, demonstrating the causal impact of Allied material superiority, tactical innovations like combined arms, and German exhaustion from prior gambles.^[66]

Armistice and Cessation of Hostilities

The Armistice of 11 November 1918 marked the cessation of hostilities between the Allied Powers and Germany in World War I, signed at 5:05 a.m. French time in a railway carriage in the Forest of Compiègne, France.^[1] The agreement followed Germany's request for an armistice on 4 October 1918, amid mounting military defeats and internal collapse, with Allied Supreme Commander Marshal Ferdinand Foch presenting non-negotiable terms to the German delegation led by Matthias Erzberger, a Centre Party politician and state secretary without full powers to negotiate.^[142]^[143] Erzberger's team, including diplomats like Count Alfred von Oberndorff, had traveled ten hours across war-devastated northern France under Allied escort to reach the site.^[143] The armistice stipulated an immediate cessation of hostilities by land, sea, and air six hours after signing, effective at 11:00 a.m. on 11 November across the entire Western Front, with notification required to all commands to enforce the halt.^[1]^[85] Additional terms mandated the prompt evacuation of Belgium, France, Alsace-Lorraine, Luxembourg, and the left bank of the Rhine, plus Allied rights to occupy fortresses like Metz and Strasbourg and the Rhineland bridgeheads, while prohibiting German troop concentrations east of the Rhine.^[1] Germany was also required to surrender significant military matériel, including 5,000 guns, 25,000 machine guns, 1,700 aircraft, and naval vessels, and to repatriate Allied prisoners without reciprocity until peace terms were finalized.^[1] These provisions aimed to prevent any resumption of offensive actions and secure Allied positions pending a full peace treaty.^[142] Implementation began immediately upon signing, with Foch notifying Allied commanders of the ceasefire timing, though isolated fighting persisted in some sectors until the designated hour due to communication delays and ongoing engagements, such as the final American advance near Sedan.^[85]^[144] The armistice, initially set for 36 days and renewable, effectively ended large-scale combat, as Germany lacked capacity or will to renew hostilities, though naval and colonial skirmishes lingered briefly.^[142] Signing representatives included Foch and British Admiral Rosslyn Wemyss for the Allies, alongside Erzberger and others for Germany, underscoring the unilateral imposition of terms amid Germany's revolutionary turmoil.^[1] This cessation facilitated the demobilization of millions of troops and shifted focus to postwar settlements, despite unaddressed issues like the ongoing Eastern Front conflicts with Bolshevik Russia.^[144]

Immediate Aftermath and Strategic Controversies

The armistice agreement, signed in a railway carriage in Compiègne Forest at 5:10 a.m. on November 11, 1918, took effect at 11:00 a.m., halting hostilities on the Western Front after over four years of attrition warfare that had claimed millions of lives.^[85] ^[145] Allied forces, having repelled German spring offensives and launched successful counterattacks, occupied the Rhineland and bridgeheads across the Rhine to enforce evacuation of invaded territories and demobilization of German forces.^[146] The ceasefire prevented further Allied advances into Germany but did not immediately end all combat, as peripheral theaters saw sporadic fighting into 1919.^[142] In Germany, the armistice coincided with revolutionary upheaval; naval mutinies in Kiel on October 29, 1918, escalated into widespread strikes and uprisings, forcing Kaiser Wilhelm II's abdication on November 9 and the proclamation of a republic by Philipp Scheidemann.^[147] The new civilian government, under pressure from military collapse and economic exhaustion—including the Allied naval blockade that persisted until July 1919—accepted the armistice terms, which demanded surrender of weapons, release of prisoners, and Allied right to requisition resources.^[8] Demobilization of millions of troops followed, straining logistics and contributing to social unrest, while Allied occupation ensured compliance amid fears of German resurgence.^[148] Strategic controversies centered on the causes of Germany's defeat, with military leaders like Erich Ludendorff and Paul von Hindenburg attributing it not to battlefield losses but to domestic "betrayal" via the stab-in-the-back myth (Dolchstoßlegende), claiming the undefeated army was undermined by revolutionaries, socialists, and civilians.^[149] ^[150] Hindenburg reinforced this in his November 1919 testimony to a Reichstag inquiry, asserting the revolution provided the "keystone" for collapse and quoting an unnamed British general to argue the army was "stabbed in the back" rather than defeated militarily.^[151] ^[152] This narrative, propagated to shield the high command from accountability for strategic failures—such as the exhausted Spring Offensives of 1918 and inability to counter Allied material superiority fueled by American entry—gained traction despite evidence of German troop starvation, mutinies from frontline attrition, and irreversible retreat under Foch's offensives.^[153] ^[18] Historians counter the myth with causal analysis: Germany's defeat stemmed from overextension on multiple fronts, submarine campaign provoking U.S. intervention, and the blockade's erosion of industrial capacity, leaving armies unable to sustain 1918 offensives against numerically and logistically superior foes.^[154] ^[18] Ludendorff himself had urged the armistice in October 1918 after recognizing military futility, yet later shifted blame to civilians, a maneuver critiqued as self-preservation amid the high command's mismanagement of resources and refusal to adapt to total war dynamics.^[155] These debates persisted, influencing Weimar instability by fostering resentment against the Versailles Treaty, which formalized the military capitulation the myth sought to obscure.^[156]

Russian Civil War and Bolshevik Consolidation

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and Withdrawals

The Bolshevik government, following its seizure of power in November 1917, pursued an armistice with the Central Powers to end Russia's involvement in World War I and redirect resources toward internal consolidation. An armistice was agreed upon on December 15, 1917, halting hostilities on the Eastern Front, after which negotiations commenced in Brest-Litovsk (now Brest, Belarus) on December 22.^[30]^[31] Led by Leon Trotsky, the Soviet delegation initially pursued a strategy of "no war, no peace," rejecting both continuation of the conflict and acceptance of the Central Powers' demands for extensive territorial concessions in late January 1918. This stance provoked the Germans and Austro-Hungarians to resume their offensive on February 18, 1918, advancing rapidly—up to 150 miles in some sectors—against disorganized and deserting Russian forces, which lacked effective command and supply.^[30]^[157] Faced with military collapse, Vladimir Lenin argued for immediate acceptance of terms to preserve the regime, overriding opposition from figures like Nikolai Bukharin and the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, who viewed the treaty as a capitulation that would undermine revolutionary internationalism. On February 23, 1918, the Bolshevik Central Committee voted 7-4 to authorize signing, with Lenin casting decisive votes; the treaty was formally concluded on March 3, 1918, between Soviet Russia and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire).^[30]^[158] The treaty's terms imposed severe losses on Russia, ceding approximately 1 million square kilometers of territory, including the recognition of Finnish independence, the transfer of Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and Belarus to German control or influence, and the detachment of Ukraine as a nominally independent entity under Central Powers occupation. Additional provisions handed Kars, Ardahan, and Batum to the Ottomans, while Russia relinquished claims to parts of the Caucasus; overall, these concessions stripped Russia of about 34% of its pre-war population (roughly 55-62 million people), 54% of its industrial capacity, 89% of coal production, and significant agricultural lands.^[30]^[159] In exchange for peace, the treaty mandated the withdrawal of Russian forces from all fronts and occupied territories, accelerating the demobilization of the Imperial Russian Army, which had already suffered mass desertions numbering over 2 million soldiers since 1917. By spring 1918, remaining units disbanded without formal replacement, as Bolshevik policy emphasized revolutionary militias over a standing army, freeing personnel and materiel for the emerging civil war but exacerbating internal anarchy as returning troops often joined White, Green, or anarchist factions.^[158]^[157] This exit from the war enabled the Bolsheviks to consolidate control in central Russia, suppressing opposition in Petrograd and Moscow, though the treaty's unpopularity—evident in protests and the Left SRs' withdrawal from the government—intensified domestic divisions, contributing to the civil war's escalation by mid-1918. The terms were later nullified by the Armistice of November 11, 1918, and the Treaty of Versailles, but the immediate effect was to validate Bolshevik realpolitik over ideological purity, prioritizing regime survival.^[158]^[30]

Red Terror and Internal Repressions

The Bolsheviks initiated widespread internal repressions shortly after seizing power, establishing the Cheka (Extraordinary Commission) on December 20, 1917, under Felix Dzerzhinsky to combat counter-revolution and sabotage, granting it authority for arrests and executions without judicial oversight.^[160] By mid-1918, these measures escalated amid civil unrest, including the suppression of the Left Socialist-Revolutionary (Left SR) uprising on July 6, 1918, when Left SR members assassinated the German ambassador Wilhelm von Mirbach in Moscow to derail the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and provoke renewed war, prompting Bolshevik forces to retake key positions and execute over 500 rebels.^[57] ^[161] Repressions intensified following assassination attempts on Bolshevik leaders in late August 1918, including the killing of Petrograd Cheka chief Moisei Uritsky on August 30 and the wounding of Vladimir Lenin on the same day by Fannie Kaplan, a former SR affiliated figure.^[162] These events prompted the Council of People's Commissars to issue the "Resolution on Red Terror" on September 5, 1918, formalizing a policy of mass terror against "class enemies," mandating the shooting of active counter-revolutionaries and hostage-taking from bourgeois families to deter opposition.^[163] The decree emphasized immediate, non-judicial executions, expanding Cheka powers and targeting Socialist-Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, anarchists, clergy, and perceived saboteurs, framing terror as a necessary response to White and foreign threats despite official Bolshevik rhetoric distinguishing it from revolutionary violence.^[164] Implementation of the Red Terror in 1918 involved summary executions, concentration camps, and forced labor, with the Cheka reporting 6,300 official executions across twenty provinces by year's end, though contemporary accounts and later analyses suggest underreporting due to decentralized operations and incentives to minimize disclosures in Soviet records.^[160] Victims included thousands of political opponents, such as over 1,300 executed in Petrograd alone in the weeks following the decree, alongside broader campaigns against rural dissenters and urban intellectuals, consolidating Bolshevik control by eliminating internal socialist rivals and preempting White advances.^[165] These measures, rooted in Lenin's advocacy for "mass terror" against exploiters as articulated in prior directives, prioritized regime survival over legal norms, setting precedents for future Soviet represssions while drawing criticism from figures like Lev Kamenev for excessive scope, though ultimately endorsed by the party leadership.^[166]

White Army Offensives and Failures

In early 1918, the Volunteer Army, the primary White force in southern Russia, conducted limited offensives following the Ice March from February 23 to March 1918, during which it briefly captured Rostov-on-Don on February 23 before being driven out by a Red counterattack on February 25.^[167] An attempt to seize Yekaterinodar (now Krasnodar) from April 10 to 13 ended in failure, with the death of commander Lavr Kornilov on April 13, leading Anton Denikin to assume leadership of the approximately 3,000-man force.^[167] These operations highlighted early White tactical gains against disorganized Red units but were constrained by the army's small size, logistical strains from operating in the Kuban steppe, and inability to secure broader Cossack or peasant support due to unresolved land reform disputes. Simultaneously, in the Volga region, anti-Bolshevik forces allied with the Czechoslovak Legion—initially around 40,000 strong—launched offensives after their revolt began on May 14, 1918, capturing Samara on June 8 and establishing the socialist-oriented Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly (Komuch).^[168] Komuch's People's Army, numbering about 3,000 by midsummer and reinforced by Czech units, advanced westward, culminating in the capture of Kazan on August 7 after battles involving roughly 11,000 Reds against 6,000 Whites and Czechs.^[167] This offensive recovered part of the Imperial Russian gold reserves, bolstering White finances temporarily, but exposed vulnerabilities as forces overextended supply lines along the Volga. Coordinated diversions in the north, such as the Yaroslavl uprising from July 6 to 21 led by White officer Sergei Savinkov with British funding, aimed to draw Red troops from the Volga front; similar risings occurred in Rybinsk and Murom.^[169] Involving about 1,000 rebels against local Bolshevik garrisons, these held Yaroslavl briefly but collapsed under Red assaults by July 21, with heavy civilian reprisals following suppression.^[169] These 1918 offensives faltered due to White disunity, as regional commands in the south, east, and north operated without centralized strategy, allowing Bolsheviks under Leon Trotsky to concentrate superior numbers—often 2:1 or more—via interior rail lines controlling central Russia.^[170] Political fragmentation exacerbated military setbacks: Komuch's democratic-socialist platform clashed with monarchist elements in the Volunteer Army, eroding peasant allegiance as Whites frequently restored pre-revolutionary landholdings, contrasting Bolshevik promises of redistribution.^[169] The Red counteroffensive reclaimed Kazan by September 10, exploiting White exhaustion and Czech Legion dispersal along the Trans-Siberian Railway for repatriation priorities over sustained alliance.^[167] Overall, White forces peaked at localized successes totaling under 100,000 combatants by late 1918 but failed to link fronts or inspire mass desertions from the Red Army, which grew to over 300,000 through conscription and ideological mobilization.^[170]

International Dimensions and Interventions

The Allied powers initiated military interventions in Russia during 1918 primarily to safeguard stockpiles of war materiel from German capture and Bolshevik seizure, while initially aiming to revive the Eastern Front against the Central Powers. In March 1918, British forces, including 130 Royal Marines, landed at Murmansk to secure Allied supplies in the northern ports, followed by additional contingents from Britain, France, and the United States.^[171] By June 1918, U.S. troops conducted their first landing in Russia at these northern sites, with American forces numbering around 5,000 in the North Russia theater by August.^[172] On August 2, 1918, U.S. troops arrived at Archangel, joining British and other Allied units in operations against Bolshevik forces, though initial engagements were limited to patrols and defensive actions amid harsh winter conditions.^[173] These North Russia efforts involved multinational forces totaling approximately 18,000 Allied troops by late 1918, focused on holding key areas but hampered by unclear objectives and reliance on unreliable White Russian allies.^[174] In Siberia, the intervention escalated in May 1918 following clashes between the Czechoslovak Legion—around 50,000 Czech and Slovak troops stranded along the Trans-Siberian Railway—and Bolshevik forces. After Leon Trotsky ordered the execution of armed Czechs on May 25, the Legion seized control of significant railway segments, prompting Allied decisions to dispatch expeditionary forces to support their evacuation and counter Bolshevik advances.^[175] The United States committed about 13,000 troops to Siberia starting in August 1918, while Japan deployed the largest contingent, exceeding 72,000 soldiers by October 1918, ostensibly to stabilize the region but extending operations into unilateral occupation of Vladivostok and beyond.^[176] British, French, and smaller Italian and Chinese units also participated, with the Siberian theater involving over 100,000 foreign troops by year's end, though coordination faltered due to divergent national interests—Japan pursuing territorial ambitions in the Russian Far East, contrasting with the more restrained Western Allies.^[177] Southern interventions remained nascent in 1918, with French and British naval forces blockading Black Sea ports and landing small detachments in Odessa by December to support White forces, amid concerns over Bolshevik threats to the Caucasus oil fields. German occupation of Ukraine and the Baltic under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk complicated Allied efforts until the November 11 Armistice, after which Central Power withdrawals created vacuums exploited by both Reds and Whites. These interventions, totaling forces from 14 nations, failed to decisively bolster White offensives due to logistical strains, post-World War I war-weariness, and Bolshevik propaganda framing foreigners as imperial aggressors, which alienated Russian populations and unified Red resistance.^[178] By late 1918, the operations had transitioned from anti-German to explicitly anti-Bolshevik aims, yet limited commitment—exemplified by U.S. reluctance for deep involvement—ensured they prolonged rather than resolved the civil war.^[179]

Geopolitical Realignments

Collapse of Empires and New States

The German Empire collapsed in the wake of military defeat and domestic unrest during the German Revolution of 1918–1919. On November 9, 1918, Chancellor Max von Baden announced Kaiser Wilhelm II's abdication without the monarch's prior consent, as revolutionary fervor swept through major cities and mutinies spread among the armed forces.^[180] This event marked the end of the Hohenzollern dynasty's rule and the transition to the Weimar Republic, proclaimed the same day by Philipp Scheidemann from the Reichstag balcony.^[181] The Austro-Hungarian Empire underwent rapid dissolution triggered by Emperor Charles I's People's Manifesto on October 16, 1918, which aimed to federalize the dual monarchy but instead emboldened nationalist movements. Hungary's national council asserted independence from Austria on October 17, 1918, severing ties within the empire. Czechoslovakia declared independence on October 28, 1918, in Prague, with Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk recognized as president in exile shortly thereafter. The empire formally ceased to exist after the armistice on November 3, 1918, yielding successor states including the Republic of Austria and the People's Republic of Hungary.^[182]^[183] The Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros on October 30, 1918, aboard the HMS Agamemnon, halting its participation in World War I and opening the door to Allied occupation of strategic territories. This agreement, which included the surrender of Ottoman fleets and fortresses, facilitated the empire's partition under subsequent treaties, though resistance persisted through the Turkish National Movement led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. By early 1919, Allied forces occupied Constantinople and key ports, eroding central authority.^[184]^[185] Emerging from these imperial collapses were several new nation-states in Central and Eastern Europe. The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes—proclaimed on December 1, 1918, in Belgrade—united South Slav territories from Austria-Hungary with the Kingdom of Serbia, under King Peter I's son Alexander as regent. Poland reemerged as the Second Polish Republic on November 11, 1918, when the Regency Council transferred power to Józef Piłsudski, drawing from German, Austro-Hungarian, and Russian lands. In the Baltic region, Latvia declared independence on November 18, 1918, following earlier assertions by Estonia (February 24) and Lithuania (February 16), amid conflicts with Bolshevik and German forces that continued into 1919–1920. These states faced immediate border disputes and interventions but established sovereignty rooted in ethnic self-determination principles articulated during the war.^[186]^[187] In the United Kingdom, the Representation of the People Act, passed on February 6, 1918, extended the franchise to women aged 30 or older who met minimum property or occupancy qualifications, enfranchising roughly 8.4 million women and enabling their participation in the general election held on December 14, 1918.^[188] The Act simultaneously lowered the male voting age to 21 and eliminated property restrictions for men, expanding the total electorate from about 7.7 million to 21.4 million.^[189] This partial suffrage reform reflected wartime contributions by women in munitions factories and other roles, though full equality with men required the Equal Franchise Act of 1928.^[190] Across Central and Eastern Europe, the collapse of empires amid wartime defeats prompted rapid suffrage extensions to women as part of revolutionary or provisional governments. In Germany, the Council of People's Deputies decreed universal suffrage for both sexes on November 12, 1918, applying to the constituent assembly election of January 19, 1919, where women comprised 41.8% of delegates elected.^[189] Austria followed on November 19, 1918, with its provisional national assembly granting equal voting rights to women over 24.^[189] Poland, regaining independence on November 11, 1918, included women's suffrage in its electoral law of November 28, allowing female participation in the Sejm elections of January 1919.^[189] Similar provisions emerged in newly independent Baltic states: Estonia (December 1918), Latvia, and Lithuania, where women voted in founding assemblies.^[189] Hungary temporarily granted women the vote in 1918 before revocation in 1919 amid counter-revolution.^[189] In the United States, the House of Representatives passed the federal constitutional amendment for women's suffrage on January 10, 1918, by a vote of 274 to 136, amid President Woodrow Wilson's endorsement and wartime labor arguments, though Senate approval and ratification by states extended to 1920.^[191] These reforms coincided with broader social shifts driven by the war's end and demobilization, which displaced millions of women from wartime employment as men returned, prompting government policies to encourage traditional family roles.^[192] In the UK, the Education Act of 1918 raised the school leaving age to 14, mandated local education authorities to provide nursery schools and special needs provisions, and promoted vocational training, aiming to address postwar labor shortages and youth welfare amid influenza pandemic disruptions.^[190] Such measures reflected empirical pressures from war-induced population losses—over 700,000 British dead—and the need for a healthier, skilled workforce, though implementation varied due to economic strain.^[190] Across Europe, the Spanish Flu pandemic, peaking in autumn 1918, exacerbated social upheaval, killing an estimated 50 million globally and straining public health systems, which accelerated rudimentary sanitation reforms in affected cities.^[193]

Economic Disruptions and Blockade Effects

The Allied naval blockade of Germany, implemented from the outset of World War I and intensified through measures like the "distant blockade" in the North Sea, drastically curtailed imports of foodstuffs, fertilizers, and raw materials essential for both military and civilian sustenance. By 1918, German food supplies had dwindled to critically low levels, with per capita caloric intake averaging below 1,150 calories daily during the harsh winter months—far short of physiological requirements for survival and labor productivity. This scarcity stemmed from the blockade's interception of neutral shipping and prohibition of trade in contraband goods, compounded by domestic factors such as manpower shortages in agriculture due to military conscription.^[194]^[195] Civilian mortality surged as a direct consequence, with estimates attributing 478,500 to 800,000 excess deaths to malnutrition-aggravated diseases like tuberculosis and influenza between 1914 and 1919, many occurring in 1918 amid the Spanish flu pandemic's overlap with famine conditions. German public health authorities documented a sharp rise in monthly civilian deaths, from an average of 78,820 in 1913 to 191,320 by October 1918, reflecting the blockade's toll on vulnerable populations including children and the elderly. Economic output contracted severely: industrial production fell by over 40% from pre-war levels by late 1918, as coal and metal shortages halted factories, while agricultural yields dropped due to fertilizer embargoes and livestock slaughter for food. These disruptions fueled labor unrest, including widespread strikes in major cities like Berlin and Vienna, which paralyzed production and accelerated the collapse of the Central Powers' home fronts.^[194] Even after the Armistice of 11 November 1918, the blockade persisted under Allied policy to enforce compliance with peace terms, only easing gradually through provisional food relief agreements in early 1919 and fully lifting by July following the Treaty of Versailles. This prolongation intensified economic chaos in the nascent Weimar Republic, with demobilized soldiers returning to hyperinflated markets where bread prices had quadrupled since 1914 and unemployment soared amid dismantled war industries. The policy's civilian targeting, as acknowledged in British naval records, prioritized strategic leverage over immediate humanitarian relief, contributing to revolutionary upheavals by eroding public support for the government and exacerbating class tensions over rationing inequities. While some Allied apologists downplayed the blockade's role relative to German U-boat campaigns, contemporaneous analyses confirm its decisive contribution to economic strangulation, independent of battlefield losses.^[196]^[197]^[198]

Births

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

Deaths

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

Nobel Prizes

Laureates and Contributions

In 1918, Nobel Prizes were conferred in Physics and Chemistry amid World War I disruptions, which postponed awards in Physiology or Medicine, Literature, and Peace until subsequent years.^[199] The Physics prize recognized foundational work in quantum theory, while the Chemistry prize honored a breakthrough in industrial synthesis critical to agriculture. The Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck of Germany "in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta."^[200] Planck's 1900 resolution of the black-body radiation problem introduced the concept of energy quantization, positing that electromagnetic radiation emits in discrete packets (quanta) with energy E = h\nu, where h is Planck's constant and \nu is frequency.^[201] This departure from classical physics laid the groundwork for quantum mechanics, explaining spectral distribution discrepancies that Rayleigh-Jeans and Wien approximations failed to resolve.^[201] The Nobel Prize in Chemistry went to Fritz Haber of Germany "for the synthesis of ammonia from its elements."^[202] Haber developed a high-pressure, high-temperature process around 1909–1913, combining atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) and hydrogen (H₂) over an iron catalyst to yield ammonia (NH₃), later scaled industrially by Carl Bosch.^[203] This Haber-Bosch process enabled mass production of nitrogen fertilizers, averting widespread famine by supporting crop yields for a growing global population; by the 1910s, natural guano and nitrate supplies were depleting, threatening food security.^[203] Annual ammonia output reached millions of tons, sustaining agriculture during and after wartime blockades.^[204]

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In 1918 Flu Pandemic, Mortality in Urban and Isolated Rural Areas ...
Apr 27, 2011 · In urban communities, less than 1 in 100 inhabitants died from Spanish flu in 1918, but in isolated communities up to 9 out of 10 died.Missing: credible | Show results with:credible
[116]
Death Patterns during the 1918 Influenza Pandemic in Chile - CDC
Oct 17, 2014 · The cumulative excess mortality rate during the 1918–1921 study period was estimated at 93.9 deaths per 10,000 population (RR 129%), ...Missing: toll | Show results with:toll
[117]
Racial Disparities in Mortality During the 1918 Influenza Pandemic ...
Oct 1, 2022 · The 1918 influenza pandemic resulted in a striking reduction of non-White to White influenza and pneumonia mortality disparities in United States cities.<|control11|><|separator|>
[118]
Managing the Masses During the 1918–1919 Influenza Pandemic
The response to pandemic influenza in 1918 drew on elements of disease control used to manage a wide range of communicable diseases. For fast-moving epidemics, ...
[119]
Public health interventions and epidemic intensity during the 1918 ...
Early implementation of certain interventions, including closure of schools, churches, and theaters, was associated with lower peak death rates.
[120]
The Influenza Epidemic of 1918 - National Archives
New York City, October 16, 1918. Letter carriers, mass transit workers, and others who came in contact with the public, were especially vulnerable to disease.
[121]
The 1918-1919 Influenza Pandemic in the United States - NIH
During the pandemic's zenith, many cities shut down essential services. Public health professionals on the home front, including many volunteer nurses, deployed ...
[122]
Nonpharmaceutical Interventions Implemented by US Cities During ...
Aug 8, 2007 · The 1918 experience suggests that sustained nonpharmaceutical interventions are beneficial and need to be “on” throughout the particular peak of ...
[123]
The effect of public health measures on the 1918 influenza ... - PNAS
The most important conclusion from this work is that the timing of public health interventions had a profound influence on the pattern of the autumn wave of the ...
[124]
Nonpharmaceutical Interventions for Pandemic Influenza, National ...
Reports from many countries indicate that mandatory case reporting and isolating patients during the influenza pandemic of 1918 did not stop virus transmission ...
[125]
Lessons Learned from the 1918–1919 Influenza Pandemic in ... - NIH
The true origin of the 1918 influenza pandemic is unknown. During World War I, propaganda in war-engaged countries only permitted encouraging news, so as a ...
[126]
origins of the great pandemic | Evolution, Medicine, and Public Health
Jan 18, 2019 · Here, we critically review competing hypotheses on the timing and geographical origin of this important outbreak and provide new historical ...
[127]
The Origins of Pandemic Influenza — Lessons from the 1918 Virus
Nov 24, 2005 · Five of the genes of today's H3N2 influenza virus have their origin in the 1918 pandemic. The Two Mechanisms whereby Pandemic Influenza ...
[128]
Origin and evolution of the 1918 “Spanish” influenza virus ... - PNAS
The “Spanish” influenza pandemic killed over 20 million people in 1918 and 1919, making it the worst infectious pandemic in history.Missing: debate | Show results with:debate
[129]
Frailty and survival in the 1918 influenza pandemic - PNAS
Oct 9, 2023 · The results suggest that frail or unhealthy individuals were more likely to die during the pandemic than those who were not frail.
[130]
Killer 1918 flu didn't pick on the healthy, after all | Science
Oct 9, 2023 · During the 1918–19 flu pandemic, however, doctors and other observers noted a high death toll among young, presumably hale adults. A wealth of ...
[131]
Reassessing the Global Mortality Burden of the 1918 Influenza ...
Mortality estimates of the 1918 influenza pandemic vary considerably, and recent estimates have suggested that there were 50 million to 100 million deaths ...
[132]
Ten Myths About the 1918 Flu Pandemic - Smithsonian Magazine
Jan 12, 2018 · Large doses of aspirin can lead to many of the pandemic's symptoms, including bleeding. However, death rates seem to have been equally high in ...
[133]
In 1918 Pandemic, Another Possible Killer: Aspirin
Oct 12, 2009 · It appears that a small number of the deaths may have been caused not by the virus, but by a drug used to treat it: aspirin.
[134]
1918 Influenza: A Winnebago County, Wisconsin Perspective - PMC
It defines Spanish Influenza as the “Three Day Fever” caused by Pfeiffer's bacillus. Treatment recommendations were two to four doses of quinine of 5 grains ...
[135]
The Spanish influenza: the deadly pandemic of 1918
Nov 11, 2018 · A prime example of this was salt with quinine, a common medication for malaria at the time, which people used as a flu treatment. Many quinine ...
[136]
The flu pandemic of 1918 and early conspiracy theories
Sep 29, 2020 · Ironically, some later studies have suggested that aspirin may indeed have worsened some symptoms of the flu responsible for the pandemic, but ...
[137]
Voices of the First World War: The German Spring Offensive
The German Spring Offensive, known as Kaiserschlacht, began with a massive bombardment on March 21, 1918, and a fog helped the Germans surprise the British.
[138]
Operation Michael: How Imperial Germany tried to win World War ...
Mar 21, 2023 · Total casualties for Operation Michael stand at around 240,000 for the Imperial German Army. Combined British and French casualties came to ...
[139]
First stage of German spring offensive ends | April 5, 1918 | HISTORY
The Germans had advanced almost 40 miles, inflicted some 200,000 casualties and captured 70,000 prisoners and more than 1,000 Allied guns. The costs of battle ...
[140]
Battle of Amiens: Putting the Allies on the Road to Victory
At the cost of some 12,000 casualties the Canadians and Australians killed or wounded 13,000 Germans, captured 15,000, and had taken 400 guns. Better still, the ...
[141]
The Hundred Days Offensive: World War One's Advance to Victory
Aug 1, 2023 · Imperial German combat losses are estimated to have exceeded one million men, with over 100,000 killed, 686,000 wounded, and 386,000 taken ...
[142]
How Did The Armistice End The First World War?
The Armistice of 11 November 1918 ended the First World War. Signed at Le Francport, it ended all fighting on land, at sea, and air.
[143]
"Armistice Accepted" (8. November 1918) - GHDI - Document
Matthias Erzberger (1875-1921) led the delegation that signed the ceasefire on November 11 in a train car in Compiègne. ... The following supplement to the ...
[144]
Armistice Terms Granted to Central Powers | Events & Statistics
German Armistice, Nov. 11, 1918. Germany was required to evacuate all occupied territories everywhere. The iniquitous treaties of Brest-Litovsk and Bucharest ...
[145]
The war that did not end at 11am on 11 November
Nov 9, 2018 · The armistice was agreed at 5.10am on 11 November to come into effect at 11am. The news was conveyed around Europe within the hour.<|separator|>
[146]
After the Armistice - World War I Centennial site
Immediately after the armistice, American and British troops moved into Germany as an occupying army. Their purpose was to ensure that the German army did not ...
[147]
The aftermath of the First World War - The Holocaust Explained
As the war drew to a close in 1918, German supplies and troops were exhausted from four years of warfare. In contrast, by 1918, the British had improved their ...
[148]
Demobilization of U.S. Forces After World War I | Research Starters
The demobilization of US forces after World War I marks a significant transition period following the armistice on November 11, 1918.
[149]
Erich Ludendorff | Holocaust Encyclopedia
German General Erich Ludendorff was a key proponent of the fictitious “Stab-in-the-Back” myth which blamed Jews and others for Germany's defeat in WWI.
[150]
Hindenburg Spreads “Stab-in-the-Back” Myth
A myth soon began to spread that German forces could have won if they had not been “stabbed in the back” by disloyal German citizens who had undermined the war ...
[151]
https://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/sub_document.cfm?document_id=3829
[152]
[PDF] Paul von Hindenburg's Testimony before the Parliamentary ...
Hindenburg stated the "stab in the back" was the reason for Germany's defeat, citing an English general, and that the revolution only provided the keystone.
[153]
The Downfall of Germany in WWI - Army University Press
Aug 30, 2021 · This article analyzes Germany's Schlieffen Plan and looks at the framework of ends, ways, means, and risks and how it applies to both modern strategic planning.Missing: controversies | Show results with:controversies
[154]
Germany's Blunders - HistoryNet
Feb 12, 2018 · The overall cause of Germany's defeat should have been obvious. Yet, to have admitted that Germany's defeat had arisen from strategic myopia ...
[155]
Stab in the Back (Dolchstoss Legende) - GlobalSecurity.org
Feb 6, 2023 · The "stab in the back" legend claims Germany's defeat was due to internal treachery, not military defeat, and was used to promote military ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[156]
Stab-in-the-back myth - The Holocaust Explained
The Stab-in-the-Back myth was the belief that the German Army did not lose the First World War on the battlefield, but were instead betrayed by the ...Missing: evidence | Show results with:evidence
[157]
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk | History of Western Civilization II
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a peace treaty signed on March 3, 1918, between the new Bolshevik government of Soviet Russia and the Central Powers.
[158]
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk - JohnDClare.net
Feb 11, 2025 · ... Bolsheviks, and the Treaty helped fuel the Russian Civil War. ... The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which took Bolshevik Russia out of WWI, was ...
[159]
Brest-Litovsk Treaty - (AP European History) - Fiveable
The Brest-Litovsk Treaty was a peace agreement signed on March 3, 1918, between the Central Powers and Soviet Russia, marking Russia's exit from World War I.Missing: details date
[160]
State Security - Seventeen Moments in Soviet History
“Red terror cannot, in principle, be distinguished from armed insurrection ... Official figures for 1918 of 6300 executions by the Cheka in twenty provinces are ...
[161]
Destruction of the Left - Seventeen Moments in Soviet History
... uprising against the Bolsheviks. The Mensheviks and Right SRs splintered over the appropriate form of opposition to Bolshevik rule. Some joined forces with ...
[162]
How Lenin's Red Terror set a macabre course for the Soviet Union
Sep 2, 2020 · In 1918, the Bolshevik ... Intent on maintaining their control of a country in the throes of a civil war, the Bolsheviks used terror tactics to ...Missing: internal timeline casualties sources
[163]
Red Terror Legalized - Seventeen Moments in Soviet History
Council of People's Commissars, Resolution on Red Terror. September 5, 1918. Original Source: Sobranie uzakonenii i rasporiazhenii rabochego i ...
[164]
[PDF] i . - . J - GovInfo
On the contrary, as the gruesome quotations from Bolshevik sources establish, organized mass terror was a cardinal tenet of Bolshevik policy, from Lenin and ...<|separator|>
[165]
Russian Communists Inaugurate the Red Terror | Research Starters
Russian Communists Inaugurate the Red Terror. Date 1917-1924. The Bolsheviks under Vladimir Ilich Lenin seized power in Russia and proceeded to eliminate ...Missing: internal | Show results with:internal
[166]
Intensification of the Red Terror - Seventeen Moments in Soviet History
Notwithstanding constant words about mass terror against the Socialist Revolutionaries, the White Guards and the bourgeoisie, this terror really does not exist.Missing: context | Show results with:context
[167]
Timeline of the Russian Civil War 1918 - Emerson Kent
Trotsky declares that Russia is out of WWI. February 11, 1918 (January 29, 1918 old style) The Bolsheviks gain the upper hand against the Cossacks. Cossack ...
[168]
The Russian Civil War - 1918-1921 - Pericles Press
Two events which occurred on August 30, 1918 triggered the Red Terror. The first was the assassination of M. S. Uritskii, the chief of the Petrograd Cheka.
[169]
Russian Civil War - The White Army - October Revolution - BBC
White Army weaknesses · Divided leadership- lacking a single figurehead like Lenin, different generals had conflicting aims · Whites became hated and feared for ...
[170]
Leadership of the Whites - Reasons for the victory of the Reds ... - BBC
The White Army had divided leadership with no single leader, and leaders were often in competition, unable to coordinate attacks.
[171]
1918: The war of intervention
The first interventionist forces arrived a few months later in March 1918 – with 130 Royal Marines at Murmansk in North Russia. Many more followed. By mid-July ...<|separator|>
[172]
Archangel and Murmansk - Naval History and Heritage Command
Sep 10, 2019 · First Landings, June 1918 June 1918 saw history's first landing of a U.S. force on Russia soil. It was small—just 100 enlisted men (Sailors and ...
[173]
American troops land at Archangel | August 2, 1918 - History.com
On August 2, 1918, United States troops land at Archangel, in northern Russia. The landing was part of an Allied intervention in the civil war raging in that ...
[174]
THE AMERICAN INTERVENTION IN NORTH RUSSIA, 1918-1919
The situation in Russia was complicated and deteriorating rapidly as civil war raged, leading the British and French to advocate for Allied military ...
[175]
Allied Intervention in the Russian Civil War I
Dec 14, 2024 · British and American forces saw action in North Russia in 1919 in advances down the Northern Dvina and along the Arkhangel′sk–Vologda and ...
[176]
How the Japanese almost took away Russia's Far Eastern territories ...
Jan 19, 2022 · By October 1918, Japanese troops in the Russian Far East numbered over 72,000 soldiers (by way of comparison, the USA's Siberia Expeditionary ...
[177]
Siberian Intervention 1918-1922
Oct 24, 2018 · Japan dispatched 72,000 troops to Siberia. Allied intervention ended after the collapse of the White regime. The Japanese remained two years ...1Origins · 2Allied Intervention 1918–1920 · 3Unilateral Intervention 1920...
[178]
Why did the Allies intervene in the Russian Civil War?
Dec 21, 2024 · What was the outcome of the Allied intervention? The intervention failed to overthrow the Bolsheviks or secure a White victory. Most Allied ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[179]
Foreign Interventions in Revolutionary Russia - CounterPunch.org
Dec 10, 2018 · The Allies' intervention in Russia was counterproductive, however, because foreign support discredited the “white,” counterrevolutionary forces ...
[180]
The end of the empire - abdication and exile in 1918 - Picture Alliance
On November 9, 1918, Reich Chancellor Max von Baden announced the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II on his own authority and handed over his office as Reich ...
[181]
November Revolution: Germany becomes a republic
By late 1918, many German citizens were fed up with the war. There were major food shortages, and protests and rallies throughout the country.
[182]
Europe 1918: Collapse of the Central Powers - Omniatlas
Europe 1918: Collapse of the Central Powers ; 29 Sep 1918Bulgaria capitulates ; 17 Oct 1918Hungary asserts independence ; 17 Oct 1918Czechs declare independence.
[183]
The autumn of 1918, a chronology of the collapse of the Austro ...
Feb 13, 2019 · October 24: The government in Vienna lost its authority, some of its decisions are no longer respected. Hungary's diet in Budapest announced, ...
[184]
Collapse of the Ottoman Empire, 1918-1920 - NZ History
Jan 13, 2016 · The armistice of 31 October 1918 ended the fighting between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies but did not bring stability or peace to the region.
[185]
The armistice that spelled the end of the Ottoman Empire | Daily Sabah
Oct 30, 2018 · On Oct. 30, 1918, a document signed on board a British vessel off a Greek island effectively ended the Ottoman Empire. The armistice to end the ...
[186]
The modern history of Central Europe and its implications
Nov 13, 2018 · A slew of new nation-states was created in the fall of 1918 in the region. Reconstituted Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Austria and Yugoslavia ...
[187]
Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania: Background and U.S.-Baltic Relations
Jan 7, 2025 · Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania gained independence in 1918, after the collapse of the Russian Empire. In 1940, they were forcibly ...
[188]
Women's suffrage - February 1918, first women gain right to vote
Feb 5, 2018 · The Act granted some women the right to vote in parliamentary elections for the first time, but not on an equal basis to men, who gained universal suffrage.<|separator|>
[189]
Women's Suffrage
1918, Austria, Canada (to vote)*, Estonia, Georgia, Germany, Hungary, Ireland*, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russian Federation, United Kingdom* ; 1919 ...
[190]
How World War One heralded social reforms - BBC
Nov 11, 2018 · The Education Act 1918 enforced a compulsory school-leaving age of 14 for the first time, special educational needs were recognised, and school ...
[191]
The House's 1918 Passage of a Constitutional Amendment Granting ...
On this day, in the midst of World War I, the House passed a constitutional amendment granting women the right to vote by a count of 274 to 136.
[192]
The inter-war years: 1918-1939 | Striking Women
After the First World War many returning servicemen reclaimed the available jobs, and the numbers of women workers, particularly in industry and trade declined.<|control11|><|separator|>
[193]
Post-war Societies - 1914-1918 Online
Dec 5, 2017 · Postwar societies contained millions of people who had been uprooted; and war-related economic shocks destabilised societies for years to come.2Demobilization · 5The War after the War · 8Conclusion · Notes
[194]
Naval Blockade (of Germany) - 1914-1918 Online
Jan 22, 2020 · A large part of the German population suffered hunger during the war, and between 478,500 and 800,000 civilians died from diseases related to ...
[195]
Blockade and economic warfare (Chapter 18)
Rations fell that winter on average below 1,150 calories, well below minimum requirements. By the end of the war, hundreds of thousands of civilians had died ...
[196]
The British Naval Blockade Of The First World War
World War 1: The British Naval Blockade of Germany occured between 1914 & 1919. A blockade of enemy ports hoped to cut off supplies from the outside world.
[197]
The British Blockade During World War I: The Weapon of Deprivation
This operation was the British blockade from 1914-1919 which sought to obstruct Germany's ability to import goods, and thus in the most literal sense starve ...
[198]
The Effects of the Blockade on Germany in World War I
It failed, almost entirely, in the goal to degrading the fighting ability of the German Army. Rather, it defeated Germany at home through economic collapse, ...
[199]
All Nobel Prizes - NobelPrize.org
Below, you can view the full list of Nobel Prizes and Nobel Prize laureates. ... 1918. Nobel Prize in Physics 1918 · Max Planck. “in recognition of the ...
[200]
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1918 - NobelPrize.org
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1918 was awarded to Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics.
[201]
Max Planck – Facts - NobelPrize.org
Max Planck solved this problem in 1900 by introducing the theory of “quanta”, that is, that radiation consists of quanta with specific energies determined by a ...
[202]
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1918 - NobelPrize.org
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1918 was awarded to Fritz Haber "for the synthesis of ammonia from its elements". Fritz Haber received his Nobel Prize one year ...
[203]
Fritz Haber – Facts - NobelPrize.org
In about 1913 Fritz Haber developed a method for producing ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen, which could be used to manufacture artificial fertilizer.
[204]
Fritz Haber – Biographical - NobelPrize.org
From 1920 until 1926 he experimented on the recovery of gold from sea water, his idea being to enable Germany to meet her war reparations. Greatly depressed by ...

1918

Events

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

Date unknown

Spanish Influenza Pandemic

Origins and Global Spread

Waves of Infection

Mortality and Demographic Impacts

Public Health Responses and Government Policies

Historiographical Debates and Myths

End of World War I

German Spring Offensives

Allied Counteroffensives

Armistice and Cessation of Hostilities

Immediate Aftermath and Strategic Controversies

Russian Civil War and Bolshevik Consolidation

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and Withdrawals

Red Terror and Internal Repressions

White Army Offensives and Failures

International Dimensions and Interventions

Geopolitical Realignments

Collapse of Empires and New States

Suffrage Reforms and Social Changes

Economic Disruptions and Blockade Effects

Births

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

Deaths

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

Nobel Prizes

Laureates and Contributions

References