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Father complex

The father complex is a concept in psychoanalysis, first used by Sigmund Freud in 1910 to describe feelings of guilt and castration anxiety relating to the father,^[1] and particularly elaborated in Carl Gustav Jung's analytical psychology, denoting an emotionally charged cluster of ideas, images, and associations linked to the father archetype—a primordial image from the collective unconscious representing authority, protection, and spiritual guidance—and shaped by an individual's personal experiences with their father figure. This complex forms part of the broader parental complexes, influencing unconscious attitudes toward power, masculinity, and relational dynamics throughout life.^[2]^[3] A positive father complex typically arises from a supportive paternal relationship, promoting traits such as confidence in hierarchical structures, receptivity to spiritual dogmas, and success in competitive or authoritative roles; for instance, in women, it strengthens the animus (the inner masculine principle), enabling intellectual and worldly ambition, as seen in the archetype of the "fille à papa." In contrast, a negative father complex often results from paternal absence, emotional distance, authoritarianism, or over-competitiveness, leading to psychological challenges like insecurity, acrophobia, aversion to authority figures, and difficulties in achieving autonomy or intimacy; men may internalize rigid defenses or rebelliousness, while women risk animus possession, manifesting as excessive rationality or relational conflicts.^[3]^[2] Within Jungian therapy, the father complex plays a pivotal role in transference, where unconscious paternal projections onto the analyst reveal repressed contents and facilitate integration; unresolved complexes can perpetuate neurotic symptoms by disrupting conscious adaptation, underscoring the need to confront and assimilate these archetypal influences for psychological wholeness.^[2]^[3]

Definition and Origins

Core Definition

The father complex refers to an unconscious grouping of associations, emotions, and impulses organized around the personal father figure or the archetypal image of the father within the psyche, often involving deeply rooted affective responses that shape an individual's inner world.^[4] This complex emerges from early relational experiences and symbolic representations of paternal authority, functioning as a dynamic psychic structure that influences perceptions of power, protection, and discipline. Manifestations of the father complex can be positive or negative. Positively, it may involve idealization of the father as a source of guidance and strength, fostering traits like ambition, respect for authority, and a drive for achievement through emulation of paternal qualities.^[5] Negatively, it can produce rebellion against perceived tyranny, intense fear of judgment, or avoidance of responsibility, stemming from experiences of paternal absence, criticism, or overcontrol. Central to the complex is an inherent ambivalence—simultaneous attraction and repulsion toward the father—arising from conflicting needs for security and autonomy, which profoundly affects identity development and patterns in adult relationships, such as authority dynamics or partner selection.^[4] In distinction from the Oedipus complex, which constitutes a specific subset focused on a boy's unconscious sexual rivalry with his father for the mother's affection during the phallic stage, the father complex is more expansive, applying to individuals of both genders and extending beyond erotic competition to include broader emotional, symbolic, and archetypal engagements with paternal imagery throughout life.^[4] The term father complex was introduced by Sigmund Freud around 1910–1913 to denote feelings of guilt and castration anxiety relating to the father, encompassing these multifaceted psychic formations centered on father-related conflicts and identifications.^[1]

Historical Emergence in Psychoanalysis

The concept of the father complex began to emerge within Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic circle in the early 1910s, rooted in clinical observations of paternal ambivalence during patient analyses. In his 1909 case study of the "Rat Man" (Ernst Lanzer), Freud detailed how the patient's obsessional neurosis stemmed from conflicting emotions toward his father, including repressed hostility intertwined with affection, which manifested in fantasies of the father's death and self-punitive rituals.^[6] This analysis highlighted the father complex as a key unconscious structure influencing neurotic symptoms, building on Freud's broader exploration of familial dynamics in the psyche. Freud further developed the idea in his 1913 work Totem and Taboo, where he introduced the notion of the "primal father" as a mythic archetype originating from prehistoric human societies. This figure represented an authoritarian patriarch whose murder by his sons formed the basis of totemic religion and social taboos, embodying the ambivalent father complex that persisted in individual psyches through guilt and deferred obedience. The primal father concept drew from anthropological studies of primitive societies, linking psychoanalytic complexes to evolutionary origins while formalizing the father complex within the framework of unconscious drives post-1900.^[7] Although pre-Freudian roots of paternal authority appear in folklore and anthropological accounts of patriarchal myths—such as ancient narratives of god-kings symbolizing fatherhood's invention during the agricultural revolution around 6,000 years ago—these were not psychologized until psychoanalysis.^[8] By the mid-20th century, analysts like Otto Fenichel integrated the father complex into Oedipal theory in his 1945 The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis, viewing it as largely subsumed under Oedipal structures yet persisting independently in cases of unresolved paternal conflicts.^[9] This subsumption underscored the complex's role in neuroses, even as it retained distinct features beyond the classic Oedipal phase.

Classical Psychoanalytic Theories

Freud's Perspective

Sigmund Freud conceptualized the father complex as an integral component of the Oedipus complex within psychosexual development, particularly during the phallic stage where a boy experiences unconscious hostile rivalry with his father for his mother's affection.^[10] This ambivalence arises from the boy's libidinal attachment to the mother, positioning the father as a rival whose authority threatens the child's desires. Freud detailed this dynamic in The Ego and the Id (1923), emphasizing how the resolution involves the boy renouncing his incestuous wishes and identifying with the father, thereby internalizing paternal standards.^[10] The negative aspects of the father complex center on the boy's fear of paternal punishment, manifesting as castration anxiety, which intensifies the rivalry and prompts defensive mechanisms.^[10] This fear contributes to the formation of the superego, as the boy incorporates the father's prohibitive role to mitigate guilt and anxiety, transforming external authority into an internal moral agency. Freud argued that unresolved tensions here could perpetuate neurotic symptoms in adulthood.^[10] Freud illustrated the father complex through clinical cases, such as that of Ernst Lanzer, known as the "Rat Man," whose obsessive doubts and compulsive rituals in 1909 were linked to ambivalent feelings toward his deceased father, including guilt over aggressive impulses.^[11] Similarly, in his analysis of Judge Daniel Paul Schreber's 1911 memoirs, Freud interpreted Schreber's delusions of persecution as projections of repressed homosexual wishes toward his father, reimagined as divine or tyrannical figures.^[12] For females, Freud described a variant of the Oedipus complex, involving attachment to the father amplified by penis envy, where the girl blames her mother for her perceived anatomical lack and seeks compensation through paternal affection.^[13] This dynamic, outlined in works like "Some Psychical Consequences of the Anatomical Distinction between the Sexes" (1925), shifts the girl's rivalry toward the mother, with resolution occurring via identification with her and acceptance of feminine roles. Freud viewed successful navigation of the father complex as essential for healthy development, preventing neurosis by facilitating superego integration and ego strength; failure results in lifelong paternal conflicts, such as authority phobias or rebellious patterns.^[10]

Jung's Perspective

Carl Gustav Jung expanded the concept of the father complex beyond individual personal experiences, situating it within the framework of archetypes residing in the collective unconscious, a shared reservoir of universal psychic structures inherited by all humans.^[2] In this view, the father archetype embodies the principles of spirit, law, and authority, serving as a primordial image that structures consciousness and imposes order on instinctual drives. Jung described this archetype as a manifestation of the psyche's inherent tendency toward differentiation and moral orientation, drawing from mythological and cultural symbols across civilizations.^[2] The father archetype operates along positive and negative poles, influencing the development of the persona—the social mask—and the integration of the shadow, the repressed aspects of the personality.^[3] On the positive side, it appears as the wise guide, offering protection, wisdom, and a pathway to spiritual insight, fostering maturity and ethical discernment. Conversely, in its negative manifestation, it emerges as the tyrannical oppressor, enforcing rigid control that stifles autonomy and projects destructive authority, often leading to inner conflict or rebellion. These polarities reflect the archetype's dual role in psychic equilibrium, where unresolved tensions can manifest as complexes that distort self-perception and relationships.^[3] Jung applied the father complex universally across genders, emphasizing its role in contrasexual projections. For women, the father often becomes the initial carrier of the animus—the unconscious masculine counterpart to the psyche—leading to projections of authority figures onto real men, which can either empower assertiveness or engender dogmatic rigidity if unintegrated.^[2] In men, the archetype aligns with the senex, the wise old man, representing mature judgment and paternal legacy, though its shadow may evoke fears of senility or oppressive patriarchy.^[2] This bilateral application underscores the archetype's function in balancing the psyche's masculine elements for both sexes. Jung's own experience with the father complex illuminated its personal impact, particularly in his 1913 rupture with Sigmund Freud, whom he perceived as an overbearing paternal authority stifling his independent thought—a dynamic that mirrored archetypal father-son conflicts and propelled Jung toward his analytical psychology. Therapeutically, Jung advocated active imagination, a technique involving dialogic engagement with unconscious images, to confront and integrate the father complex, facilitating individuation—the lifelong process of psychic wholeness.^[3] By personifying the archetype through visualization or creative expression, individuals dissolve its autonomous power, transforming potential tyranny into a source of inner authority and self-realization.

Modern Theoretical Evolutions

Lacanian Framework

In Jacques Lacan's psychoanalytic framework, the father complex is reinterpreted through the lens of structural linguistics and the symbolic order, shifting the emphasis from Freud's biological notions of castration to a symbolic process. Lacan builds upon Freud's primal horde myth, where the father imposes prohibition, but reframes it as a linguistic operation essential to subjectivity.^[14] Central to this is the "Name-of-the-Father," which designates the father's symbolic function as the law-giver, instituting the prohibition against incest and introducing the phallic signifier into the subject's unconscious. This paternal metaphor operates as the fundamental signifier that structures the Oedipal complex, resolving it by substituting the mother's desire with the law of the symbolic order.^[15] The failure or absence of this paternal metaphor results in foreclosure, a mechanism distinct from repression, wherein the Name-of-the-Father is excluded from the symbolic register, precipitating psychosis. Lacan illustrates this through his reanalysis of Daniel Paul Schreber's case, where the foreclosure manifests in hallucinations and delusions as the Real irrupts into the symbolic void, bypassing the mediating function of language.^[16] In psychotic structures, the subject's entry into the social and linguistic order is thus disrupted, leading to a foreclosure that prevents the integration of the paternal law.^[17] The father's role further structures the subject's desire by enforcing separation from the mother, thereby facilitating the child's accession to language and societal norms. This intervention breaks the imaginary dyad of mother-child fusion, redirecting desire toward the Other of the symbolic, where lack is introduced and sustained through the paternal function. Desire, in Lacanian terms, emerges from this separation, mediated by the phallic signifier that veils the fundamental lack in the subject.^[18] Regarding gender, the phallus functions as the master signifier upholding the paternal law, organizing sexual difference within the symbolic. Men are positioned under this law through identification with the phallus, while women occupy the "not-all" (pas-tout), not fully subsumed by phallic signification, allowing access to a jouissance beyond the symbolic order. This formulation underscores the father's law as asymmetrically structuring subjectivity for both sexes.

Postmodern and Object Relations Interpretations

In object relations theory, Melanie Klein emphasized the internalization of early relationships with parental figures as "objects" that shape psychic structure. The father's role is prominent in the Oedipal phase, where internalized good paternal objects assist the child in repairing phantasied damage to the maternal object inflicted by the child's own aggressive impulses, thereby integrating split good and bad objects and fostering emotional stability; an absent or unreliable father, however, can exacerbate paranoid-schizoid anxieties and disrupt object constancy.^[19] Complementing this, D.W. Winnicott extended the concept to view the father as a "good enough" object who tempers the infant's symbiotic merger with the mother, facilitating separation-individuation; paternal absence in this framework hinders the development of a cohesive self, leading to relational vulnerabilities in adulthood.^[20] Postmodern interpretations of the father complex highlight the erosion of paternal authority amid late capitalism's fragmentation of traditional structures, where the father symbolizes a defunct symbolic order rather than a stable authority. Julia Kristeva's exploration of the "dead father" in the 1980s frames this as a foundational fantasy of symbolic absence, humanizing the paternal figure through its ritualized "beating to death," which enables sublimation but risks psychic disorganization in secular, globalized societies. This decline manifests as a cultural "crisis of paternity," where economic individualism supplants familial hierarchies, rendering the father a spectral ideal rather than an active mediator of law and desire.^[21]^[22] The concept of "father hunger" articulates the emotional voids arising from paternal absence, as detailed in James M. Herzog's 1980 clinical study of toddlers exhibiting sleep disturbances linked to unmet needs for paternal containment of aggression. Herzog described this hunger as a pervasive longing for the father's modulating presence, which, when absent, results in relational deficits such as difficulty forming secure bonds and heightened vulnerability to anxiety in later life. Building on object relations, this framework underscores how unaddressed father hunger perpetuates cycles of emotional dysregulation across generations.^[23] Feminist critiques within this tradition, notably Luce Irigaray's, deconstruct the patriarchal law embodied by the father as an oppressive phallocentric structure that subordinates women through enforced sexual indifference. Irigaray argues for reimagining the father beyond dominance, advocating a relational model grounded in sexual difference that affirms maternal-feminine subjectivity and disrupts the father's monopolization of symbolic authority. This re-envisioning promotes egalitarian family dynamics, challenging the father's role as enforcer of homosocial bonds that exclude women.^[24]^[25] Integrating these views with attachment theory, John Bowlby's secure base model from the 1950s onward posits the father as a complementary attachment figure whose consistent availability fosters exploratory confidence; paternal absence correlates with anxious attachment styles, characterized by heightened fear of abandonment and relational insecurity. Bowlby's framework, evolving to include fathers explicitly, illustrates how early father-child bonds mitigate risks of disorganized attachments, aligning with object relations by emphasizing relational continuity over instinctual drives alone. Briefly, this resonates with Lacan's Name-of-the-Father as a symbolic ideal whose disruption in postmodern contexts amplifies attachment anxieties.^[26]^[27] Contemporary evolutions as of 2025 incorporate empirical research on father involvement in diverse family structures, highlighting how changing demographics and neuroscience insights refine the father complex beyond traditional psychoanalytic models, emphasizing adaptive paternal roles in promoting child resilience amid modern societal shifts.^[28]

Psychological Effects and Manifestations

Positive Dynamics

A resolved father complex, involving healthy idealization of the paternal figure, fosters secure self-esteem by providing a model of authoritative guidance that builds resilience and ethical decision-making capabilities. In Jungian theory, this positive complex encourages respect for authority and spiritual values, enabling individuals to navigate societal structures with confidence and moral integrity.^[29] Secure paternal attachments predict enhanced emotional regulation and social competence in children, with empirical evidence from longitudinal research demonstrating that father-child security at age 3 significantly predicts preschoolers' emotional regulation at age 5 (B = 0.27, p = 0.05). When combined with maternal security, paternal bonds amplify these outcomes, buffering against poorer regulation from insecure attachments to one parent and supporting peer interactions.^[30] For sons, paternal identification during the Oedipal phase aids the development of autonomy by internalizing the father's strength and independence, facilitating separation from the mother and entry into broader social roles. In daughters, a positive father complex supports balanced animus integration, where the father as the initial carrier of this archetype imparts rational and assertive qualities, promoting psychological wholeness without possession.^[31] Therapeutically, successful integration of the father complex enhances individuation in Jungian analysis, allowing conscious assimilation of paternal archetypes for self-realization, while in Freudian terms, it strengthens the superego through identification with the father, yielding a robust moral conscience and ego stability.^[10] Modern evidence from the LONGSCAN study underscores these benefits, revealing that higher-quality father involvement correlates with reduced internalizing and externalizing behavior problems in preadolescents at risk of maltreatment.^[32]

Negative Dynamics and Father Hunger

Negative dynamics in the father complex arise from unresolved paternal absence, rejection, or inconsistency, leading to maladaptive patterns in emotional regulation and interpersonal functioning. Individuals may exhibit trust issues, manifesting as difficulty forming secure bonds due to perceived paternal unreliability, which undermines confidence in others' intentions. Authority rebellion often emerges as a defensive response, where challenges to hierarchical figures stem from internalized resentment toward the father's perceived dominance or withdrawal. Intimacy avoidance further compounds these issues, as fear of vulnerability replicates the emotional unavailability experienced in childhood. The colloquial term "daddy issues" encapsulates these patterns, particularly in romantic contexts, where individuals unconsciously repeat dysfunctional relational templates, such as seeking unavailable partners or engaging in self-sabotaging behaviors.^[33]^[34] Father hunger represents a core aspect of these negative dynamics, characterized by a chronic, unquenched longing for paternal validation and presence that persists into adulthood. This affective state drives individuals to seek external affirmation in maladaptive ways, contributing to heightened risks of depression through sustained feelings of inadequacy and emotional voids. In clinical observations, this hunger manifests as an intense, tenacious force influencing self-perception and relational choices.^[35] Empirical links to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), including paternal absence or dysfunction, associate these experiences with increased vulnerability to addiction, as individuals may use substances to cope with unmet needs.^[36]^[37] Attachment disruptions from inconsistent fathering play a pivotal role in perpetuating these dynamics, often resulting in anxious-preoccupied attachment styles. Such styles develop when paternal responsiveness alternates unpredictably, fostering heightened anxiety about abandonment and a preoccupation with relational security. This pattern, rooted in early experiences of unreliable caregiving, leads to clingy or demanding behaviors in adulthood, exacerbating interpersonal conflicts.^[38]^[39] Gender variations in negative father complex dynamics reveal distinct manifestations. Women affected by paternal deficits may seek compensatory partners who embody authority or emotional distance, replicating the unmet longing in romantic selections and perpetuating cycles of dissatisfaction. In contrast, men often display overcompensation through hyper-achievement or rigid self-reliance to counter internalized paternal inadequacy, or withdrawal from intimate connections to avoid vulnerability. These differences highlight how gendered socialization interacts with the complex to shape behavioral outcomes.^[40]^[41] Treatment for negative father complex dynamics typically involves psychoanalytic therapy, which facilitates reworking transference by exploring unconscious paternal projections in the therapeutic relationship, allowing for emotional resolution. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) complements this by targeting behavioral patterns, such as intimacy avoidance or rebellion, through structured interventions to reframe distorted beliefs and build healthier relational skills. Integrated approaches yield improvements in attachment security and reduce symptoms like depression when tailored to individual gender-specific expressions. Recent qualitative research as of 2025 further links paternal neglect to challenges in mate selection and romantic satisfaction in women.^[42]^[43]^[33]

Cultural and Societal Dimensions

Representations in Literature and Media

The father complex has been a recurring motif in literature, often manifesting through strained or symbolic paternal relationships that drive character development and thematic exploration. In William Shakespeare's Hamlet (1603), the protagonist grapples with the ghostly apparition of his deceased father, whose command to avenge his murder evokes an Oedipal rivalry and unresolved paternal authority, as analyzed in Freudian psychoanalytic interpretations where Hamlet's hesitation reflects repressed conflict with the father's superego influence.^[44] Similarly, Khaled Hosseini's The Kite Runner (2003) portrays an absent and emotionally distant father-son dynamic between Amir and Baba, where the father's high expectations foster guilt and a quest for redemption, underscoring themes of paternal approval and betrayal in a culturally constrained environment.^[45] In film and media, tyrannical or authoritative father figures further illustrate the complex's psychological tensions. Francis Ford Coppola's The Godfather (1972) depicts Vito Corleone as a domineering patriarch whose legacy forces his son Michael into a moral and emotional inheritance, symbolizing the internalization of paternal power structures through Lacanian lenses of symbolic order and filial submission.^[46] Conversely, Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird (1960), adapted into a 1962 film, presents Atticus Finch as an idealized moral guide and nurturing father to Scout and Jem, embodying positive paternal influence that counters societal prejudices and promotes ethical growth without overt dominance.^[47] Modern media often explores the father complex through tropes of relational fallout, particularly in the context of divorce. Noah Baumbach's Marriage Story (2019) highlights "daddy issues" in the strained co-parenting of Charlie and Nicole, where their son's exposure to paternal absence and conflict reveals the long-term emotional repercussions on family bonds and individual identity. These narratives not only reflect but also reinforce the father complex by examining its cultural underpinnings. D.H. Lawrence's Sons and Lovers (1913) exemplifies rejection of paternal dominance through Paul Morel's Oedipal entanglement with his mother and resentment toward his coarse, alcoholic father, Walter, portraying the complex as a barrier to personal autonomy and romantic fulfillment.^[48] In poetry, Czesław Miłosz expresses a personal "father complex" toward Albert Einstein as a yearning for a protective intellectual leader, evident in his 1949 poem "To Albert Einstein," where the physicist symbolizes unattainable guidance amid historical turmoil.^[49] Bob Dylan's songs, such as "Father of Night" (1970), confront archetypal paternal figures through biblical and existential lenses, reflecting Jungian symbolic fathers as sources of authority and rebellion in his oeuvre.^[50]

Broader Societal Impacts

The prevalence of father absence has been notable in recent decades, with approximately 19 million children in the United States—nearly one in four—living without their biological father in the household as of 2023.^[51] This trend correlates with elevated societal issues, including higher rates of juvenile delinquency; for instance, father absence is associated with increased risk of adolescent criminal behavior. Among juvenile delinquents, high rates of fatherlessness have been observed, with one study of 75 individuals finding 66% had experienced it, underscoring the link to broader social challenges like poverty and substance abuse.^[52] Shifts in gender roles following the feminist movements of the 1960s have contributed to a decline in traditional paternal authority, fostering what psychologists term "father hunger"—a persistent emotional yearning for paternal connection among children and adults.^[53] This erosion of the patriarchal family structure, accelerated by women's increased workforce participation and evolving norms around caregiving, has led to widespread reports of emotional voids and identity struggles, particularly in Western societies where father involvement in daily child-rearing has tripled since 1965 yet remains uneven.^[54] Contemporary empirical research highlights gaps in early psychoanalytic approaches to the father complex, which often emphasized symbolic dynamics over measurable outcomes, prompting a shift toward evidence-based studies in the 2020s. Meta-analyses reveal that higher paternal involvement is associated with improved child mental health, including reduced risks of depression and anxiety; for example, paternal positivity during interactions correlates with better emotional regulation in offspring across diverse samples.^[55] Conversely, paternal mental distress predicts adverse developmental effects, such as behavioral problems, emphasizing the need for updated frameworks that integrate longitudinal data over outdated theoretical models.^[56] Policy responses have increasingly targeted father engagement to mitigate these impacts, with the European Union's 2019 Work-Life Balance Directive—building on 2010s expansions—mandating at least 10 days of paid paternity leave and four months of individual parental leave to encourage equitable involvement.^[57] Such programs have shown promise in boosting long-term father-child bonds, as evidenced by studies linking extended leave to sustained caregiving participation. As of 2024, evaluations indicate increased uptake of paternity leave across member states, further strengthening these bonds.^[58]^[59] Global variations in the father complex reflect cultural contexts, with stronger manifestations in patriarchal societies where fathers embody rigid authority figures, compared to egalitarian cultures that promote shared parenting and diminish hierarchical tensions. Systematic reviews indicate that paternal involvement levels differ markedly, with less egalitarian nations showing more pronounced gender-based parenting disparities that intensify complex dynamics.^[60] In contrast, cultures emphasizing nuclear family equality, such as those in Northern Europe, report attenuated father complexes through balanced roles, though subcultural legacies of patriarchy persist in regions like parts of Asia.^[61]

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The effects of absent fathers on adolescent criminal activity
Oct 12, 2021 · Simple ordinary least squares estimates indicate that absent fathers boost probabilities of adolescent criminal behavior by 16–38%.
[48]
Fatherhood and Crime | Fact Sheet - America First Policy Institute
Jun 25, 2024 · In a study of 75 juvenile delinquents, 66% experienced fatherlessness, 20% had never lived with their father, and 25% had an alcoholic father.
[49]
Father Hunger revisited: fathers, global girls, and eating disorders
Aug 6, 2025 · Father Hunger is simply the deep, persistent yearning that all children have for a close and loving relationship with their fathers.<|separator|>
[50]
Thanks, feminist movement, for making Father's Day better for dads
Jun 18, 2013 · The time fathers spend with their kids has nearly tripled since 1965. The numbers from the 1960s show us the complete divide in the roles of parents.
[51]
Paternal Positivity and Child Mental Health: A Meta-Analysis
Aug 9, 2025 · Children whose mothers display more positivity during interactions tend to have better mental health.Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[52]
The impact of paternal mental illness on child development - PubMed
Aug 4, 2023 · This study aimed to combine and synthesise currently available evidence on the relationship between PMI and multiple domains of child development.Missing: modern 2020s
[53]
EU legislation on family leaves and work-life balance
Fathers/ second parents have the right to take at least 10 working days of paternity leave around the time of birth of the child. Paternity leave is compensated ...
[54]
Paternity Leave-Taking and Father Involvement among ... - NIH
Overall, the findings from the present study suggest that an expansion of paternity leave-taking may encourage higher subsequent levels of father involvement— ...
[55]
Cross-Cultural Similarities and Differences in Parenting - PMC - NIH
Differences between mothers' and fathers' parenting or parenting of girls and boys may be more pronounced in countries with less egalitarian gender roles.Missing: patriarchal | Show results with:patriarchal
[56]
(PDF) Fathers, Fatherhood and Fathering Across Cultures
May 1, 2015 · 170). Some of the complex diversity is due to subcultural differences. An appreciation of. subculture diversity within a given culture is ...