Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Fight-or-flight response

The fight-or-flight response is a conserved physiological reaction to perceived threats or acute stressors, first systematically described by American physiologist Walter Bradford Cannon in his 1915 book Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage.^[1] This response activates the sympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, rapidly releasing catecholamines—primarily epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine—from the adrenal medulla to prepare the body for immediate action, either to confront the danger (fight) or escape it (flight).^[2] Evolutionarily, it serves as a survival mechanism, enhancing an organism's ability to respond to life-threatening situations by prioritizing energy allocation for physical exertion over non-essential functions.^[3] Key physiological changes during the fight-or-flight response include accelerated heart rate and elevated blood pressure to boost oxygen and nutrient delivery to skeletal muscles, bronchodilation for improved respiration, and pupil dilation for enhanced visual acuity.^[2] Blood flow is redirected from the gastrointestinal tract and skin to vital organs and muscles, while the liver releases glucose through glycogenolysis to provide quick energy, and sweat glands activate to aid thermoregulation during potential exertion.^[2] These adaptations, orchestrated by the sympathico-adrenal system, occur within seconds and typically subside once the threat passes, restoring homeostasis via parasympathetic counteraction.^[1] In contemporary settings, while adaptive for acute physical dangers, repeated or chronic activation of the fight-or-flight response—often triggered by psychological stressors—can contribute to adverse health outcomes.^[4] Prolonged sympathetic arousal and sustained cortisol elevation promote inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and oxidative stress, increasing risks for cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension and atherosclerosis.^[2] Additionally, chronic stress impairs immune function, disrupts gastrointestinal motility leading to conditions like irritable bowel syndrome, and affects reproductive health by altering hormone levels.^[2] Understanding this response underscores its dual role in survival and pathology, informing interventions in stress-related disorders.^[2]

Definition and History

Definition and Terminology

The fight-or-flight response is an acute physiological reaction to perceived threats or danger, mobilizing the body for immediate survival actions such as confronting the threat (fight) or escaping it (flight) through rapid activation of the sympathetic nervous system, which induces heightened arousal including increased heart rate, redirected blood flow, and energy mobilization.^[2] This response evolved as an adaptive mechanism to enhance survival in the face of imminent harm, originating from observations of instinctual behaviors in animals where such reactions determine life-or-death outcomes.^[5] The terminology "fight-or-flight" was introduced by American physiologist Walter B. Cannon in his seminal 1915 book Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage, where he described it as the body's emergency discharge of the sympathetic nervous system in response to fear or rage, contrasting with earlier theories like the James-Lange theory of emotion from the 1880s, which suggested that physiological changes cause emotional experiences rather than serving as preparatory adaptations.^[6] Cannon's coinage drew from ethological roots in animal survival instincts, emphasizing a unified, orchestrated physiological state rather than isolated reflexes.^[7] Although integrated within the broader stress response framework, the fight-or-flight reaction is distinct in its focus on short-term, acute threats requiring instant action, unlike chronic stress, which involves sustained hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activation leading to prolonged cortisol elevation and potential health detriments without immediate escape or combat needs.^[2]

Historical Development

The foundations of understanding the fight-or-flight response trace back to the late 19th century, when physiologists and psychologists began exploring the interplay between bodily changes and emotional experiences. In 1884, William James proposed in his seminal article that emotions arise from the perception of physiological changes in the body, rather than preceding them, suggesting that bodily alterations during intense states like fear or rage are integral to the emotional experience itself.^[8] This idea, later formalized as part of the James-Lange theory of emotion, laid groundwork for viewing fear responses as coordinated bodily preparations. Concurrently, French physiologist Claude Bernard introduced the concept of the milieu intérieur in 1865, emphasizing the body's maintenance of a stable internal environment amid external disturbances, which provided an early framework for how organisms respond to threats through physiological regulation.^[9] Building on these ideas, British neurophysiologist Charles Sherrington's work in the 1890s advanced knowledge of reflex mechanisms in the nervous system, demonstrating through experiments on decerebrate animals how reflexes integrate sensory inputs to produce coordinated motor responses, such as those seen in defensive reactions to pain or danger.^[10] Sherrington's research highlighted the nervous system's role in orchestrating rapid, adaptive behaviors, influencing later studies on emergency responses. In the early 20th century, Ivan Pavlov's investigations into classical conditioning during the 1920s further illuminated how neutral stimuli could become associated with threats, shaping perceptual responses to potential dangers through learned reflexes.^[11] The term "fight-or-flight" was formalized by American physiologist Walter B. Cannon in his 1915 book Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage, where he described the response as an integrated sympathetic nervous system activation preparing the body for action against threats.^[12] Cannon's experiments, including denervation studies on cats' adrenal glands, revealed how adrenaline release amplifies physiological changes like increased heart rate and blood flow to muscles, unifying disparate observations into a cohesive emergency mechanism. This work contrasted with and built upon James's earlier theory by emphasizing the adaptive utility of these changes for survival. Post-Cannon developments expanded the concept to broader stress contexts. In 1936, Hans Selye introduced the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) in a letter to Nature, delineating three phases—alarm, resistance, and exhaustion—in the body's response to stressors, with the acute alarm phase aligning closely with Cannon's fight-or-flight as an initial mobilization against acute threats. Selye's rat experiments with diverse nocuous agents demonstrated non-specific physiological patterns, distinguishing short-term fight-or-flight from prolonged stress effects while reinforcing Cannon's integrated view.

Physiological Mechanisms

Autonomic Nervous System Activation

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS), a division of the autonomic nervous system, orchestrates the immediate physiological mobilization during the fight-or-flight response by increasing arousal and energy availability. Activation begins when the amygdala processes sensory input as a threat, rapidly signaling the hypothalamus via direct neural pathways. The hypothalamus then coordinates SNS arousal through the sympathetic-adreno-medullary (SAM) axis, which interfaces with the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis for integrated stress signaling.^[2]^[13] SNS efferents originate from the thoracolumbar segments of the spinal cord (T1-L2), enabling widespread innervation of target organs to facilitate rapid adjustments.^[2] Central to this activation, the amygdala's central nucleus projects to the hypothalamus's paraventricular nucleus, triggering SNS outflow that stimulates preganglionic neurons in the spinal cord. These neurons release acetylcholine onto postganglionic sympathetic fibers, which in turn secrete norepinephrine at neuroeffector junctions to amplify the response. Concurrently, the locus coeruleus—a brainstem nucleus—releases norepinephrine throughout the central nervous system, heightening alertness, attention, and sensory processing to support threat evaluation and action.^[13]^[14] This noradrenergic surge from the locus coeruleus occurs almost instantaneously, enhancing vigilance without requiring peripheral hormonal mediation.^[15] The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), which dominates under resting conditions to promote conservation and restoration, undergoes transient inhibition during SNS activation to prevent conflicting signals and ensure unimpeded fight-or-flight mobilization. This reciprocal inhibition, mediated by higher brain centers like the hypothalamus, allows SNS dominance while maintaining essential baseline functions at a reduced level.^[2]^[13] Neural activation of the SNS initiates the fight-or-flight response within milliseconds to seconds following threat detection, with full physiological peaking generally occurring in 1-3 minutes as neurotransmitter release and effector responses synchronize. This brief hormonal complement, such as adrenaline from the adrenal medulla, sustains the response beyond initial neural firing.^[14]^[13]

Hormonal and Neurochemical Responses

The fight-or-flight response involves a rapid surge in catecholamines from the adrenal medulla, triggered by sympathetic nervous system activation, which initiates the hormonal cascade. Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine are primarily released through the sympathetic-adreno-medullary (SAM) axis, where preganglionic sympathetic fibers stimulate chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla to secrete these hormones into the bloodstream.^[2] Epinephrine constitutes about 80% of the catecholamine output during acute stress, acting to mobilize energy by promoting glycogenolysis in the liver and increasing blood glucose levels, while also contributing to heightened alertness.^[16] Norepinephrine, released in smaller amounts from the adrenal medulla and more substantially as a neurotransmitter from sympathetic nerve endings, supports vasoconstriction and further enhances the preparatory state for action.^[17] In parallel, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activates a slower hormonal response, primarily involving cortisol for sustained stress adaptation, though the acute phase is dominated by catecholamines. The hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), ultimately prompting the adrenal cortex to produce and release cortisol.^[2] Cortisol facilitates prolonged energy mobilization by promoting gluconeogenesis and protein catabolism, ensuring resources for extended vigilance or recovery, but its elevation peaks later than catecholamines, typically within 15-30 minutes of stressor onset.^[4] This HPA-mediated response complements the immediate SAM effects but is secondary in the initial fight-or-flight surge. Neurochemically, norepinephrine functions as a key neurotransmitter in the brain, released from the locus coeruleus to heighten arousal, attention, and vigilance during the acute response.^[2] Dopamine also plays a role in the fight-or-flight response.^[18] The catecholamine response peaks rapidly, with plasma epinephrine levels reaching maximum concentrations within 1-10 minutes of stressor exposure, reflecting the need for immediate physiological readiness.^[19] This surge sustains the fight-or-flight state for minutes to hours, gradually declining as the stressor resolves, while cortisol provides a longer overlay of up to several hours for metabolic support.^[2]

Specific Physiological Changes

The fight-or-flight response induces a cascade of acute physiological adaptations to mobilize resources for survival, primarily enhancing oxygen and energy delivery to vital tissues while suppressing non-essential functions. These changes, activated by sympathetic nervous system signaling and hormones such as adrenaline, redirect bodily resources toward immediate physical demands.^[2] In the cardiovascular system, heart rate increases—a condition known as tachycardia—along with stronger cardiac contractions, elevating blood pressure to facilitate rapid circulation. Blood vessels constrict in the gastrointestinal tract to reduce blood flow there, while they dilate in skeletal muscles and the heart, prioritizing oxygen and nutrient delivery to areas essential for action. This redistribution supports enhanced physical performance by ensuring muscles receive ample oxygenated blood for sustained effort during threat evasion or confrontation.^[20]^[2]^[21] Respiratory adjustments include hyperventilation, characterized by rapid and deeper breathing, which increases oxygen intake and expels more carbon dioxide to maintain acid-base balance under stress. Bronchodilation further widens airways, reducing resistance to airflow and optimizing gas exchange in the lungs. These modifications heighten oxygenation of the blood, fueling the metabolic demands of heightened alertness and potential exertion.^[20]^[2]^[21] Metabolically, glycogenolysis in the liver and muscles breaks down glycogen stores into glucose, rapidly elevating blood sugar levels to provide quick energy for brain and muscle function, while digestion is inhibited to conserve resources. Pupillary dilation, or mydriasis, enlarges the pupils to allow more light into the eyes, sharpening visual acuity for scanning the environment for threats. These shifts prioritize immediate fuel availability over long-term processes like nutrient absorption.^[20]^[2]^[21] Musculoskeletal effects involve adrenaline-mediated enhancements in muscle strength, speed, and reflex responsiveness, enabling bursts of power for fighting or fleeing. However, excess energy mobilization can lead to tremors or shakiness in the limbs due to heightened neural and metabolic activity. These adaptations prepare the body for rapid, forceful movements while temporarily increasing tension to protect against injury.^[20]^[2]^[21] Recent research highlights brain metabolic upheaval during the response, where the amygdala orchestrates rapid glucose release from the liver via a neural circuit, diverting resources to high-energy-demand areas like itself to support threat processing and behavioral readiness. This amygdala-liver axis ensures swift glycemic adaptations, correlating with fight-or-flight behaviors and underscoring the response's role in neural preparation for survival.^[22]^[23]

Psychological Components

Emotional Dimensions

The fight-or-flight response facilitates emotion regulation by temporarily suppressing fear to enable decisive action, a process involving inhibition of the prefrontal cortex during periods of peak arousal. This inhibition, driven by stress hormones like norepinephrine, reduces executive functions such as rational decision-making, allowing instinctive behaviors to dominate and override paralyzing anxiety.^[24] Such mechanisms evolved to prioritize survival over prolonged emotional deliberation, though chronic activation can impair long-term emotional control.^[25] Emotional reactivity during the fight-or-flight response is heightened by amygdala hyperactivity, which amplifies feelings of fear or anger in response to perceived threats. The amygdala rapidly processes sensory input and triggers the sympathetic nervous system, intensifying these emotions to mobilize energy for confrontation or escape.^[26] In controlled contexts, such as competitive sports, this heightened arousal can manifest as positive emotions like excitement, channeling the same physiological surge into enhanced performance rather than distress.^[27] Cognitive appraisals briefly influence this emotional intensity by framing the threat's significance, modulating whether reactivity escalates to panic or remains adaptive.^[28] Recent applications of the fight-or-flight response in emotional regulation include breathing techniques that downregulate reactivity, as demonstrated by 2023 research showing that structured practices like extended exhalations reduce physiological arousal and negative affect more effectively than mindfulness alone. These methods activate the parasympathetic nervous system, countering sympathetic dominance and lowering amygdala-driven fear responses.^[29] Similarly, a February 2025 article on emotional dysregulation in ADHD emphasizes awareness of the response's somatic cues, such as rapid heartbeat, to interrupt escalation, with strategies including breathing techniques to foster emotional regulation.^[30] Gender differences in the emotional dimensions of the fight-or-flight response reveal that women often exhibit a "tend-and-befriend" variant, characterized by oxytocin-mediated affiliation and nurturing behaviors under stress, contrasting with the more aggressive fight-or-flight pattern prevalent in men. This oxytocin surge promotes social bonding to mitigate threats, particularly in relational contexts, though women still engage the core fight-or-flight mechanism during acute physical dangers.^[31] These variations underscore how hormonal influences shape emotional strategies for threat processing across sexes.^[32]

Cognitive Aspects

The cognitive aspects of the fight-or-flight response involve how individuals perceive, interpret, and process threats, which in turn modulate the activation and intensity of the physiological stress reaction. Threat perception is a primary cognitive process where the brain rapidly identifies potential dangers, often through an attentional bias toward threatening stimuli. This bias prioritizes negative or harmful cues in the environment, such as aggressive faces or sudden noises, allowing for quicker detection of risks compared to neutral information.^[33] Under acute stress, this process can lead to narrowed focus, commonly known as tunnel vision, where peripheral awareness diminishes as the amygdala overrides higher cortical functions in the prefrontal cortex to heighten vigilance on the immediate threat.^[34] Such perceptual narrowing enhances survival-oriented attention but can impair broader situational awareness.^[35] Decision-making during the fight-or-flight response is profoundly influenced by stress-induced impairments in executive function, particularly in the prefrontal cortex, which normally supports rational planning and impulse control. Acute stress shifts cognitive processing toward more habitual or impulsive choices, reducing deliberation and increasing reliance on rapid, emotion-driven responses to facilitate immediate action.^[2] This effect is amplified by content specificity in cognitive appraisal, where the personal relevance of a threat—such as its implications for one's safety or values—intensifies the stress response and biases decisions toward self-protective behaviors.^[36] For instance, appraisals of high personal stake can escalate the perceived urgency, favoring fight or flight over more measured alternatives. Cognitions in this context also amplify emotional reactivity, intensifying the overall arousal.^[37] Perception of control plays a crucial role in modulating the cognitive and physiological intensity of the fight-or-flight response, with higher perceived controllability over a stressor reducing its impact on arousal and behavioral output. Individuals who appraise threats as manageable exhibit dampened stress responses, as this sense of agency engages prefrontal regulatory mechanisms to mitigate amygdala-driven fear signaling.^[38] Social processing further shapes this appraisal, particularly through group-based threat evaluation, where perceived risks to one's social group or relationships heighten collective vigilance and influence individual responses.^[39] For example, threats evaluated as endangering social bonds can trigger amplified fight-or-flight activation, integrating personal and communal cognitive assessments. Recent behavioral theory updates have reevaluated the traditional binary fight-or-flight model in humans, incorporating additional responses like freeze and fawn to better account for complex social and psychological dynamics under stress. A July 2024 study in the International Journal of Management Concepts and Philosophy argues that Cannon's original framework, while foundational, overlooks these nuanced reactions, such as immobility (freeze) in overwhelming threats or appeasement (fawn) in relational conflicts, which are mediated by cognitive appraisals of social context.^[40] This expanded perspective emphasizes the role of cognitive flexibility in human stress responses beyond simple physiological mobilization.

Evolutionary and Comparative Biology

Evolutionary Origins

The fight-or-flight response evolved as a critical survival adaptation in early vertebrates, enabling rapid physiological mobilization to counter threats such as predators. Recent research on lampreys, jawless vertebrates dating back over 500 million years, has revealed the presence of a sympathetic-like nervous system that mediates adrenaline release and behavioral responses akin to fight-or-flight, challenging prior assumptions that this system originated only in jawed vertebrates. This ancient mechanism is highly conserved across vertebrates, particularly through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which orchestrates stress hormone release in response to danger and remains structurally similar from fish to mammals.^[41]^[42]^[43]^[44] Theoretically, the response integrates disparate reflexes into a cohesive physiological strategy, as articulated by Walter B. Cannon in his 1915 work Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage, where he described the sympatho-adrenal system's role in preparing the body for emergency action through coordinated changes in heart rate, blood flow, and energy mobilization. Cannon's framework built on Charles Darwin's earlier observations in The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872), which linked instinctual fear and anger behaviors—such as bristling fur or dilated pupils—to evolutionary advantages in threat detection and response, emphasizing their continuity across species. These ideas underscore how the response functions as a holistic, adaptive unit rather than isolated reflexes, enhancing overall survival in hazardous environments.^[45]^[46] Selective pressures favoring the fight-or-flight response centered on optimizing energy allocation during confrontations: the "fight" mode supports resource competition by sustaining prolonged exertion, while "flight" prioritizes rapid escape to minimize injury and conserve metabolic resources for future survival. This dichotomy reflects evolutionary trade-offs shaped by ancestral environments where threats demanded immediate, high-stakes decisions. Genetically, the response is underpinned by conserved stress-related genes, such as the corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) gene, which originated in early vertebrates and regulates HPA axis activation; duplications and refinements in the CRH family across evolution fine-tuned stress signaling for diverse ecological niches.^[47]^[48]^[49] In human evolution, the core circuitry of the fight-or-flight response has remained largely unchanged since our divergence from other primates, but selective pressures shifted from predominantly physical dangers to social threats, such as status loss or group exclusion, which activate the same HPA-mediated pathways. This adaptation allowed early humans to navigate complex social hierarchies, where perceived rejection could equate to survival risks, yet the underlying physiological machinery—rooted in ancient vertebrate origins—continues to respond indiscriminately to modern stressors.^[50]^[51]

Variations Across Species

The fight-or-flight response exhibits significant variations across species, reflecting adaptations to ecological niches and survival strategies. In invertebrates, such as crayfish, the response manifests as simpler escape reflexes, including the rapid tail-flip behavior mediated by neural circuits in the abdominal ganglia. This reflex is modulated by serotonin, where low concentrations facilitate quicker escapes while higher levels can inhibit the response, allowing for context-dependent adjustments based on environmental cues or social status.^[52]^[53] Among mammals, the response shows a bias toward aggression in predators and evasion in prey species. For instance, lions, as apex predators, display a pronounced "fight" orientation, with heightened sympathetic activation leading to bold confrontations during territorial disputes or hunts, prioritizing offensive actions over retreat. In contrast, prey animals like rabbits emphasize the "flight" component, evolving enhanced cardiovascular and muscular adaptations for rapid acceleration and sustained speed to evade pursuers, often integrating sensory hypervigilance to detect threats early.^[54] Specific examples illustrate further adaptive diversity. Deer commonly employ a "freeze" response upon detecting predators, remaining immobile to leverage camouflage and blend with surroundings, thereby reducing visibility until the threat passes or an escape opportunity arises. In wolves, play-fighting serves as a modulated variant, allowing juveniles to practice fight-or-flight elements in a low-risk context; facial signals, such as relaxed open mouths, distinguish playful from aggressive interactions, facilitating social learning without escalating to full conflict.^[55]^[56] Additional varieties include the "tend-and-befriend" pattern observed in social primates, where females under stress form coalitions and nurture offspring or allies, promoting group cohesion and protection through oxytocin-mediated bonding rather than solitary fight or flight. Recent research highlights conserved metabolic mechanisms across species, such as the resetting of molecular cycles involving protein degradation during overlapping stress and starvation responses, which helps restore homeostasis post-threat in organisms from insects to mammals.^[57]^[58] This metabolic overlap underscores the sympathetic nervous system's evolutionary conservation, paralleling human responses in preparing for energy demands during acute threats.^[59]

Health, Clinical, and Societal Implications

Chronic activation of the fight-or-flight response contributes to allostatic load, the cumulative wear and tear on the body from repeated or prolonged stress, which heightens vulnerability to psychiatric conditions such as anxiety disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).^[60] In PTSD, traumatic stress exaggerates the fear response, leading to persistent dysregulation of neural circuits involved in threat detection and unable to deactivate after the stressor resolves.^[61] Similarly, hyperactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in depression sustains elevated cortisol levels, exacerbating mood disturbances and neuroplasticity impairments.^[62] Panic attacks often represent a misfired fight-or-flight response, where the sympathetic nervous system activates intensely in the absence of real danger, producing symptoms like rapid heartbeat, sweating, and shortness of breath.^[63] Prolonged arousal from this response is linked to cardiovascular disease, as chronic elevations in heart rate, blood pressure, and inflammation increase risks for hypertension, atherosclerosis, and heart attacks.^[4] These physiological changes, including sustained catecholamine release, underlie many somatic symptoms in stress-related disorders.^[2] Interventions targeting the fight-or-flight response include mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), which help individuals reappraise perceived threats, reducing emotional reactivity and HPA axis overactivation.^[64] Biofeedback techniques enable autonomic control by training users to modulate heart rate variability and sympathetic activity, thereby dampening the response during stress exposure.^[65] Recent research has identified molecular cycles that reset the fight-or-flight response, involving protein kinase A deactivation to facilitate recovery from stress or starvation, offering potential targets for novel therapies.^[66] Stress-related disorders affect 25-45% of individuals in high-stress populations, such as healthcare workers or students—for instance, a 2025 study reported 91.9% prevalence of stress symptoms among healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic— with manifestations showing gender disparities; female students are approximately 1.8 times more likely to experience stress than males, and women have higher rates of PTSD.^[67]^[68]^[69]

Applications in Law and Behavior

In criminal law, the fight-or-flight response has been invoked in defenses such as the irresistible impulse test, where acute stress from perceived threats can impair volitional control, leading to actions that a defendant could not resist due to overwhelming physiological arousal.^[70]^[71] Similarly, diminished capacity defenses in assault cases often cite the response's role in heightening threat perception, where elevated adrenaline and cortisol levels narrow focus on immediate danger, reducing rational assessment and contributing to reactive violence.^[72] In behavioral contexts, police training programs incorporate recognition of the fight-or-flight response to enhance de-escalation techniques, teaching officers to identify sympathetic nervous system activation in suspects—such as rapid breathing or agitation—and use verbal calming strategies to prevent escalation.^[73] In sports psychology, controlled arousal from the response is leveraged for peak performance, guided by principles like the Yerkes-Dodson law, which posits an inverted-U relationship where moderate activation sharpens focus and reaction time, as seen in athletes using biofeedback to maintain optimal stress levels during competition.^[74] Societally, the response contributes to misinterpretations in eyewitness testimony, as high-stress encoding triggers memory biases like tunnel vision, impairing peripheral details and accuracy in identification.^[75] Workplace stress policies, informed by these dynamics, promote interventions such as mindfulness breaks and ergonomic assessments to mitigate chronic activation of the response, reducing absenteeism and boosting productivity in high-pressure environments.^[76]

References

[1]
Walter Bradford Cannon: Pioneer Physiologist of Human Emotions
... response of “flight or fight.” The “sympathico-adrenal system” orchestrates changes in blood supply, sugar availability, and the blood's clotting capacity ...
[2]
Physiology, Stress Reaction - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
May 7, 2024 · The body's fight-or-flight response leads to temporary physiological changes such as increased heart rate and adrenaline release.
[3]
Why is stress so deadly? An evolutionary perspective - PMC - NIH
Classical theory assumes that stress responses have evolved due to their short-term selective advantages ('flight or fight'), and despite their adverse long- ...
[4]
Understanding the stress response - Harvard Health
Apr 3, 2024 · Elevated cortisol levels create physiological changes that help to replenish the body's energy stores that are depleted during the stress ...
[5]
Fight Or Flight Response | Psychology Tools
The fight or flight response is an automatic, evolutionarily conserved physiological reaction to perceived threat or danger. It involves activation of the ...Key Benefits · Integrating It Into Your... · Theoretical Background And...
[6]
Cannon of Harvard - Clinical Methods - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
For 35 years Cannon studied the sympathetic nervous system, arriving at several generalizations. He described the emergency, "fight or flight" response.
[7]
The fight-or-flight response: A cornerstone of stress research.
The fight-or-flight response was a concept developed by Walter B. Cannon in the course of his studies on the secretion of epinephrine from the adrenal ...
[8]
[PDF] What is an Emotion?
Source: Mind , Apr., 1884, Vol. 9, No. 34 (Apr., 1884), pp. 188-205 ... -WHAT IS AN EMOTION? By Professor WILLIAM JAMES. THE physiologists who ...Missing: text | Show results with:text
[9]
Claude Bernard, the first systems biologist, and the future of ...
Dec 18, 2007 · The first systems analysis of the functioning of an organism was Claude Bernard's concept of the constancy of the internal environment.
[10]
Sir Charles Sherrington's The integrative action of the nervous system
Apr 1, 2007 · Between 1889 and 1895, he published an accelerating series of papers that began to include specific work on reflexes. Of special importance were ...Abstract · The Silliman lectures · Some background · What did Sherrington say in...
[11]
From Pavlov to PTSD: The extinction of conditioned fear in rodents ...
Nearly 100 years ago, Ivan Pavlov demonstrated that dogs could learn to use a neutral cue to predict a biologically relevant event: after repeated predictive ...
[12]
[PDF] Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear and rage, an account of recent ...
Fear, rage and pain, and the pangs of hunger are all primitive experiences which human beings share with the lower animals. These experiences are properly ...
[13]
A Comprehensive Overview on Stress Neurobiology - Frontiers
Once these axes are activated in response to a given stressor, they will generate a coordinated response that starts within seconds and might last for days, ...
[14]
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2844123/
[15]
Locus Ceruleus Norepinephrine Release: A Central Regulator of ...
Extreme stress induces hyperactivity in parts of the limbic system, fight- or-flight response (lower right), overdrive and functional shut-down of the PFC, and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[16]
Physiology, Catecholamines - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Dec 11, 2024 · Epinephrine and norepinephrine play a central role in the body's “fight-or-flight” response. When the body perceives a threat, these ...Missing: serotonin | Show results with:serotonin
[17]
Adrenal Hormones | Endocrine Society
Jan 24, 2022 · In stressful situations, norepinephrine increases as part of the fight or flight response to mobilize the brain and body for action.
[18]
Dopamine: What It Is, Function & Symptoms - Cleveland Clinic
Mar 23, 2022 · As a hormone, dopamine is released into your bloodstream. It plays a small role in the “fight-or-flight” syndrome. The fight-or-flight response ...What Is Dopamine? · How Does Dopamine Make... · A Note From Cleveland Clinic
[19]
Serotonin Plays a Surprising Role in Fight-Flight-or-Freeze
Feb 1, 2019 · Serotonin influences "fight-flight-or-freeze" responses depending on the degree of danger, according to a new study from Cornell University.
[20]
Pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics of epinephrine after single ...
Aug 19, 2023 · The pharmacokinetic profile of neffy was bracketed by approved injection products, with a mean peak plasma level of 481 pg/mL, which fell ...
[21]
Stress effects on the body - American Psychological Association
Nov 1, 2018 · When the body is stressed, the SNS contributes to what is known as the “fight or flight” response. The body shifts its energy resources toward ...
[22]
Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS): What It Is & Function
Your sympathetic nervous system is the network of nerves behind the “fight-or-flight” response. It helps your brain manage body systems in times of stress ...
[23]
Amygdala–liver signalling orchestrates glycaemic responses to stress
Sep 3, 2025 · Glycaemic responses to stress are correlated with fight–flight behaviours, and glucose infusions elicit stress-like enhancements of cardiac ...
[24]
A new role for the amygdala in response to fear and anxiety - PNAS
Sep 19, 2025 · The amygdala (orange) helps orchestrate a metabolic reaction to stress, not just a behavioral response.
[25]
Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and ...
Recent research has begun to reveal the intracellular signalling pathways that mediate the effects of stress on the PFC.
[26]
Prefrontal modulation of anxiety through a lens of noradrenergic ...
Excessive NE release engages β-ARs. This activation is associated with fight-or-flight response, life-or-death decision-making, high limbic activation, and ...
[27]
Amygdala Activity, Fear, and Anxiety: Modulation by Stress - PMC
These local effects within the amygdala are likely to lead to an over-active fear and anxiety related circuit and to decrease the ability of other areas ...
[28]
The Neuroscience of Stress and Peak Performance in Sports and ...
Jan 21, 2020 · When we're exposed to perceived threats such as facing a lion, we activate a mode called the fight-or-flight response, activating our ...
[29]
Theories of Emotion | Introduction to Psychology - Lumen Learning
According to the James-Lange theory of emotion, you would only experience a feeling of fear after this physiological arousal had taken place. Furthermore, ...Missing: distinction | Show results with:distinction
[30]
Brief structured respiration practices enhance mood and reduce ...
Jan 10, 2023 · Breathwork produces greater improvement in mood and reduction in respiratory rate, while both result in reduction in negative emotion including state anxiety.
[31]
Connecting Biology to Behavior in ADHD: The Amygdala's Role
Feb 20, 2025 · Amygdala hijack is when the emotional brain takes over the thinking brain, preventing goal-directed behaviors. This post is the second in a ...Connecting Biology To... · What Is The Amygdala And... · How To Manage Extreme...
[32]
Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: tend-and-befriend, not ...
Females' stress response is "tend-and-befriend," involving nurturant activities and social networks, unlike the typical "fight-or-flight" response.
[33]
What lies behind the female habit of 'tending and befriending' during ...
Jan 1, 2004 · Behavior and biology both suggest that females respond to environmental stress by redoubling efforts to care for offspring and creating social support networks.
[34]
The influence of stress on attentional bias to threat: An angry face ...
Our study shows that while stress does disrupt accuracy performance on a facial attention task, an attentional threat advantage persists.
[35]
Stress-Activity Mapping: Physiological Responses During General ...
Oct 4, 2019 · Similarly, higher levels of arousal are associated with perceptual narrowing (e.g., tunnel vision, auditory exclusion) because the perceptual ...
[36]
A narrative review of the interconnection between pilot acute stress ...
... fight-or-flight” response. This physiological response is characterized by ... This can lead to a tunnel vision effect or even to a cognitive lockup ...
[37]
Overview of the 6 Major Theories of Emotion - Verywell Mind
Jun 22, 2024 · The James-Lange theory proposes that you will conclude that you are frightened ("I am trembling. Therefore, I am afraid"). According to this ...Missing: distinction | Show results with:distinction
[38]
16.2 Stress and Coping – Introduction to Psychology
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) unpacked the concept of interpretation further in their model of stress appraisal, which includes primary, secondary, and reappraisal ...
[39]
Neural Emotion Regulation Circuitry Underlying Anxiolytic Effects of ...
These results suggest that perceived control reduces negative affect through a general mechanism involved in the cognitive regulation of emotion.
[40]
[PDF] Social evaluative threat across individual, relational, and collective ...
Similar to the fight-or-flight response, perceiving threats in the ... experience social identity threat when a group they belong to is at risk of.
[41]
Revisiting Walter Bradford Cannon's 100-year-old fight-or-flight ...
Jul 5, 2024 · Walter Bradford Cannon's fight-or-flight (1915) suggests that when we encounter a conflict, our bodies undergo a physiological reaction that ...
[42]
Debunking a Decades-Long Misconception about the Origin of the ...
Apr 17, 2024 · The system is also best known for mediating the fight-or-flight response in vertebrates. ... vertebrates develop these cells early in gestation.
[43]
Instinct for 'fight or flight' may be much older than we thought - Phys.org
Apr 18, 2024 · The sympathetic nervous system is thought to have evolved in jawed vertebrates and—as jawless vertebrates—lampreys were thought to lack one.
[44]
Evolutionary Significance of the Neuroendocrine Stress Axis on ...
The splitting of immune functions into two branches occurred with the emergence of jawless vertebrate agnathans (i.e., hagfish) 500 millions of years before ...
[45]
Regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical stress ...
While the focus is on rodents, it is important to note that the organization of the HPA axis is highly conserved throughout mammalian phylogeny.
[46]
The Fight-or-Flight Response: A Cornerstone of Stress Research
The fight-or-flight response was a concept developed by Walter B. Cannon in the course of his studies on the secretion of epinephrine from the adrenal medulla.
[47]
[PDF] The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals - Darwin Online
... fight, and which consequently are expressive of anger. I requestthe reader ... flight soon follows, with no hus- banding of the strength as infighting ...
[48]
The Short-Term Stress Response – Mother Nature's Mechanism for ...
A psycho-physiological stress response is one of nature's fundamental survival mechanisms. Without a fight-or-flight stress response, a lion has no chance of ...
[49]
Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH) Gene Family Duplications ...
Jul 29, 2020 · We present here analyses of CRH-family members in lamprey and hagfish by comparing sequences and gene synteny with gnathostomes.
[50]
MOLECULAR EVOLUTION OF GPCRS: CRH/CRH receptors in
Over time, the receptors evolved into early R1 and R2 forms, whereas the two peptide genes evolved into either CRH/UI-like or Ucn2/Ucn3-like forms.
[51]
Evolution of stress responses refine mechanisms of social rank - PMC
The evolution of social status appears to be inseparably connected to the evolution of stress. Stress, aggression, reward, and decision-making neurocircuitries ...
[52]
Evolution of stress response to social threat | Request PDF
This article reviews the idea that humans evolved large brains and an extended childhood as adaptations that enable the development of social skills for ...
[53]
Modulation of the crayfish escape reflex--physiology and ... - PubMed
Serotonin can either facilitate or inhibit escape depending on concentration and pattern of application. Low concentrations facilitate while high ones inhibit; ...
[54]
The effect of social experience on serotonergic ... - PubMed
In crayfish, the effect of serotonin on the neural circuit for tailflip escape behavior was found to depend on the animal's social experience. Serotonin ...
[55]
Fear and stressing in predator–prey ecology: considering the twin ...
Apr 30, 2020 · Predators often elicit fear responses in prey that affect prey behaviour, energy budgets and the way they interact with the environment (Brown & ...Missing: rabbits | Show results with:rabbits
[56]
Fight, Flight, Freeze, or Fix - Existential Family Therapy
Apr 10, 2014 · Technically this is a survival response. It can work for prey animals with effective camouflage; like deer.
[57]
Nuancing 'Emotional' Social Play: Does Play Behaviour Always ...
Social play would result from a neural exercise that requires the ability to swing between a fight-or-flight response, related to the arousal emotional systems, ...
[58]
Sex differences in behavioral and hormonal response to social threat
Taylor et al. (2000) used female coalitional behavior in other primates to make inferences about the evolution of befriending in women. The reviewed studies ...<|separator|>
[59]
Resetting the fight-or-flight response | Eberly College of Science
May 28, 2025 · “Some of the early changes in the fight-or-flight response include the release of hormones, like adrenaline from stress or glucagon from ...
[60]
Stress in wildlife: comparison of the stress response among ... - NIH
Apr 17, 2023 · The fight-or-flight response is based on the theory that the sympathetic nervous system of organisms responds to stressors and prepares for ...
[61]
What Is Allostatic Load? - Verywell Mind
Aug 11, 2022 · Allostatic load refers to the cumulative effects that chronic stress has on mental and physical health.
[62]
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: The Relationship Between the Fear ...
Jun 27, 2017 · Traumatic or chronic stress, which is similar to an exaggerated fear response that cannot be turned off, can alter functioning of these systems ...
[63]
Chronic Stress-Associated Depressive Disorders: The Impact ... - MDPI
The hyperactivity of the HPA axis may be a primary factor leading to depression, particularly in the context of chronic stress conditions. The body responds to ...
[64]
Help! I'm Having Panic Attacks - Simply Psychology
Sep 17, 2025 · Normally, the body's fight-or-flight response activates when there is real danger. In panic disorder, this alarm system misfires, triggering ...
[65]
Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy Improves Emotional ...
... Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) is efficacious in reducing emotional reactivity to social evaluative threat in a clinical sample with recurrent depression. A ...
[66]
[PDF] Biofeedback, Flight-or-fight Response and Meditation
Biofeedback facilitates the monitoring and modulation of subconscious activities, which constitute the fight-or-flight response regulated by autonomic nervous ...
[67]
Resetting the fight-or-flight response | ScienceDaily
May 30, 2025 · New study reveals mechanism responsible for resetting key molecular cycle involved in response to stress and starvation. Date: May 30, 2025 ...
[68]
Prevalence of stress and associated factors among students in ...
The pooled prevalence of stress in this review was almost aligned with the studies carried out among the student population (31%) (52), and medical students in ...<|separator|>
[69]
PTSD is More Likely in Women Than Men | NAMI
Oct 8, 2019 · Numerous research studies on post-traumatic disorder have shown that females are twice as likely to experience PTSD than males.<|separator|>
[70]
irresistible impulse test | Wex | US Law | LII / Legal Information Institute
The irresistible impulse test is a legal doctrine that applies to the insanity defense in criminal cases. Under this test, a defendant may be found not guilty ...Missing: acute stress fight- flight
[71]
Fear and the Defense Cascade: Clinical Implications and ...
Flight-or-fight responses are active defense responses—coordinated patterns of emotional-behavioral-physiological response—that are activated when animals are ...
[72]
"The Neuroscience of Trauma Supports Diminished Capacity as a ...
... defense. At the same time, their activated fight-or-flight responses may cause them to perceive and react to threats in ways that the duress defense would ...
[73]
enhancing police de-escalation skills through full-body VR training
Sep 3, 2024 · The sympathetic nervous system orchestrates the “fight-or-flight” response, preparing the body for action in stressful situations by increasing ...
[74]
Arousal Control in Sport - Oxford Research Encyclopedias
Jan 24, 2018 · It is important to understand the arousal response to stress in sport. Both theory and research suggest a connection between arousal and athletic performance.
[75]
Stress, stress‐induced cortisol responses, and eyewitness ... - NIH
In the eyewitness identification literature, stress and arousal at the time of encoding are considered to adversely influence identification performance.
[76]
STRESS...At Work (99-101) | NIOSH - CDC
This response (sometimes called the fight or flight response) is important because it helps us defend against threatening situations. The response is ...
[77]
The relationship of compliance with immediate and delayed ...
Oct 3, 2024 · This study examined the relationship of compliance with immediate and delayed suggestibility and types of resistant behavioral responses ...