Sam
Samuel Harris Altman (born April 22, 1985) is an American entrepreneur and technology executive serving as the chief executive officer of OpenAI, a leading artificial intelligence research organization he co-founded in 2015.[1][2] After dropping out of Stanford University, Altman co-founded the location-based social networking startup Loopt in 2005, which was acquired in 2012, and later rose to prominence as president of the startup accelerator Y Combinator from 2014 to 2019, where he helped scale hundreds of early-stage companies including Airbnb and Dropbox.[3][4] As CEO of OpenAI, Altman oversaw its transition from a nonprofit to a "capped-profit" entity in 2019, securing major investments including billions from Microsoft, and led the 2022 release of ChatGPT, a generative AI chatbot that popularized large language models and propelled OpenAI to a valuation exceeding $80 billion by driving widespread adoption in productivity tools, content generation, and software development.[2][5] His tenure has emphasized rapid AI advancement to achieve artificial general intelligence, though it has drawn scrutiny for prioritizing commercial growth over safety protocols amid debates on existential risks from advanced systems.[6] Altman's leadership faced a major crisis in November 2023 when OpenAI's board ousted him as CEO citing a lack of consistent candor in communications, sparking employee revolt and investor pressure that resulted in his reinstatement within days alongside a restructured board more aligned with his vision.[7] In January 2025, he denied allegations in a lawsuit filed by his sister claiming childhood sexual abuse spanning nearly a decade, describing the claims as fabrications amid a family dispute over support.[8][9] These events underscore tensions between Altman's aggressive innovation drive and concerns over governance, ethics, and personal conduct in the high-stakes AI sector.[10]People
Real people
- Sam Altman (born April 22, 1985) is an American entrepreneur serving as CEO of OpenAI since 2019, where he has overseen the development of advanced AI models including GPT series technologies.[11]
- Sam Cooke (January 22, 1931 – December 11, 1964) was an American singer-songwriter who transitioned from gospel to secular music, pioneering soul with hits like "You Send Me" and "A Change Is Gonna Come," influencing generations of artists.[12][13]
- Samuel L. Jackson (born December 21, 1948) is an American actor appearing in over 150 films, including pivotal roles in Pulp Fiction (1994) and the Marvel Cinematic Universe as Nick Fury, making him one of the highest-grossing actors by box office revenue.[14][15]
- Sam Houston (March 2, 1793 – July 26, 1863) was an American soldier and politician who led Texian forces to victory at the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, 1836, contributing to Texas independence; he later served as its president (1836–1838, 1841–1844), U.S. senator (1846–1859), and governor (1859–1861).[16]
- Sam Smith (born May 19, 1992) is an English singer-songwriter who gained prominence with the 2014 hit "Stay with Me," earning multiple Grammy Awards and achieving global sales exceeding 30 million records.[17]
- Sam Walton (March 29, 1918 – April 5, 1992) founded Walmart in 1962, expanding it into the world's largest retailer by revenue through innovative supply chain and low-price strategies, starting from a single store in Rogers, Arkansas.[18][19]
Fictional characters
Samwise Gamgee is a hobbit and the devoted gardener and companion to Frodo Baggins in J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, first published in three volumes between 1954 and 1955; Tolkien described him as the "chief hero" of the story for his role in carrying Frodo through the quest to destroy the One Ring.[20][21] Sam Spade is a cynical San Francisco private detective and the protagonist of Dashiell Hammett's 1930 novel The Maltese Falcon, embodying the hard-boiled archetype through his pragmatic navigation of deceit, murder, and greed in pursuit of a priceless statuette.[22][23] Yosemite Sam is a diminutive, red-bearded gunslinger and recurring antagonist in Warner Bros.' Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies animated shorts, debuting in the 1945 cartoon Hare Trigger as a foil to Bugs Bunny, known for his explosive temper and comically futile schemes.[24] Sam Malone is a retired baseball pitcher and bar owner in the American sitcom Cheers, which aired from 1982 to 1993, portrayed as a womanizing yet affable everyman whose personal flaws drive much of the series' humor and character dynamics.[24][25] Sam Winchester is a hunter of supernatural entities alongside his brother Dean in the TV series Supernatural, which ran from 2005 to 2020, characterized by his intellectual approach to occult threats, moral conflicts, and recurring demonic possessions.[24]Places
Geographical locations
Sam is the name of 22 populated places worldwide, distributed across 16 countries, primarily as small villages or hamlets rather than major settlements.[26] Senegal hosts the largest number, with four instances in regions including Kaolack, Fatick, and Diourbel.[26] Other countries with multiple occurrences include the United States (two), Turkey (two in Gaziantep and Antalya), and Burkina Faso (two).[26] In the United States, Sam in Teton County, Idaho, at approximately 43.719°N, 111.304°W, was a short-lived coal mining community established around 1900, peaking with about 200 residents before declining by the mid-20th century due to exhausted resources and economic shifts; it now exists as a historical site west of Driggs in the Big Hole Mountains.[27][28] Another, Sam in Tazewell County, Virginia, near Bluefield, is a minor unincorporated neighborhood with limited documented history.[29] Elsewhere, examples include Sam in Salzburg, Austria; Sam in Rajasthan, India; and Sam in Southern Province, Zambia, reflecting localized naming conventions often tied to indigenous languages or historical figures, though specific etymologies vary and are sparsely recorded for these minor locales.[26] Larger geographic features like Sam Peak, a mountain on Mitkof Island in Alaska's Alexander Archipelago, also carry the name but are distinct from settlements.Religious or legendary figures
Figures in religion, mythology, and folklore
In Jewish, Christian, and Islamic traditions, Samuel (Hebrew: Shmuel, meaning "God has heard" or "name of God") is depicted as a pivotal prophet, priest, and judge who bridged the period of the Israelite judges and the monarchy.[30] Born to Hannah, a barren woman who vowed to dedicate her son to divine service, Samuel was raised in the tabernacle at Shiloh under the priest Eli, where he received his prophetic calling as a youth after hearing God's voice during the night.[30] His ministry, spanning over six decades from approximately the late 11th century BCE, involved anointing Israel's first kings, Saul and David, while confronting corruption among religious leaders and guiding the nation through conflicts with the Philistines.[31] Samuel's narratives in the Hebrew Bible (1 Samuel) emphasize his role as a faithful intermediary between God and Israel, including miraculous events like the thunder at Mizpah that routed Philistine forces in response to his prayers.[32] As a Levite from the Kohathite lineage, he established schools of prophets and maintained priestly duties despite the decline of Eli's house, which he prophesied would end due to their sins.[33] Posthumously, Samuel appeared as a spirit to Saul at Endor, affirming divine judgment against the disobedient king, an episode interpreted variably across traditions as genuine necromancy or divine permission.[30] In broader religious contexts, Samuel is venerated as a model of piety and leadership; Islamic sources reference him (as Shamwil) in connection with Saul's kingship and the Ark of the Covenant, though details differ from biblical accounts.[32] No major figures explicitly named "Sam" appear prominently in non-Abrahamic mythologies or folklore, though misconceptions persist regarding Samhain as a Celtic deity rather than a seasonal festival, with no substantiated link to a personified entity named Sam.[34] Claims of a death god "Sam Hain" derive from 19th-20th century folk etymology without primary textual support in Irish lore.[35]Animals
Notable animals
Unsinkable Sam, originally named Oscar, was a black-and-white ship's cat who survived the sinkings of three warships during World War II.[36] Aboard the German battleship Bismarck, Oscar was present when it was sunk by the British Royal Navy on May 27, 1941, in the North Atlantic; he was rescued by the destroyer HMS Maori among 110 survivors from the ship's crew of over 2,200.[37] Renamed Sam by his British rescuers, he joined the destroyer HMS Cossack, which was torpedoed and sank on October 24, 1941, off Gibraltar, with Sam again surviving via lifeboat.[38] Transferred to the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal, Sam endured its torpedoing by a German U-boat on November 14, 1941, and was rescued once more before the ship sank the following day.[39] Deemed too unlucky for further sea duty by the Royal Navy, Sam was retired to the Governor's House in Gibraltar, where he lived comfortably until relocated to a seamen's home in Belfast, Northern Ireland, in 1943.[36] He resided there until his death in 1955, having outlived many of his human shipmates and becoming a symbol of feline resilience amid naval warfare.[37] Accounts of Sam's exploits, drawn from survivor testimonies and naval records, highlight his calm demeanor during disasters, though some historians note the lore may include embellishments typical of wartime anecdotes.[38] Other animals named Sam include Lillybrad's Sammy's Shadow, an Old English Sheepdog exhibited in the mid-20th century and noted for his distinctive shaggy appearance in dog shows, though less renowned than Unsinkable Sam.[40] Andy Warhol owned approximately 25 cats collectively named Sam in the 1950s, inspiring early silkscreen prints that prefigured his pop art career, but no individual cat achieved singular fame.[41]Arts and entertainment
Titles and works
Sam is a 2023 literary novel by Allegra Goodman, centering on Samantha "Sam" Bickford, a girl from a working-class family in Beverly, Massachusetts, who navigates personal challenges including her mother's mental health issues and her own passion for rock climbing from age seven into young adulthood.[42][43] You've Reached Sam is a 2021 young adult novel by Dustin Thao, in which the protagonist Julie discovers a way to communicate with her deceased boyfriend Sam after his death, exploring themes of grief and unresolved love.[44] In film, I Am Sam (2001) is a drama directed by Jessie Nelson, featuring Sean Penn as Sam Dawson, an intellectually disabled single father fighting to retain custody of his daughter amid legal and social obstacles.[45] Sam (2015) is a comedy-fantasy film in which a chauvinistic New York man undergoes a magical gender transformation, compelling him to experience life from a female perspective.[46] Good Neighbor Sam (1964) is a comedy directed by David Swift, starring Jack Lemmon as Sam Bissell, an advertising executive entangled in a fabricated marriage scheme to validate a client's inheritance claim.[47] On television, Fireman Sam is a Welsh animated children's series that premiered in 1987, following firefighter Sam Jones and his team as they handle emergencies in the fictional town of Pontypandy.[48] In music, "Sam" is a 1977 single by Olivia Newton-John from her album Don't Stop Believin', co-written by John Farrar, Hank Marvin, and Don Black, depicting longing for a departed lover.[49] "Sam's Song (The Happy Tune)" is a 1950 pop standard composed by Lew Quadling with lyrics by Jack Elliott, popularized by recordings from artists including Bing Crosby and Dean Martin, and named after music publisher Sam Weiss.[50][51]Characters and roles
Sam Spade is the hard-boiled private detective protagonist of Dashiell Hammett's 1930 novel The Maltese Falcon, who investigates a quest for a valuable statuette amid murder and deception.[52] Sam Malone is the charismatic bartender and former Major League Baseball pitcher who owns the Boston bar Cheers in the NBC sitcom Cheers, which aired from 1982 to 1993. Uncle Sam is the anthropomorphic national personification of the United States federal government, originating in the early 19th century and popularized through posters like James Montgomery Flagg's 1917 "I Want You" recruitment image during World War I.[53] Yosemite Sam is the hot-tempered, gunslinging cowboy antagonist frequently pitted against Bugs Bunny in Warner Bros. Looney Tunes cartoons, debuting in the 1945 short Hare Trigger.[54]Business
Brands and enterprises
Sam's Club is a chain of membership-only warehouse clubs owned by Walmart Inc., founded on April 7, 1983, in Midwest City, Oklahoma, and named after Walmart founder Sam Walton to support small businesses with bulk purchasing options. The model emphasizes limited selection of high-volume items at low prices, evolving to include services like fuel discounts, optical centers, and pharmacies for broader consumer needs. As of October 2025, it operates 601 locations across the United States.[55] Good Sam Enterprises, established in 1966 as the Good Sam Club, offers subscription-based memberships providing roadside assistance, campground discounts, RV rentals, and publications targeted at recreational vehicle owners and campers. Acquired by Camping World in 2010, it has grown to serve millions of members, functioning as a key support network for outdoor travel with extended service plans and repair services.[56][57] Sam Edelman, a lifestyle brand focused on footwear, handbags, and apparel, traces its roots to the 1987 founding of Sam & Libby and launched its namesake line in 2004. The brand emphasizes American heritage styling with innovative trends, building on founder Sam Edelman's prior leadership in footwear for Ralph Lauren, Esprit, and Candie's, positioning it as a staple in contemporary fashion retail.[58]Terminology and concepts
In business and marketing strategy, SAM most commonly stands for Serviceable Addressable Market, a metric that delineates the subset of the Total Addressable Market (TAM) which a company can feasibly target and serve using its current products, services, distribution networks, and geographic capabilities.[59] This concept refines broader TAM estimates by accounting for practical limitations such as regulatory barriers, technological constraints, and operational reach, enabling more precise forecasting of revenue potential.[60] For instance, while TAM might encompass the global demand for electric vehicles, a manufacturer's SAM could be restricted to North American sales due to supply chain logistics and tariffs.[61] SAM is calculated by applying filters to TAM data, often derived from industry reports, customer segmentation analysis, or econometric models, to yield a serviceable portion—sometimes interchangeably termed Serviceable Available Market.[62] It forms part of the TAM-SAM-SOM framework, where SOM (Serviceable Obtainable Market) further narrows SAM to the realistic market share attainable amid competition and execution risks, aiding startups in validating scalability during funding rounds.[63] Empirical applications, such as in software-as-a-service (SaaS) ventures, demonstrate SAM's role in prioritizing resource allocation; for example, a cybersecurity firm might estimate its SAM at $5 billion within a $50 billion TAM by focusing on enterprise clients in regulated sectors like finance.[64] Alternatively, SAM denotes Strategic Account Management, a disciplined approach to cultivating high-value client relationships through tailored strategies that align supplier capabilities with customer needs, emphasizing long-term revenue growth over transactional sales.[65] This methodology involves segmenting accounts by strategic fit, deploying cross-functional teams, and measuring success via metrics like customer lifetime value and retention rates, contrasting with broader sales tactics by prioritizing depth in fewer relationships.[65] Both interpretations underscore SAM's utility in resource-efficient decision-making, though the market-sizing usage predominates in venture capital and go-to-market analyses as of 2025.[66]Languages
Linguistic uses
"Sam" functions primarily as a masculine given name in English and other Indo-European languages, serving as a hypocoristic or diminutive form of Samuel, which originates from the Hebrew שְׁמוּאֵל (Šəmūʾēl), interpreted as "God has heard" or "name of God."[67] This usage extends to unisex applications in modern contexts, though traditionally male, and appears in linguistic typology examples to illustrate subject-verb-object sentence structures, such as prototypical declarative sentences in analytic languages.[68] In Sanskrit, an ancient Indo-Aryan language, "sam-" (सम्) operates as an indeclinable prefix (upasarga) affixed to verbs, nouns, and adjectives to convey meanings of "with," "together with," "along with," or intensification toward completeness, as seen in derivations like saṃskṛta (संस्कृत), the term for the refined classical language itself, implying "perfected" or "well-put-together."[69] This prefix modifies verbal roots to indicate conjunction or totality, exemplified in compounds such as saṃgama (संगम, "confluence" or "union"), and its influence persists in derived Indo-Aryan languages through inherited vocabulary denoting assembly or harmony.[70] In Polish, a West Slavic language, "sam" (with inflected forms sama, samo, sami) functions as a pronoun and adjective meaning "alone," "self," or emphatically "very," often used reflexively to denote independence or exclusivity, as in "samodzielnie" (independently, literally "self-standing") or phrases like "sam sobie" (by oneself).[71] This usage highlights solo agency or intensification, distinct from English cognates, and underscores reflexive constructions common in Slavic morphosyntax.[72] Less prominently, in Nordic languages like Danish and Norwegian, "sam-" derives from Old Norse as a prefix akin to Latin "con-" or "co-," denoting joint action or unity, as in "samarbejde" (cooperation), reflecting Proto-Germanic roots for collective processes.[73] These varied linguistic roles illustrate "sam"'s polysemy across language families, from nominal proper use to derivational morphology.Museums
Institutions
The Seattle Art Museum (SAM) is the primary art museum in Seattle, Washington, featuring a collection of over 25,000 works spanning Asian, Native American, African, Oceanic, and modern and contemporary art, with additional facilities including the Seattle Asian Art Museum and the Olympic Sculpture Park. Established in 1933 through a bequest from Dr. Richard Fuller, it serves as a key cultural institution in the Pacific Northwest, hosting exhibitions and educational programs. The San Antonio Museum of Art (SAMA, also abbreviated SAM) occupies a 32-acre site in San Antonio, Texas, within the repurposed 19th-century Pearl Brewing Company buildings along the River Walk. Its permanent collection encompasses more than 30,000 objects from ancient Egyptian artifacts to Latin American folk art and contemporary works, emphasizing Texas and Latin American holdings, with the museum founded in 1979. The South African Museum, abbreviated SAM, is one of the oldest museums in sub-Saharan Africa, located in Cape Town's Company Gardens and managed by Iziko Museums since 1998, with collections focused on natural history, archaeology, and ethnology including fossils, meteorites, and southern African cultural artifacts dating back to its establishment in 1825.Organizations
Groups and associations
The Society for Advancement of Management (SAM) is a nonprofit professional organization founded on November 11, 1912, by associates of Frederick W. Taylor to promote the scientific study and application of management principles.[74] As the oldest management society, it connects academicians, practitioners, and students through chapters, conferences, and resources aimed at developing leadership and expertise in organized efforts.[75] Membership emphasizes general management skills, with opportunities for networking and professional growth.[76] The Society for American Music (SAM), established in 1975 and initially named the Sonneck Society in honor of music scholar Oscar G. T. Sonneck, is a nonprofit dedicated to the scholarly study, performance, teaching, and creation of musics from the Americas.[77] It serves scholars, performers, and students via publications, annual conferences, awards, and advocacy for American music preservation.[78] Smart Approaches to Marijuana (SAM) is a nonprofit advocacy group formed to educate on the public health and societal risks of marijuana legalization, prioritizing evidence-based policy over industry interests.[79] It conducts research, training, and campaigns highlighting addiction, youth impacts, and regulatory failures in legalized markets. The Spartanburg Academic Movement (SAM), launched in 2013, operates as a nonprofit partnership involving education, business, government, and community stakeholders to improve academic outcomes in Spartanburg County, South Carolina, through data-driven initiatives and cradle-to-career support.[80]Science and technology
Biology, chemistry, and medicine
S-Adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM), also known as SAMe or AdoMet, is a sulfonium compound synthesized from L-methionine and ATP by methionine adenosyltransferase enzymes, serving as the principal biological methyl donor in transmethylation reactions across all domains of life.[81] In these processes, SAM transfers its activated methyl group to substrates such as nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and small molecules, generating S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine (SAH) as a byproduct; the SAM/SAH ratio regulates methylation flux, with elevated SAH inhibiting methyltransferases.[82] Beyond methylation, SAM participates in radical-based chemistry via radical SAM enzymes, which utilize a [4Fe-4S] cluster to cleave SAM homolytically, producing a 5'-deoxyadenosyl radical for initiating diverse transformations like carbon-skeleton rearrangements, sulfur insertions, and anaerobic ribonucleotide reduction.[83] Biologically, SAM is essential for epigenetic regulation through DNA and histone methylation, influencing gene expression; deficiencies disrupt one-carbon metabolism, contributing to conditions like homocystinuria and neural tube defects.[84] It also supports polyamine and ethylene biosynthesis in plants and animals, and neurotransmitter synthesis—e.g., decarboxylated SAM yields decarboxylated S-adenosyl-L-methionine (dcSAM), a precursor to spermidine and spermine, which modulate cell growth and apoptosis.[85] Excess SAM can paradoxically inhibit methylation by catabolizing to adenine and methylthioadenosine, activating SAH hydrolase and elevating SAH levels, as observed in cellular models where supraphysiological SAM (e.g., >200 μM) reduced global DNA methylation by up to 30%.[86] In medicine, oral SAMe supplementation (typically 400–1600 mg/day) has been investigated for mood disorders, with meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) showing response rates comparable to tricyclic antidepressants (e.g., 50–60% vs. 40–50% for imipramine) in major depressive disorder, potentially via enhanced monoamine synthesis and anti-inflammatory effects, though placebo-adjusted effects are modest (standardized mean difference ~0.2–0.5).[87] For osteoarthritis, RCTs indicate pain reduction (e.g., 20–30% on WOMAC scales) akin to NSAIDs after 4–12 weeks, attributed to cartilage proteoglycan synthesis and anti-inflammatory actions, with fewer gastrointestinal side effects.[81] SAMe also ameliorates intrahepatic cholestasis symptoms (e.g., pruritus relief in 60–70% of patients at 1 g/day), but evidence for fibromyalgia or liver cirrhosis is weaker, with systematic reviews noting high placebo responses and variable bioavailability (10–20% oral absorption).[87] Contraindications include bipolar disorder risk due to mania induction, and interactions with serotonergic drugs; regulatory approval varies, with EMA authorization for depression but FDA classification as a dietary supplement in the US.[88]Physics and astronomy
Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) is an instrument suite on NASA's Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover, comprising a gas chromatograph, quadrupole mass spectrometer, and tunable laser spectrometer for measuring organic compounds, volatiles, and isotopic ratios in Martian soil and atmosphere samples. Developed by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center with contributions from institutions including the French space agency CNES, SAM has operated since the rover's landing on August 5, 2012 (UTC), providing data on trace gases like methane and detecting chlorinated organics in rock samples.[89] In observational astronomy, the SOAR Adaptive Optics Module (SAM) enhances image quality on the 4.1-meter Southern Astrophysical Research (SOAR) telescope at Cerro Pachón, Chile, by employing laser guide stars and a deformable secondary mirror to compensate for atmospheric turbulence. Commissioned in 2012 by NOIRLab (formerly CTIO/AURA), SAM delivers diffraction-limited performance in the near-infrared, supporting studies of star formation, exoplanets, and resolved stellar populations in the Southern Hemisphere.[90] In surface physics, self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) denote nanoscale films of amphiphilic molecules that spontaneously organize on substrates via chemisorption, forming densely packed, ordered layers with tailorable surface properties. SAMs, pioneered in research from the 1980s using thiols on gold, enable precise control over interfacial energy, wettability, and electron transfer, underpinning applications in molecular electronics, biosensors, and corrosion inhibition.[91] The Southern Annular Mode (SAM) characterizes large-scale atmospheric circulation variability in the Southern Hemisphere, defined by the zonal-mean sea-level pressure difference between 40°S and 65°S, with positive phases strengthening westerly winds and shifting storm tracks poleward. Observed through reanalysis data since the mid-20th century, SAM influences ocean circulation, Antarctic sea ice extent, and precipitation patterns, with trends toward positive phases linked to stratospheric ozone depletion and greenhouse gas increases.[92]Computing and software
The sam text editor is a multi-file editor originally developed by Rob Pike at Bell Labs in the early 1980s for the Blit bitmap terminal running on 9th Edition Research Unix.[93] It employs structural regular expressions for addressing and supports mouse-driven cut-and-paste operations augmented by a textual command language for complex edits across multiple files listed in a menu.[93] Designed for interactive use on bitmap displays, sam modifies local copies of external files and was later integrated into the Plan 9 operating system from Bell Labs, with ports to Unix and X Window System environments in the 1990s.[94] An updated implementation by Deadpixi, released as open-source on GitHub, adds support for TrueType fonts and maintains compatibility with Plan 9's original while enhancing portability.[94] In Microsoft Windows NT-based operating systems, the Security Account Manager (SAM) is a database stored as a registry hive file at%SystemRoot%\System32\config\SAM, which maintains local user account details including usernames, hashed passwords, and security identifiers for authentication purposes.[95] Introduced with Windows NT 3.1 in 1993, the SAM enables secure local logon by protecting against unauthorized access through encryption and hashing, though it has been targeted in attacks like pass-the-hash due to its storage of NTLM hashes until mitigation in later versions via credential guard features.[96] Auditing of SAM access is configurable via Windows security policies to log events such as attempts to read or modify account objects.[97]
The Sequence Alignment/Map (SAM) format is a TAB-delimited text-based standard for representing alignments of biological sequencing reads against reference sequences, consisting of an optional header section and alignment records with 11 mandatory fields like query name, flags, and mapping quality.[98] First specified in version 1.0 around 2009 and maintained by the HTSlib/Samtools project, SAM supports both short and long reads from high-throughput sequencing technologies and is often compressed into binary BAM format for efficiency.[99] As of the SAMv1 specification update on November 6, 2024, it includes optional fields for annotations like edit distance and sequence quality scores, facilitating downstream analysis in genomics tools.[98] The format's flexibility has made it a de facto standard in bioinformatics pipelines, though its text nature can lead to large file sizes compared to compressed alternatives.[100]