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Glycogenolysis

Glycogenolysis is the catabolic process by which glycogen, a branched polysaccharide serving as the primary storage form of glucose in animals, is enzymatically degraded to release glucose-1-phosphate and free glucose, primarily in the liver and skeletal muscle to meet energy demands or maintain blood glucose homeostasis.^[1] This pathway is essential for rapid glucose mobilization during fasting, exercise, or stress, contrasting with glycogenesis, the anabolic synthesis of glycogen from glucose.^[2] The biochemical mechanism of glycogenolysis begins with the activation of glycogen phosphorylase, the rate-limiting enzyme, which phosphorolytically cleaves the α-1,4-glycosidic linkages at the non-reducing ends of glycogen chains, yielding glucose-1-phosphate (G1P) without requiring ATP.^[1] This enzyme is activated through phosphorylation by phosphorylase kinase, which itself is stimulated by cyclic AMP (cAMP) in response to hormonal signals.^[2] When the phosphorolysis approaches a branch point (approximately four residues from an α-1,6 linkage), the debranching enzyme (amylo-α-1,6-glucosidase/4-α-glucanotransferase) transfers the oligosaccharide to another chain and hydrolyzes the branch, releasing free glucose—accounting for about 8-10% of the total glucose yield.^[1] The G1P is then converted to glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) by phosphoglucomutase; in the liver and kidney, glucose-6-phosphatase further hydrolyzes G6P to free glucose for export into the bloodstream, whereas in muscle, G6P enters glycolysis directly for local ATP production.^[2] Regulation of glycogenolysis is tightly coordinated by hormonal and allosteric mechanisms to prevent futile cycling with glycogenesis.^[1] In the liver, low blood glucose triggers glucagon and epinephrine release, which bind G-protein-coupled receptors to elevate cAMP levels via adenylyl cyclase, activating protein kinase A (PKA); PKA phosphorylates phosphorylase kinase and inhibits glycogen synthase, favoring glycogen breakdown.^[2] Allosteric effectors like AMP (in muscle during exercise) and glucose-6-phosphate further modulate enzyme activity, while insulin postprandially suppresses glycogenolysis by promoting dephosphorylation and activating glycogen synthesis.^[1] This reciprocal regulation ensures efficient glucose homeostasis, with hepatic glycogenolysis contributing up to 80% of glucose release during short-term fasting.^[2] Clinically, disruptions in glycogenolysis underlie several glycogen storage diseases (GSDs), inherited disorders characterized by glycogen accumulation and metabolic imbalances.^[1] For instance, Type I GSD (von Gierke disease) results from glucose-6-phosphatase deficiency, causing severe hypoglycemia, lactic acidosis, and hepatomegaly due to impaired glucose export.^[2] Type V GSD (McArdle disease) involves muscle glycogen phosphorylase deficiency, leading to exercise-induced myopathy and cramps from blocked glycogen utilization.^[1] These conditions highlight the pathway's critical role in energy metabolism, with treatments often focusing on dietary management to stabilize glucose levels.^[2]

Overview

Definition and Process Summary

Glycogenolysis is the enzymatic breakdown of glycogen, a branched polymer of glucose residues connected by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds in linear chains and α-1,6-glycosidic bonds at branch points, into glucose-1-phosphate (G1P). This process mobilizes stored glucose for rapid energy production, with G1P subsequently converted to glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) via phosphoglucomutase; in the liver, G6P can be further dephosphorylated by glucose-6-phosphatase to yield free glucose for systemic release, whereas in muscle, it directly enters glycolysis.^[2]^[1] At a high level, glycogenolysis proceeds via phosphorolysis, in which glucose units are sequentially released from the non-reducing ends of glycogen chains until an α-1,6 branch point is approached, followed by debranching to access remaining residues and complete the degradation. This pathway primarily occurs in hepatic and skeletal muscle tissues, enabling quick responses to energy needs such as fasting or exercise.^[1]^[3] The foundational phosphorolytic reaction, catalyzed by glycogen phosphorylase, can be represented as:

\text{Glycogen}_{(n)} + \text{P}_\text{i} \rightarrow \text{Glycogen}_{(n-1)} + \text{glucose-1-phosphate}

where n denotes the number of glucose residues.^[4] This process was first described in the 1920s by Carl Ferdinand Cori and Gerty Theresa Cori, who elucidated the catalytic conversion of glycogen into its metabolic intermediates, a discovery that earned them half of the 1947 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (shared with Bernardo Houssay).^[5]^[6]

Relation to Broader Glycogen Metabolism

Glycogen, the primary storage form of glucose in animals, features a highly branched structure composed of linear chains of glucose units linked by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds, with branches formed by α-1,6-glycosidic linkages occurring approximately every 8-12 residues.^[7] This branching architecture creates multiple non-reducing ends, facilitating the simultaneous action of degradative enzymes and enabling the rapid mobilization of glucose units during periods of energy demand.^[2] The tiered structure, with a central core and successive layers of branches, further enhances solubility and accessibility, prerequisites for efficient glycogenolysis without the need for extensive unfolding.^[8] Glycogenolysis serves as the catabolic counterpart to glycogenesis, the anabolic process by which glucose is polymerized into glycogen for storage. In glycogenesis, glucose is first converted to glucose-6-phosphate and then to UDP-glucose, an activated intermediate that donates glucose residues to extend α-1,4-linked chains and introduce α-1,6 branches via glycogen synthase and branching enzyme.^[2] Glycogenolysis reverses this by phosphorolytically cleaving these bonds to release glucose-1-phosphate, which is then converted to glucose-6-phosphate, thereby balancing the storage and retrieval of glucose in response to nutritional status.^[2] Within broader carbohydrate metabolism, glycogenolysis integrates with glycolysis through the production of glucose-6-phosphate, which enters the glycolytic pathway to generate ATP in tissues like muscle.^[2] In the liver, G6P from glycogenolysis is dephosphorylated by glucose-6-phosphatase to free glucose, which is released into the bloodstream to maintain euglycemia during fasting when dietary intake is absent, paralleling the final step of gluconeogenesis.^[9] This coordinated interplay ensures that glycogen serves as a dynamic buffer for blood glucose levels, preventing hypoglycemia in postprandial-to-fasting transitions.^[10] The pathway of glycogenolysis is evolutionarily conserved across eukaryotes, reflecting its ancient role in glucose homeostasis, with prokaryotic analogs evident in bacterial starch degradation systems that employ similar phosphorolytic mechanisms for α-glucan breakdown.^[11]

Biochemical Mechanism

Phosphorolytic Breakdown

The phosphorolytic breakdown of glycogen represents the primary initial phase of glycogenolysis, where glycogen phosphorylase catalyzes the cleavage of α-1,4-glycosidic linkages at the non-reducing ends of glycogen chains. Unlike hydrolysis, which would yield free glucose, this process employs inorganic phosphate (P_i) as the attacking nucleophile, resulting in the release of glucose-1-phosphate (G1P). This mechanism conserves energy by producing a phosphorylated sugar that can directly enter downstream metabolic pathways without requiring an additional ATP for initial phosphorylation.^[12]^[2] The specific reaction catalyzed by glycogen phosphorylase is reversible and can be expressed as:

(\text{glycogen})_n + \text{P}_i \rightleftharpoons (\text{glycogen})_{n-1} + \text{glucose-1-phosphate}

The equilibrium constant for this reaction, defined as K = \frac{[\text{G1P}]}{[\text{P}_i]}, is approximately 0.3 under physiological conditions (pH 7.0, 25°C), favoring the synthetic direction in vitro. However, in vivo, the breakdown is driven forward by cellular conditions, including high concentrations of P_i (typically 5-10 mM) and low levels of G1P, which is rapidly converted to glucose-6-phosphate by phosphoglucomutase for glycolytic entry. Inorganic phosphate serves dual roles as both the essential substrate in the reaction and an allosteric activator that promotes the enzyme's active conformation.^[12]^[13]^[2] This phosphorolytic process propagates sequentially along linear chains, releasing G1P units one at a time from the non-reducing terminus until the enzyme approaches an α-1,6 branch point. Glycogen phosphorylase cannot cleave α-1,6 linkages and halts approximately four glucosyl residues away from the branch, leaving behind a branched structure known as a limit dextrin. This limitation ensures that subsequent debranching mechanisms are required to fully mobilize the glycogen molecule, but the phosphorolytic phase efficiently degrades the majority of the linear segments.^[14]^[15] From an energetic perspective, the production of G1P via phosphorolysis provides a metabolic advantage over hypothetical hydrolysis to free glucose. In glycolysis, each G1P-derived glucose-6-phosphate yields a net of 3 ATP molecules (bypassing the ATP-consuming hexokinase step), compared to 2 ATP net from free glucose, representing an effective savings of 1 ATP equivalent per glucosyl unit processed. This efficiency is particularly crucial in energy-demanding tissues like muscle, where rapid glucose mobilization is essential.^[16]^[2]

Debranching and Termination

Glycogen phosphorolysis by glycogen phosphorylase proceeds along linear α-1,4-linked chains but halts four residues from an α-1,6 branch point, forming a limit dextrin structure.^[1] The glycogen debranching enzyme resolves this by exerting its bifunctional activities: 4-α-glucanotransferase and amylo-1,6-glucosidase.^[17] The transferase activity first transfers a maltotriosyl unit—comprising three α-1,4-linked glucose residues—from the branched chain to the non-reducing end of a nearby linear chain, thereby exposing a single glucose stub attached via the α-1,6 linkage.^[18] Subsequently, the amylo-1,6-glucosidase activity hydrolyzes the exposed α-1,6 glycosidic bond, releasing the remaining glucose as free glucose rather than glucose-1-phosphate.^[1] This hydrolysis step is essential because phosphorolysis cannot act on branch points, ensuring complete monomer release.^[17] The debranched structure reverts to a linear form, permitting renewed phosphorolysis by glycogen phosphorylase on the extended chain.^[18] In the overall glycogenolysis process, this debranching yields approximately 90% glucose-1-phosphate from the main chain phosphorolysis and 10% free glucose from the branch points, reflecting the typical branching frequency of every 8–12 residues in glycogen.^[18] Termination occurs upon exhaustive degradation, producing only glucose-1-phosphate and free glucose as end products, with the process ceasing in the absence of further glycogen substrate or necessary activators.^[1]

Key Enzymes

Glycogen Phosphorylase

Glycogen phosphorylase is the rate-limiting enzyme in glycogenolysis, catalyzing the phosphorolytic cleavage of α-1,4-glycosidic bonds in glycogen to release glucose-1-phosphate.^[19] It exists as a homodimer, with each subunit consisting of an N-terminal regulatory domain and a C-terminal catalytic domain, forming a structure approximately 10 nm long and 5 nm wide.^[20] The enzyme requires pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP), a derivative of vitamin B6, as an essential cofactor bound covalently via a Schiff base to lysine 680 at the active site, where it stabilizes the transition state during catalysis.^[21] Allosteric sites are located at the subunit interface for activators like AMP and inhibitors such as ATP and glucose, enabling conformational shifts between tense (T, inactive) and relaxed (R, active) states.^[20] Three tissue-specific isoforms of glycogen phosphorylase are expressed in humans: muscle (PYGM), liver (PYGL), and brain (PYGB), encoded by distinct genes on chromosomes 11, 14, and 20, respectively.^[22] The muscle isoform (PYGM) predominates in skeletal muscle and is highly responsive to allosteric activation by AMP, reflecting its role in rapid energy demands during contraction.^[19] The liver isoform (PYGL) is sensitive to hormonal signals like glucagon and features a specific allosteric site for glucose inhibition, which promotes its dephosphorylation and inactivation when blood glucose levels are high.^[19] The brain isoform (PYGB) shares structural similarities with the others but exhibits unique allosteric properties, such as lower sensitivity to AMP and distinct interactions at the nucleotide-binding site, adapted to neuronal energy needs.^[20] The catalytic mechanism involves PLP positioning inorganic phosphate (Pi) for nucleophilic attack on the C1 carbon of the terminal glucose residue in glycogen, displacing the oligosaccharide chain and forming glucose-1-phosphate without hydrolytic cleavage.^[23] This process follows an ordered sequential mechanism, where glycogen binds first, followed by Pi, and exhibits a pH optimum around 6.8; the PLP cofactor enhances electrophilicity at the glycosidic bond via proton abstraction and stabilization of the oxocarbonium ion-like transition state.^[22] The reaction proceeds with retention of configuration at C1 and is reversible, though favored toward phosphorolysis under physiological conditions due to low glucose-1-phosphate concentrations.^[22] Glycogen phosphorylase exists in two interconvertible forms: the active phosphorylated 'a' form and the less active dephosphorylated 'b' form, with phosphorylation occurring at serine 14 by phosphorylase kinase.^[21] The 'a' form adopts the R-state conformation, enhancing substrate affinity and catalytic efficiency, while the 'b' form remains in the T-state unless activated allosterically by AMP.^[20] Dephosphorylation by protein phosphatase-1 restores the 'b' form, providing a covalent switch for regulation.^[19] Key inhibitors include glucose, which binds specifically to the catalytic site of the liver isoform (PYGL), locking it in the T-state and promoting its dephosphorylation to prevent futile cycling with glycogen synthesis.^[19] ATP and ADP compete with AMP at the allosteric nucleotide site across isoforms, stabilizing the inactive T-state, while glucose-6-phosphate inhibits by binding the same site in the muscle isoform.^[20] These inhibitory mechanisms ensure precise control over glycogen breakdown in response to cellular energy status.^[22]

Glycogen Debranching Enzyme

The glycogen debranching enzyme, also known as amylo-α-1,6-glucosidase, 4-α-glucanotransferase, is a multifunctional protein essential for the complete breakdown of glycogen branches during glycogenolysis.^[24] It consists of a single polypeptide chain approximately 1,530 amino acids long, featuring two distinct catalytic domains: the oligo-1,4→1,4-glucantransferase (transferase) domain and the amylo-α-1,6-glucosidase (glucosidase) domain, connected by linker regions.^[17] The transferase domain, spanning residues 132–869, adopts a structure homologous to glycoside hydrolase family 13 (GH13) with a TIM barrel subdomain A, a novel subdomain B, and an all-β subdomain C.^[17] In contrast, the glucosidase domain, encompassing residues 1,023–1,528, forms an (α/α)₆-barrel fold typical of glycoside hydrolase family 15 (GH15).^[17] These domains are separated by over 50 Å, requiring substrate dissociation and reassociation for sequential activity rather than intramolecular transfer.^[17] The enzyme is encoded by the AGL gene located on chromosome 1p21.2, which spans about 85 kb and comprises 35 exons.^[25] The AGL gene produces multiple isoforms through alternative promoter usage and splicing at the 5' end, resulting in six variants that differ primarily in their N-terminal regions.^[25] Isoform 1, initiating from exon 1, is widely expressed across tissues including liver, muscle, and kidney, while isoforms 2–4, starting from exon 2, show muscle-specific expression patterns.^[25] Overall, expression levels are highest in liver and skeletal muscle, reflecting the enzyme's critical role in these glycogen-rich tissues, with lower levels in heart, brain, and other organs.^[24] In its mechanism, the transferase activity first recognizes a glycogen branch point after phosphorolytic cleavage has shortened the outer chain to four glucose residues. It catalyzes the transfer of a maltotriosyl unit (three α-1,4-linked glucose molecules) from the branch to the non-reducing end of a nearby linear chain, forming a new α-1,4-glycosidic bond and exposing the single remaining glucose attached via an α-1,6 linkage.^[17] Subsequently, the glucosidase activity hydrolyzes this exposed α-1,6 bond, releasing free glucose and allowing phosphorolysis to resume on the reformed linear chain.^[17] Key catalytic residues include Asp535 and Glu564 in the transferase domain for nucleophilic attack and proton donation, respectively, and Asp1241 and Glu1492 in the glucosidase domain acting as general acid and base.^[17] This dual activity ensures efficient branch removal, producing glucose-1-phosphate from linear segments and free glucose (about 8–10% of total) from branch points.^[24] Mutations in the AGL gene disrupt this enzyme's function, leading to glycogen storage disease type III (GSD III, also known as Cori disease or Forbes disease), characterized by abnormal glycogen accumulation as limit dextrins.^[24] Over 100 pathogenic variants have been identified, often resulting in truncated or unstable proteins that impair one or both catalytic activities.^[26] As an accessory enzyme in glycogenolysis, the debranching enzyme is indispensable for achieving near-complete glycogen degradation; its absence causes accumulation of branched oligosaccharides (limit dextrins), halting further phosphorolysis and limiting energy mobilization.^[24] This role complements the primary linear cleavage by glycogen phosphorylase, enabling the process to access inner glycogen layers.^[17]

Physiological Functions

Role in Hepatic Glucose Homeostasis

In the liver, glycogenolysis serves as a critical mechanism for maintaining blood glucose levels by breaking down stored glycogen into glucose-6-phosphate (G6P), which is then dephosphorylated by glucose-6-phosphatase to yield free glucose that can be exported into the bloodstream.^[2] This process is unique to the liver, as muscle tissue lacks glucose-6-phosphatase and thus cannot release free glucose, instead utilizing G6P locally for energy production.^[2] The liver isoform of glycogen phosphorylase facilitates this targeted breakdown, enabling the organ to respond rapidly to systemic needs for glucose.^[27] During fasting, hepatic glycogenolysis provides the primary source of glucose, accounting for approximately 50% of total glucose production after an overnight fast and contributing the majority—up to 75%—during the initial 12 hours when glycogen stores are mobilized to prevent hypoglycemia.^[28] In healthy adults, the liver stores about 100 g of glycogen, which supports this early-phase glucose output before gluconeogenesis becomes more prominent in prolonged fasting.^[29] This response is essential for organs like the brain and red blood cells, which rely heavily on glucose and cannot tolerate low blood levels, ensuring euglycemia during periods of nutrient deprivation.^[28] Postprandially, hepatic glycogenolysis is inhibited to promote glycogenesis and prevent excessive glucose release, allowing the liver to store incoming nutrients efficiently.^[30] In neonates, glycogenolysis activity peaks immediately after birth to sustain euglycemia, as the liver rapidly mobilizes accumulated fetal glycogen stores in the transition from placental to independent glucose supply.^[31] This developmental surge underscores the pathway's foundational role in early-life glucose homeostasis.^[32]

Role in Muscle Energy Supply

In skeletal muscle, glycogenolysis serves as a primary mechanism for rapid energy mobilization, breaking down stored glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate (G1P), which is converted to glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) and directly enters the glycolytic pathway to generate ATP anaerobically. Unlike in the liver, skeletal muscle lacks glucose-6-phosphatase, preventing the release of free glucose into the bloodstream and ensuring that the produced G6P is utilized locally for muscle contraction.^[2] Human skeletal muscle typically stores 300–400 g of glycogen, representing a substantial energy reserve that supports high-intensity activities without relying on immediate blood glucose uptake.^[33] During intense exercise, such as sprinting, glycogenolysis is rapidly activated to meet the heightened demand for ATP, contributing significantly to energy supply in the initial phases where anaerobic metabolism predominates. In short-duration, high-intensity efforts like the first 30 seconds of sprinting, glycolytic flux from muscle glycogen accounts for approximately 40–50% of total energy provision after phosphocreatine depletion, enabling sustained power output.^[34] This process yields a net of 3 ATP molecules per glucosyl unit from glycogen through glycolysis to lactate, offering a slight efficiency advantage over free glucose breakdown (which nets 2 ATP) due to bypassing the initial phosphorylation step.^[35] Beyond skeletal muscle, glycogenolysis plays supportive roles in other tissues. In the brain, astrocytic glycogen is degraded to produce lactate, which is shuttled to neurons for oxidative metabolism, buffering against fluctuations in blood glucose supply during energy demands.^[36] In cardiac muscle, glycogen occupies about 2% of cell volume and is mobilized in tandem with aerobic pathways to maintain steady ATP levels during stress, enhancing fuel efficiency when fatty acid oxidation is limited.^[33] Erythrocytes contain limited glycogen stores, which undergo glycogenolysis to fuel glycolysis—their sole ATP source—supporting shape maintenance and ion transport in the absence of mitochondria.^[37] Depletion of muscle glycogen stores during prolonged or repeated intense activity leads to fatigue, as reduced substrate availability impairs glycolytic rate and calcium handling in muscle fibers. The muscle-specific isoform of glycogen phosphorylase further traps G6P intracellularly, preventing its contribution to systemic glucose homeostasis and emphasizing glycogenolysis's localized role in energy supply.^[2]

Regulation

Allosteric and Covalent Mechanisms

Glycogen phosphorylase exists in two interconvertible forms, the inactive phosphorylase b and the active phosphorylase a, with their transition regulated by covalent phosphorylation. Phosphorylase kinase catalyzes the phosphorylation of phosphorylase b at serine 14 using ATP, converting it to the active phosphorylase a form that promotes glycogen breakdown.^[38] Phosphorylase kinase itself is activated by phosphorylation via protein kinase A (PKA) and allosterically by Ca^{2+}-calmodulin binding, particularly in skeletal muscle during contraction.^[1] This activation enhances the enzyme's affinity for glycogen and phosphate substrates, facilitating phosphorolytic cleavage.^[39] The reverse reaction is mediated by protein phosphatase-1 (PP1), which dephosphorylates phosphorylase a to restore the inactive b form, thereby terminating glycogenolysis.^[40] Allosteric regulation fine-tunes glycogen phosphorylase activity through metabolite binding, independent of phosphorylation state. In muscle, adenosine monophosphate (AMP) binds to an allosteric site on phosphorylase b, shifting it from the tense (T, inactive) to the relaxed (R, active) conformation and increasing catalytic efficiency.^[41] Conversely, ATP and glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) act as inhibitors by stabilizing the T state, reducing the enzyme's responsiveness to substrates.^[42] In liver, glucose serves as an allosteric inhibitor of phosphorylase a, binding near the active site to promote dephosphorylation by PP1 and inhibit glycogen degradation when blood glucose levels are high.^[19] The glycogen debranching enzyme exhibits limited allosteric regulation compared to phosphorylase, primarily responding to substrate availability such as oligosaccharides that enhance its glucosyltransferase activity.^[43] High glucose concentrations indirectly limit its function by inhibiting upstream phosphorylase activity, reducing the branched substrates available for debranching.^[2] The regulatory cascade involving phosphorylase kinase provides amplification, where a single activated kinase molecule can phosphorylate multiple phosphorylase b molecules, leading to an ultrasensitive, exponential increase in glycogen phosphorylase activity.^[44] Although hormonal signals like glucagon initiate this cascade, the intrinsic enzymatic steps ensure rapid signal propagation.^[44] Feedback inhibition by G6P prevents excessive glycogen breakdown, as this product binds allosterically to phosphorylase b to reinforce the inactive T conformation and halt further degradation.^[42] This mechanism maintains metabolic balance by linking phosphorylase activity to cellular energy demands.^[45]

Hormonal and Neural Control

Glycogenolysis is primarily regulated by hormones such as glucagon and epinephrine, which respond to fasting or stress states to mobilize glucose from glycogen stores. In the liver, glucagon binds to G-protein-coupled receptors, activating adenylate cyclase to increase intracellular cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels, which in turn activates protein kinase A (PKA). PKA phosphorylates phosphorylase kinase, leading to the activation of glycogen phosphorylase and subsequent glycogen breakdown.^[2] Epinephrine exerts a similar effect in both liver and skeletal muscle by binding to β-adrenergic receptors, elevating cAMP and initiating the PKA-mediated phosphorylation cascade that activates phosphorylase kinase and glycogen phosphorylase.^[2] Insulin acts in opposition to these catabolic hormones, particularly in the fed state, by promoting the dephosphorylation of glycogen phosphorylase through activation of protein phosphatase-1, thereby inhibiting glycogenolysis and favoring glycogenesis.^[46] This antagonistic regulation ensures a balance between glucose storage and release, with insulin suppressing glucagon- and epinephrine-induced effects on hepatic and muscular glycogen breakdown.^[27] Neural control complements hormonal signals through the sympathetic nervous system, where norepinephrine released from nerve terminals during stress or exercise mimics epinephrine's actions by binding to adrenergic receptors on target tissues, thereby stimulating glycogenolysis via the cAMP-PKA pathway.^[47] Tissue-specific differences are evident: the liver primarily responds to glucagon to maintain systemic blood glucose during fasting, while skeletal muscle is more sensitive to epinephrine and norepinephrine to provide rapid energy for contraction during fight-or-flight responses.^[1] The integration of these signals occurs via the cAMP signaling pathway, where hormone or neurotransmitter binding to G-protein-coupled receptors activates adenylate cyclase, producing cAMP that dissociates and activates PKA; PKA then phosphorylates phosphorylase kinase (PhK), which phosphorylates glycogen phosphorylase b to its active a form, initiating phosphorolytic cleavage of glycogen.^[2] This cascade allows precise coordination of glycogenolysis in response to physiological demands.^[27]

Clinical and Pathological Aspects

Glycogen Storage Diseases

Glycogen storage diseases (GSDs) associated with glycogenolysis are rare autosomal recessive disorders caused by deficiencies in key enzymes involved in glycogen breakdown, leading to abnormal glycogen accumulation and impaired glucose release in affected tissues. These conditions primarily include GSD type I (von Gierke disease), GSD type V (McArdle disease), GSD type III (Cori or Forbes disease), and GSD type VI (Hers disease), each disrupting specific steps in the glycogenolytic pathway and resulting in distinct clinical manifestations such as exercise intolerance, hypoglycemia, and organomegaly.^[48] GSD type I, or von Gierke disease, results from mutations in the G6PC gene (type Ia) or SLC37A4 gene (type Ib), encoding glucose-6-phosphatase or glucose-6-phosphate translocase, respectively, which prevent the hydrolysis of glucose-6-phosphate to free glucose in the liver and kidney. This leads to severe fasting hypoglycemia, lactic acidosis, hyperuricemia, hyperlipidemia, and hepatomegaly due to glycogen and fat accumulation, with potential complications including gout, renal disease, and hepatic adenomas. Type Ia accounts for about 80% of cases and affects primarily the liver, while type Ib also involves neutropenia and inflammatory bowel disease-like symptoms. Estimated prevalence is approximately 1 in 100,000 live births. Diagnosis is confirmed by genetic testing, enzyme activity assays on liver biopsy, or demonstration of metabolic abnormalities like elevated lactate and uric acid. Management relies on frequent carbohydrate feedings, uncooked cornstarch to maintain euglycemia, and allopurinol for hyperuricemia; investigational gene therapies, including AAV-based approaches for G6PC replacement, are in advanced clinical trials as of 2025 but not yet approved.^[49]^[50]^[51] GSD type V, or McArdle disease, arises from mutations in the PYGM gene encoding muscle glycogen phosphorylase, preventing the phosphorolytic cleavage of glycogen to glucose-1-phosphate in skeletal muscle. This deficiency causes rapid fatigue, muscle pain, and cramps during exercise, with a characteristic absence of lactic acidosis due to blocked glycolytic flux from glycogen. Pathophysiologically, glycogen accumulates excessively in muscle fibers, and affected individuals experience a "second wind" phenomenon after initial exertion as alternative energy sources are mobilized. Prevalence is estimated at approximately 1 in 100,000 individuals. Diagnosis involves muscle biopsy for enzyme activity assay or genetic testing to identify PYGM variants, often confirmed by forearm exercise testing showing flat lactate response. Treatment focuses on dietary modifications, including a high-protein, low-carbohydrate diet to promote gluconeogenesis, and pre-exercise ingestion of sucrose or carbohydrates to improve tolerance; investigational gene therapy approaches remain in preclinical stages.^[52]^[53]^[54] GSD type III results from biallelic mutations in the AGL gene, which encodes the glycogen debranching enzyme possessing both amylo-1,6-glucosidase and 4-α-glucanotransferase activities, leading to incomplete glycogen degradation and accumulation of abnormally structured glycogen with short outer branches. This manifests as hepatomegaly, fasting hypoglycemia, growth retardation, and progressive skeletal myopathy in childhood, with variable cardiac involvement in some subtypes. The liver and muscle isoforms are affected, impairing glucose homeostasis and energy supply during demand. Estimated prevalence is about 1 in 100,000 live births. Diagnostic confirmation includes liver or muscle biopsy demonstrating reduced debranching enzyme activity and genetic sequencing of AGL, alongside elevated transaminases and lipid profiles. Management emphasizes frequent high-protein meals and uncooked cornstarch supplementation to prevent hypoglycemia and support muscle function, with no approved enzyme replacement therapy available, though a phase 1/2 gene therapy trial (UX053) targeting debranching enzyme replacement was initiated but terminated due to business considerations.^[24]^[55]^[56] GSD type VI, known as Hers disease, stems from deficiencies in the PYGL gene encoding liver glycogen phosphorylase, restricting hepatic glycogen breakdown and causing mild hepatomegaly, ketotic hypoglycemia, and hyperlipidemia without significant muscle involvement. Pathophysiologically, this leads to moderate glycogen accumulation in hepatocytes, but symptoms are often subtle and resolve with age as alternative metabolic pathways compensate. Prevalence ranges from 1 in 65,000 to 85,000 live births, though underdiagnosis is common due to mild presentation. Diagnosis relies on liver biopsy for phosphorylase activity measurement or molecular testing for PYGL mutations, supported by clinical history of postprandial ketosis. Therapeutic strategies include frequent carbohydrate-rich meals or cornstarch to maintain euglycemia, with most patients achieving normal growth and minimal long-term complications; no specific enzyme replacement or gene therapies are clinically available as of 2025.^[57]^[55]^[58]

Links to Metabolic Disorders

In diabetes mellitus, dysregulation of glycogenolysis plays a central role in the pathogenesis of hyperglycemia. In type 1 diabetes, the absolute deficiency of insulin fails to suppress hepatic glycogenolysis, leading to excessive glucose release and fasting hyperglycemia.^[30]^[59] In type 2 diabetes, hepatic insulin resistance impairs the normal inhibitory effect of insulin on glycogenolysis, resulting in persistent endogenous glucose production even in the presence of hyperinsulinemia.^[60]^[61] The dawn phenomenon, observed in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes, exemplifies episodic dysregulation of glycogenolysis driven by circadian hormonal fluctuations. This condition involves a nocturnal surge in epinephrine and other counter-regulatory hormones, which activate hepatic and muscle glycogenolysis, contributing to elevated morning glucose levels despite stable overnight insulin dosing.^[62]^[63] The resulting hyperglycemia can complicate glycemic management and increase cardiovascular risk in affected patients.^[64] In sepsis and critical illness, stress-induced hyperglycemia arises from catecholamine-mediated overstimulation of the glycogenolytic pathway. Elevated epinephrine and norepinephrine levels during these conditions promote rapid glycogen breakdown in the liver and muscle to provide glucose for immune and vital organ function, often exacerbating insulin resistance and leading to persistent hyperglycemia.^[65]^[66] This adaptive response, while initially protective, correlates with higher mortality rates in intensive care settings when uncontrolled.^[67]^[68] Obesity contributes to glycogenolysis dysregulation through chronic low-grade inflammation, which fosters hepatic insulin resistance and promotes futile cycling between glucose phosphorylation and dephosphorylation. This inflammatory milieu, driven by adipokines and cytokines from expanded adipose tissue, reduces insulin's ability to inhibit glycogen phosphorylase, leading to inefficient glucose handling and elevated hepatic glucose output.^[69]^[70] Such alterations amplify the risk of progression to type 2 diabetes and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease.^[30] As therapeutic targets, sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors indirectly modulate glycogenolysis by reducing systemic glucose load and enhancing hepatic insulin sensitivity. In patients with type 2 diabetes, these agents promote glycosuria, which lowers plasma glucose and subsequently decreases the hormonal drive for glycogen breakdown while favoring glycogen storage.^[71]^[72] By 2025, clinical evidence supports their role in mitigating hyperglycemia-related complications through these mechanisms, independent of direct enzyme inhibition.^[73]^[74]

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The interaction of phosphate with the terminal glucosidic bond results in the formation of glucose-1-phosphate and the loss of a chain unit; in the.
[14]
Kinetic mechanism of the glycogen-phosphorylase-catalysed ...
The magnitudes of rate and equilibrium constants for the glycogen-phosphorylase-catalysed reaction, derived from analyses of the experimental data in the light ...
[15]
Limit Dextrin - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The glycogen phosphorylase first brakes the α(1 → 4) linkages on the outer branches of glycogen. As the enzyme is not active against the α(1 → 6) bonds, it only ...
[16]
Glycogen Phosphorylase, the Product of the glgP Gene, Catalyzes ...
This enzyme is unable to bypass or hydrolyze the α-1,6 linkages and therefore stops two, three, or four residues from the first α-1,6 branch encountered to ...
[17]
8.4 Glycolysis – Nutrition and Physical Fitness
After subtracting the two ATP required upfront, the net yield of glycolysis when starting with glucose is 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvate. Muscle glycogen enters ...
[18]
Crystal structure of glycogen debranching enzyme and insights into ...
Apr 18, 2016 · GDE possesses the α-1,4 glucanotransferase (GT) and α-1,6 glucosidase (GC) activities, and removes glycogen phosphorylase-digested branches in ...
[19]
Molecular architecture and catalytic mechanism of human glycogen ...
Jul 1, 2025 · GP sequentially removes glycosyl units from the non-reducing terminus of glycogen, generating limit dextrin and glucose-1-phosphate.
[20]
Biochemistry, Glycogen - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Glycogenolysis or glycogen breakdown primarily requires glycogen phosphorylase and debranching enzyme. Glycogen phosphorylase involves the entry of phosphate ( ...
[21]
The structure of brain glycogen phosphorylase—from allosteric ...
Oct 26, 2016 · Glycogen phosphorylase (GP) is the key enzyme of glycogen mobilization. It exists as three isoforms in human: brain, muscle, and liver GP, ...Abstract · Introduction · Determination of the bGP... · Implication of bGP structures...
[22]
Molecule of the Month: Glycogen Phosphorylase - PDB-101
The molecule labeled PLP is the cofactor pyridoxal phosphate, a reactive molecule which binds tightly in the active site and is used to assist in the reaction.
[23]
Glycogen Phosphorylase - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Glycogen phosphorylase is an enzyme that exists in inactive and active forms, with its activation regulated by various hormones and signaling molecules.
[24]
Catalytic mechanism of glycogen phosphorylase: pyridoxal(5 ... - NIH
The addition of maltopentaose or glycogen altered the mode of cleavage; the cofactor was rapidly decomposed to pyridoxal 5'-diphosphate. The radioactive ...Missing: PLP nucleophilic Pi
[25]
Glycogen Storage Disease Type III - GeneReviews® - NCBI Bookshelf
Mar 9, 2010 · Human glycogen debranching enzyme gene (AGL): complete structural organization and characterization of the 5' flanking region. Genomics ...
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Human glycogen debranching enzyme gene (AGL) - PubMed - NIH
Glycogen debranching enzyme (gene symbol, AGL) is a multifunctional enzyme acting as 1,4-alpha-D-glucan:1,4-alpha-D-glucan 4-alpha-D-glycosyltransferase and ...
[27]
AGL gene: MedlinePlus Genetics
Sep 1, 2010 · The AGL gene provides instructions for making the glycogen debranching enzyme. This enzyme is involved in the breakdown of a complex sugar called glycogen.
[28]
Regulation of glucose metabolism from a liver-centric perspective
Mar 11, 2016 · The liver has a major role in the control of glucose homeostasis by controlling various pathways of glucose metabolism, including glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, ...
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Molecular Pathophysiology of Hepatic Glucose Production - PMC
The liver plays a major role in maintaining glucose homeostasis, as it is the main organ for glucose storage, in the form of glycogen, as well as endogenous ...
[30]
The Role of Skeletal Muscle Glycogen Breakdown for Regulation of ...
In humans the majority of glycogen is stored in skeletal muscles (∼500 g) and the liver (∼100 g). Food is supplied in larger meals, but the blood glucose ...
[31]
Regulation of hepatic glucose metabolism in health and disease
Insulin, glucagon and glucose regulate hepatic glycogenolysis and glycogen synthesis through mechanisms that alter the activity of GCK, glycogen synthase and ...
[32]
Glucose homeostasis in the newborn - PubMed
Hepatic glucose production by glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis is essential to maintain blood glucose levels, and the glucose-6-phosphatase system ...
[33]
Neonatal Hypoglycemia and Brain Vulnerability - PMC
Mar 16, 2021 · Hepatic glycogenolysis is the fastest mechanism that allows an increase of blood glucose levels after birth. The high rate of glycogenolysis ...
[34]
Fundamentals of glycogen metabolism for coaches and athletes - PMC
The > 80 g of glucose stored as liver glycogen is used to constantly replenish the 4 g of glucose circulating in the blood. To ensure the brain has an ample ...
[35]
Skeletal muscle energy metabolism during exercise - Nature
Aug 3, 2020 · Accompanying the increase in muscle glucose uptake is an increase in liver glucose output from both liver glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
[36]
Interaction among Skeletal Muscle Metabolic Energy Systems ...
Once exercise and glycogenolysis begin, this earlier cost is benefited from and thereby increases net ATP regeneration from glycolysis from 2 to 3 ATP per G6P ...
[37]
Glycogenolysis in astrocytes supports blood-borne glucose ... - NIH
Sep 8, 2010 · Our results suggest that glycogen acts as a buffer within astrocytic metabolism to avoid the competition for glucose between neurons and astrocytes.Missing: heart erythrocytes
[38]
Glycogenolysis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose units, which can be used for energy production in the body.
[39]
Phosphorylase and the origin of reversible protein phosphorylation
This enzyme was originally thought to be regulated by AMP now known to serve as an allosteric effector. By contrast, hormonal regulation was found to result ...
[40]
Role of the Active Site Gate of Glycogen Phosphorylase in Allosteric ...
Allosteric regulation of glycogen phosphorylase has traditionally been described in terms of the concerted model of Monod et al. (1) or the sequential model ...Experimental Procedures · Results · Discussion<|control11|><|separator|>
[41]
The protein phosphatases involved in cellular regulation ... - PubMed
The protein phosphatases involved in cellular regulation. Evidence that dephosphorylation of glycogen phosphorylase and glycogen synthase in the glycogen and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[42]
Glycogen Phosphorylase B - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The allosteric effector for the enzyme in the T form is AMP; AMP converts the enzyme conformation to the active R form. The enzyme may be phosphorylated to a ...Myocardial Energy Metabolism · Carbohydrate Metabolism Ii... · Muscle
[43]
Crystallographic Binding Studies on the Allosteric Inhibitor Glucose ...
Glucose-6-phosphate is an important allosteric inhibitor of glycogen phosphorylase b that restrains the enzyme in the inactive state in resting muscle.Missing: loop | Show results with:loop<|control11|><|separator|>
[44]
Glycogen phosphorylase: control by phosphorylation and allosteric ...
The covalently attached phosphate group acts like an allosteric effector but the full manifestation of the response is also dependent on the NH2-terminal tail ...
[45]
The regulation of glycogenolysis in the brain - PMC - PubMed Central
The key regulatory enzymes of glycogenolysis are phosphorylase kinase, a hetero-oligomer with four different types of subunits, and glycogen phosphorylase, ...
[46]
Quantification of the glycogen cascade system: the ultrasensitive ...
In liver, the phosphorylation states of GP and GS are regulated by glucose and glucose-6-phosphate, whereas in muscle, GP and GS are regulated mainly by cyclic ...
[47]
Inhibition of glycogenolysis and glycogen phosphorylase by insulin ...
Insulin or proinsulin given as sole hormones in the presence of 5 mM glucose decreased basal release of [14C]glucose from [14C]glycogen to 20%.
[48]
Peripheral innervation in the regulation of glucose homeostasis - PMC
Sympathetic control of glycogenolysis proceeds primarily via activation of α-adrenergic receptors, particularly Adra1b, since its deletion resulted in ...
[49]
Glycogen Storage Disease - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Jan 21, 2025 · Glycogen storage diseases (GSDs) are inherited inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism that result in abnormal glycogen storage.
[50]
Glycogen Storage Disease Type V - GeneReviews® - NCBI Bookshelf
Apr 19, 2006 · Glycogen storage disease type V (GSDV, McArdle disease) is a metabolic myopathy characterized by exercise intolerance manifested by rapid fatigue, myalgia, and ...
[51]
McArdle Disease (Glycogen Storage Disease Type 5) - NCBI
Jan 22, 2025 · McArdle disease, also known as glycogen storage disorder (GSD) type 5, is a rare inherited metabolic disorder primarily affecting skeletal muscles.
[52]
Preclinical Research in McArdle Disease - PubMed Central - NIH
Dec 28, 2021 · The estimated prevalence of this condition is ~1/100,000 people, with both sexes equally affected [2,3]. McArdle disease is caused by inherited ...
[53]
Glycogen storage diseases: An update - PMC - PubMed Central
The overall estimated GSD incidence is 1 case per 20000-43000 live births. There are over 20 types of GSD including the subtypes. This heterogeneous group of ...
[54]
The Autophagic Activator GHF-201 Can Alleviate Pathology in a ...
Jul 24, 2024 · A clinical trial for GSDIII using the UX053 gene therapy-based replacement of GDE (NCT04990388) has been initiated, but was terminated at phase ...
[55]
Glycogen Storage Disease Type VI - GeneReviews® - NCBI Bookshelf
Apr 23, 2009 · Prevalence. Liver glycogen phosphorylase deficiency affects approximately 1:65,000-85,000 live births; however, many people with this condition ...
[56]
Glycogen storage disease type VI: MedlinePlus Genetics
A lack of glycogen breakdown interferes with the normal function of the liver . The signs and symptoms of GSDVI typically begin in infancy to early childhood.Missing: diagnosis | Show results with:diagnosis
[57]
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus and Autoimmune Diseases - NIH
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM) is a common hyperglycemic disease ... glucose production by increasing gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis processes.3.1. Hashimoto's Thyroiditis... · 3.4. T1dm And Celiac Disease · 3.7. T1dm And...<|separator|>
[58]
Obesity and type 2 diabetes impair insulin-induced suppression of ...
We concluded that defects in the regulation of glycogenolysis as well as gluconeogenesis cause hepatic insulin resistance in obese nondiabetic and type 2 ...
[59]
Pathogenesis of Fasting and Postprandial Hyperglycemia in Type 2 ...
Increased rates of gluconeogenesis and perhaps glycogenolysis contribute to hepatic insulin resistance.Fig. 1 · Fig. 3 · Fig. 23
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https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15983193/
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https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2859524/
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Metabolic Alterations in Sepsis - PMC - PubMed Central
May 29, 2021 · In sepsis, insulin resistance increases hepatic glucose production as a result of glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. Moreover, impaired insulin ...
[64]
Hyperglycemia in septic patients: an essential stress survival ...
May 24, 2016 · Stress hyperglycemia is primarily caused by hepatic gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis rather than by peripheral insulin resistance (6). Further ...
[65]
Hyperglycemia in Critical Illness: A Review - PMC - PubMed Central
Hyperglycemia is commonplace in the critically ill patient and is associated with worse outcomes. It occurs after severe stress (eg, infection or injury)
[66]
Hyperglycemia in Critically Ill Patients: Management and Prognosis
Hyperglycemia is a common complication of critical illness. Patients in intensive care unit with stress hyperglycemia have significantly higher mortality (31%).
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A vicious circle between insulin resistance and inflammation in ...
Oct 16, 2017 · IR increases adipocyte lipolysis and circulating FFAs and reduces hepatic glycogen storage, which promotes gluconeogenesis in NAFLD patients.
[68]
Dynamic glucose disposal is driven by reduced endogenous ... - NIH
A common feature of T2D in human and rodents models is hepatic futile glucose cycling (7, 27). Whereby glucose is normally phosphorylated via glucokinase and ...
[69]
Empagliflozin Inhibits Hepatic Gluconeogenesis and Increases ... - NIH
Mar 1, 2022 · Increases in glucose production and decreases in hepatic glycogen storage induce glucose metabolic abnormalities in type 2 diabetes (T2DM).
[70]
Targeting hepatic glucose output in the treatment of type 2 diabetes
Jan 3, 2018 · In diabetic patients, hepatic glycogen synthesis is impaired and the stimulation of glycogen synthesis in skeletal muscle by insulin is stunted, ...
[71]
Expanding the Use of SGLT2 Inhibitors in T2D Patients Across ... - NIH
May 2, 2025 · The reduction of blood glucose levels is a significant pharmacodynamic effect of SGLT2. Moreover, this pattern of action is independent of ...
[72]
Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors: Understanding the ... - NIH
SGLT2 inhibitors have been developed to treat diabetes and are the newest class of glucose-lowering agents approved in the United States.