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Final protective fire

Final protective fire (FPF) is an immediately available, prearranged barrier of fire designed to impede enemy movement across defensive lines or areas.^[1] It consists of continuous indirect fires, often from artillery or mortars, targeted on a specific linear area to create a "wall of steel" that halts advancing enemy forces.^[1]^[2] In military doctrine, FPF serves as a critical defensive measure, particularly during the final stages of an enemy assault when friendly positions are at risk of being overrun.^[1] It is preplanned as a priority target for firing units, ensuring rapid execution upon triggers such as enemy proximity to the defensive line, typically within 200 to 400 meters of friendly troops—a range known as "danger close."^[1]^[3] FPF integrates indirect fires with direct fire from crew-served weapons along final protective lines (FPLs), aiming to destroy dismounted infantry while suppressing armored vehicles and providing time for friendly forces to maneuver or counterattack.^[1]^[2] The planning and execution of FPF require close coordination between maneuver units, fire support officers, and artillery elements, often depicted on maps as a single black line with anchor points, target numbers, and firing unit details.^[1] Allocated at the brigade or battalion level, it is rehearsed to synchronize with other fire support coordination measures (FSCMs) like the fire support coordination line (FSCL).^[2] In joint operations, FPF aligns with broader joint fire support principles outlined in publications such as JP 3-09.3, emphasizing its role in protecting forces during defensive, retrograde, or security operations.^[1]

Fundamentals

Definition

Final protective fire (FPF) is an immediately available preplanned barrier of indirect fires, primarily from artillery and mortars using high-explosive rounds, designed to impede enemy infantry movement across a defensive line or area by creating a lethal barrier of fire.^[1] This fire support measure integrates with direct fires from small arms and machine guns to form a coordinated defensive effort, typically covering dead space immediately in front of friendly positions where enemy forces are most likely to penetrate.^[1] Once initiated, FPF receives absolute priority over all other fire support requests, ensuring rapid execution by pre-laid firing units. Key characteristics of FPF include its linear or curvilinear configuration, which maximizes coverage along the final protective line of the supported unit, and its reliance on quick-fuze or impact-detonating munitions to achieve high rates of fire and suppressive effects.^[4] It is designated as a priority target by the supported commander, with firing units maintaining readiness by laying on the FPF when not otherwise engaged.^[1] The barrier is prearranged through detailed coordination, often depicted on fire support overlays as a single line with anchor points defining its length and orientation.^[4] Standard dimensions of FPF vary by weapon system and battery configuration to ensure effective coverage without excessive dispersion; for example, a typical FPF for a six-gun 155 mm howitzer battery measures 300 m in length by 50 m in width.^[5] These sizes are based on open sheaf widths and can be adjusted by commander agreement, though expansions may reduce density and effectiveness.^[6] The term FPF originates from U.S. military doctrine and is abbreviated as such in field manuals, serving as a core fire support coordination measure within broader defensive planning.^[1] In defensive operations, it provides essential close-in protection to halt enemy assaults at critical points.^[1]

Purpose

Final protective fire (FPF) serves as a critical defensive measure in military operations, with its primary objective being to stop or destroy enemy assault forces during their final advance toward friendly positions. By delivering an immediately available preplanned barrier of fires, FPF aims to prevent penetration of defensive lines through the killing or suppression of enemy infantry and the disruption of armored vehicles, thereby halting momentum at the point of closest threat. This tactic is particularly effective against exposed troops crossing open terrain, maximizing casualties by concentrating fire along predesignated final protective lines (FPLs).^[7]^[8] Beyond its direct lethal role, FPF provides secondary benefits that enhance overall defensive flexibility, such as buying time for friendly forces to reorganize, launch counterattacks, or execute withdrawals under pressure. It also addresses vulnerabilities in defensive setups, including dead space where direct fire weapons cannot effectively engage the enemy, ensuring comprehensive coverage of the battlespace. These advantages stem from FPF's integration as a last-resort element in layered defensive plans, where it supplements obstacles, direct fires, and reserves to maintain positional integrity.^[7] The effectiveness of FPF hinges on key factors including the element of surprise, the high volume of sustained fire from allocated batteries or platoons, and precise coordination with maneuver elements to target enemy forces at optimal vulnerability. When properly synchronized, it disrupts enemy cohesion and inflicts disproportionate losses on advancing units, though success requires preplanning to align firing data and observer positions for rapid execution.^[7]^[8]

Historical Development

Origins in Early 20th Century Doctrine

The concept of final protective fire traces its roots to the artillery tactics employed during World War I, particularly the use of standing barrages and linear artillery fires in trench warfare to shield defensive positions from infantry assaults. In the static fronts of the Western Front, standing barrages—pre-registered concentrations of fire that remained fixed on likely enemy approach routes—served as a defensive curtain to disrupt and halt attacking forces before they could close with friendly lines. These tactics evolved from the need to counter massed infantry charges, where artillery created impassable zones of fire to protect against breakthroughs, as demonstrated in the defensive responses during the Battle of the Somme in 1916, where British and Allied gunners laid down linear protective fires to cover dead space and repel German counterattacks.^[9] During the interwar period, these World War I experiences were codified into formal doctrine across major armies, emphasizing preplanned defensive fires to integrate artillery with infantry defenses. The United States Army's Field Service Regulations, 1923 formalized the role of artillery in defense, directing it to deliver coordinated, prearranged fires on ground dead to infantry weapons, including counterpreparation barrages—pre-set concentrations unleashed at defender-chosen times to break up enemy assaults on assembly areas or advancing troops. This manual stressed the surprise effect of concealed defensive fires, with plans based on reconnaissance to target critical fronts, marking a shift toward systematic, map-regulated defensive artillery support. Similarly, British doctrine in the 1920s, influenced by the war's lessons, incorporated organized fire plans for protective barrages to cover infantry advances and defenses, treating artillery as essential for maintaining fire superiority against massed attacks, though with a focus on centralized control to avoid fragmentation. French interwar regulations echoed this, prioritizing artillery's protective role in limiting enemy mobility, where the range of defensive fire dictated tactical bounds and created "fire walls" to neutralize massed infantry threats in fortified positions.^[10]^[11] By the 1930s, the term "protective fire" emerged more distinctly in artillery tactics, adapting interwar doctrines to address emerging threats from mechanized warfare, such as tank-supported assaults that could exploit dead space in traditional defenses. U.S. publications like The Field Artillery Journal (1930–1933) described protective fires as flank-covering concentrations and prearranged barriers to safeguard exposed units, evolving from World War I barrages to cover gaps in infantry lines against faster, armored threats. This development emphasized rapid, massed fires via improved fire direction centers, ensuring artillery could deliver immediate barriers to deny ground to mechanized forces while integrating with anti-tank defenses. Influenced by observations of early tank tactics, these refinements positioned protective fire as a core element of defensive depth, prefiguring its formalization as final protective fire in later doctrines.^[12]^[13]^[10]

Evolution in World War II and Postwar Conflicts

During World War II, final protective fire (FPF) emerged as a vital component of defensive artillery tactics, particularly in intense close-quarters battles where enemy breakthroughs threatened to overrun positions. In the hedgerow fighting of Normandy in 1944, U.S. forces integrated FPF with machine gun final protective lines to counter German ambushes and assaults in the bocage terrain, where dense hedges limited visibility and maneuverability; artillery barrages were fired along pre-registered lines to create barriers immediately in front of friendly troops, often at emergency distances of 300 yards for 75-mm guns to deny enemy penetration.^[14] Similarly, during the Battle of the Bulge at Bastogne in December 1944, U.S. artillery units, including those from the 101st Airborne Division, employed FPF to repel German advances amid harsh winter conditions and encirclement; rapid, concentrated fires broke up infantry assaults and supported the defense of key road junctions, inflicting heavy casualties and preventing a complete overrun despite ammunition shortages.^[15] U.S. Field Manual (FM) 6-20, Field Artillery Tactics and Techniques (1944 edition), codified FPF as a prearranged barrier of fire designed to protect against enemy attacks on defensive positions, emphasizing its immediate availability and coordination with infantry to cover dead space and sensitive points.^[15] In postwar conflicts, FPF adaptations reflected evolving terrain challenges and technological improvements. The Korean War (1950–1953) highlighted the need for rapid execution, with forward observers calling in pre-registered final protective lines (FPLs)—often termed "flash fires"—using variable-time (VT) fuses to counter human-wave attacks; at battles like Pork Chop Hill in April 1953, these missions were triggered within seconds via commands like "Flash Pork Chop," enabling quick response amid mobile defenses and improved radio communications that reduced delays from minutes to moments.^[16] The Vietnam War further refined FPF for jungle environments, shifting toward smaller, more mobile zones to accommodate dispersed units and dense vegetation that obscured targets. In engagements like the Battle of Suoi Tre in March 1967, U.S. artillery from the 2nd Battalion, 77th Field Artillery fired over 2,200 rounds of 105-mm high-explosive and beehive ammunition in direct-fire FPF mode at point-blank range (under 200 yards) to repel Viet Cong assaults emerging from woodlines, creating lethal barriers in sectors where infantry perimeters were vulnerable to close-range infiltration.^[17] Doctrinal evolution during the Cold War extended FPF principles to nuclear-threat scenarios within NATO frameworks, prioritizing unit survivability through dispersion and hardened positions. FM 6-20 updates in the 1950s incorporated nuclear delivery considerations, mandating FPF planning that accounted for blast radii and fallout while maintaining rapid massed fires; NATO doctrines, such as those in Allied Tactical Publications, emphasized integrating FPF with air defense and counterbattery measures to ensure artillery batteries could endure preemptive nuclear strikes and sustain defensive fires against Warsaw Pact armored breakthroughs.^[15]

Planning and Coordination

Designation and Prioritization

The designation of final protective fire (FPF) begins with the maneuver commander, typically at the battalion level or below, who identifies the need based on defensive requirements and requests its allocation to protect forces in contact.^[1] The fire support officer (FSO) advises on placement, and the fire support coordinator (FSCOORD) or equivalent, such as a joint terminal attack controller (JTAC) in joint operations, validates the request by ensuring alignment with the overall fire support plan.^[1] Once approved, the FPF is registered as a priority target with a specific target number (e.g., AA7732) in the message to observer and integrated into the fire support execution matrix for rapid access.^[3] Upon designation, FPF receives absolute priority over all other fire missions for the assigned firing unit, such as a battery or platoon, which must lay its weapons on the target when not engaged elsewhere to minimize response time.^[3] Brigade commanders allocate field artillery FPFs to subordinate battalions, which may further distribute them to company or troop levels, while battalion commanders handle heavy mortar allocations similarly.^[3] This prioritization ensures immediate availability, with only one FPF permitted per firing unit to avoid resource conflicts.^[1] Selection of FPF locations involves terrain analysis to cover dead space in defensive lines, evaluating likely enemy avenues of approach and integrating with protective obstacles.^[18] Asset availability, including artillery, mortars, and supporting arms, dictates feasibility, with synchronization to direct fire weapons like machine guns on final protective lines to create a cohesive barrier.^[1] These factors are assessed during the military decision-making process to optimize coverage without compromising maneuver flexibility.^[1] Documentation occurs through operations orders (OPORDs) that specify the FPF location, firing agency, and munitions, alongside fire support overlays depicting the barrier graphically with anchor points and target details.^[18] Call-for-fire codes are established for quick activation, often including authentication procedures to confirm commander intent, ensuring the FPF is preplanned and rehearsed as part of defensive preparations.^[3]

Integration with Defensive Positions

Final protective fire (FPF) is tactically aligned with friendly defensive layouts to create an effective barrier against enemy assaults, typically positioned 200 to 400 meters forward of troops along the final protective line (FPL) or curve. This placement ensures coverage of critical approaches while maintaining safety margins, with adjustments made based on terrain to avoid endangering friendly forces. The FPL serves as the primary reference, integrating FPF with machine gun and small arms positions to form a cohesive defensive envelope. Synchronization of FPF with direct fires is essential for seamless defensive operations, where indirect fires from artillery or mortars complement crew-served weapons such as machine guns oriented along the FPL. During FPF execution, infantry weapons receive priority of fires to suppress or neutralize threats immediately adjacent to friendly lines, creating overlapping effects that disrupt enemy momentum.^[3]^[19] This coordination is planned to cover dead space behind direct fire grazes, enhancing overall protection. Terrain considerations dictate FPF placement to exploit enemy avenues of approach, such as chokepoints or open ground, while accounting for line-of-sight limitations and elevation changes. Linear patterns are used for straight fronts to provide uniform coverage along the FPL, whereas curvilinear patterns adapt to irregular terrain or bent defensive lines, ensuring the barrier conforms to the tactical environment. Sheaf adjustments, based on weapon bursting radii, further tailor the fire to specific topographic features like ridges or valleys.^[3]^[20] Pre-execution rehearsals are conducted to validate FPF integration, focusing on dry runs that simulate the handover from indirect to direct fires for precise timing and responsiveness. These rehearsals incorporate terrain sketches and fire support coordination measures to confirm alignment and synchronization, minimizing risks during actual employment. Technical and tactical drills ensure firing units can rapidly shift to FPF when triggered, maintaining defensive integrity.^[19]^[3]

Execution and Procedures

Triggering Mechanisms

Final protective fire (FPF) is activated when enemy forces cross the final protective line (FPL) or initiate a final assault that threatens friendly defensive positions, as identified by forward observers or other designated spotters.^[1] This criterion ensures the fire serves as an immediate barrier to impede enemy penetration, with activation authority typically delegated to the lowest maneuver commander whose sector includes the FPF area or their authorized representative. Spotting relies on visual or sensor-based observation, such as forward observers employing binoculars, laser rangefinders, or target acquisition devices to confirm enemy proximity and movement across predefined phase lines like the FPL.^[1] The call-for-fire process for FPF abbreviates the standard six-element format—observer identification, warning order, target location, target description, method of engagement, and method of fire and control—to enable rapid execution, often reduced to a preassigned code or direct command such as "Fire FPF" transmitted over fire support or maneuver nets, followed by authentication for security. This preplanned approach leverages assigned priority targets and integrated fire support coordination measures, allowing firing units to lay weapons on the FPF when not otherwise engaged, with redundant transmissions ensuring clearance from the supported commander.^[1] Once initiated, FPF is delivered at the maximum rate of fire until the enemy threat subsides, ammunition depletion, unit repositioning necessity, or a commander-issued order to shift or cease firing, thereby supporting friendly counterattacks while minimizing risks to own forces. Control remains centralized with the fire support coordinator or maneuver commander, who monitors the engagement and adjusts the barrier as tactical conditions evolve, such as lifting fires beyond the enemy's limit of advance.^[1] Modern doctrine incorporates technological aids like the Advanced Field Artillery Tactical Data System (AFATDS) to expedite FPF delivery, automating target location processing, fire clearance, and mission computation through digital interfaces between observers, fire direction centers, and firing units.^[1] These systems reduce response times by integrating prearranged data and enabling quick-fire channels, enhancing accuracy in dynamic environments (as of FM 3-09, August 2024).

Safety Protocols and Danger Close

Final protective fire (FPF) is considered danger close when delivered within 600 meters of friendly troops for artillery and mortars, requiring enhanced procedural controls to mitigate risks to personnel.^[3] This distance may be reduced to 200–400 meters during execution with precise observer adjustments, such as using a safe grid for initial registration 400–600 meters from forward positions, ensuring positive control through direct observation and communication.^[3] In such scenarios, the observer must announce "danger close" in the call for fire, and all adjustments employ creeping methods with range corrections limited to 100 meters or less to prevent errant impacts.^[3]^[1] Safety measures for FPF emphasize mandatory observer presence to verify target alignment and friendly positions in real time, often requiring forward observers collocated with maneuver elements for immediate adjustments.^[3] High-angle fire trajectories are prioritized for mortars and requested for artillery when terrain or defilade demands it, minimizing low-angle risks like skipping rounds or excessive dispersion near troops.^[3] Pre-registration of safety limits, including fire support coordination measures like coordinated fire lines and no-fire areas, establishes predefined boundaries, while firing units maintain a "lay" on the FPF azimuth when idle to enable rapid response without initial setup delays.^[1] Immediate cease-fire protocols mandate termination of FPF upon friendly advance beyond the protective line, initiated by observer command such as "end of mission" or "cease loading," with loaded rounds fired only if necessary before halting (as of ATP 3-09.30, September 2017).^[3] Casualty risks in FPF primarily stem from short-rounds or miscalculations, which can result in fratricide due to ballistic errors or unaccounted environmental factors like wind.^[1] These are addressed through redundant checks, including two-person verification in fire direction centers for computations and authentication in nonsecure communications to confirm observer intent.^[1] Precise ballistic calculations incorporate meteorological data, weapon specifics, and probable error estimates (e.g., range errors exceeding 38 meters trigger notifications), while fuze delay settings reduce low-angle hazards during adjustments.^[3] Training regimens focus on FPF rehearsals, integrating observers in simulated danger close scenarios to build proficiency in spotting, shifting, and risk assessment, ensuring units can execute under combat stress without procedural lapses.^[21] Doctrinally, FPF operations must comply with rules of engagement (ROE), which prohibit fires endangering noncombatants or violating international law, with fire support coordinators verifying alignment during planning.^[1] Any friendly fire incidents during FPF require immediate post-event reporting through unit channels, including detailed after-action reviews to analyze causes like observer error or communication failures and inform future mitigations.^[1] This reporting supports broader fratricide avoidance programs, emphasizing procedural and technical safeguards to maintain operational integrity.^[21]

Modern Doctrine and Variations

US Military Applications

In United States military doctrine, final protective fire (FPF) is defined as an immediately available, prearranged barrier of indirect fires, integrated with direct fires, designed to impede enemy movement across defensive lines and provide close-in protection to friendly forces.^[1] This concept is outlined in key Army publications, including Army Techniques Publication (ATP) 3-09.30, Observed Fires (2017), which details procedures for targeting and adjusting FPF to ensure precision and integration with observed fire assets; Field Manual (FM) 3-09, Fire Support (2019), which emphasizes its role in synchronizing fires across echelons; and FM 3-90, Tactics (2019), which integrates FPF into defensive planning to cover dead space and support maneuver units.^[3]^[1]^[22] These manuals collectively stress joint fires integration, aligning FPF with air, naval, and special operations support to enhance overall defensive effectiveness under unified command structures.^[1] Coordination of FPF involves specialized unit roles across services. In the Army, fire support teams (FISTs) serve as the primary coordinators, observing targets, adjusting fires, and relaying requests to artillery or mortar units, while the battalion S3 (operations officer) provides final approval to ensure alignment with the commander's intent and risk mitigation.^[3]^[1] The U.S. Marine Corps applies similar principles through Marine Corps Warfighting Publication (MCWP) 3-16, Fire Support Coordination in the Ground Combat Element (2002, with updates), where fire support coordinators (FSCs) and forward observers manage FPF to protect infantry and mechanized units during defensive engagements.^[23] In joint operations, these roles extend to combined arms teams, incorporating Navy and Air Force assets for seamless execution across theaters.^[1] Adaptations of FPF have evolved to address urban and asymmetric warfare environments, where traditional area fires risk collateral damage. In such scenarios, U.S. forces prioritize precision-guided munitions (PGMs), such as the M982 Excalibur artillery round or GPS-guided rockets, to deliver targeted barriers that minimize friendly and civilian exposure while disrupting enemy advances through complex terrain.^[1] Training for these adaptations occurs through realistic simulations at the National Training Center (NTC) at Fort Irwin, California, where units practice FPF integration using live-fire exercises, instrumentation systems, and virtual scenarios to replicate urban threats and refine coordination under simulated enemy pressure. Success of FPF is evaluated primarily by its ability to disrupt enemy momentum, with effectiveness gauged through after-action reviews that assess disruption rates—such as the percentage of halted assaults or neutralized enemy formations—during training and operations.^[1] Post-2020 doctrinal updates, reflected in revisions to FM 3-09 and emerging concepts like the Army Futures Command's Concept for Fires 2028 (2021), incorporate drone spotting for enhanced accuracy, enabling real-time target acquisition and adjustment to counter dispersed or mobile threats in contested environments, with further integrations of unmanned aerial systems observed in exercises as of 2024.^[24]^[25]

International and Allied Perspectives

Within NATO frameworks, final protective fire (FPF) is standardized as an immediately available prearranged barrier of fire designed to impede enemy movement across defensive lines or areas, as defined in the NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions (AAP-6, 2023).^[26] This concept is integrated into allied fire support doctrine through STANAG 2484 (AArtyP-5, 2015), which establishes common procedures for coordinating indirect fires, including defensive barriers, to ensure interoperability during joint operations.^[27] Such standardization facilitates multinational training and execution, as seen in NATO exercises simulating countering large-scale advances. Among other NATO members, the British Army employs "protective fire tasks" that align closely with FPF, prioritizing immediate defensive barrages to protect forward positions, as outlined in NATO-aligned glossaries and artillery procedures.^[26] In contrast, Russian military doctrine utilizes "barrier fire" (lines of concentrated or standing barrier fire) within layered defensive depths, planned in advance to channel and disrupt enemy assaults, drawing from Soviet-era field manuals and persisting in modern tactics for echeloned defenses.^[26] Non-NATO allies adapt FPF to regional contexts; for instance, the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) tailor it for close-quarters and urban environments, relying on rapid mortar responses to deliver immediate barriers against infantry breakthroughs. Similarly, the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) emphasizes massed rocket artillery in defensive schemes against hybrid threats, using systems like the PCH191 for saturation fire to create prohibitive barriers, integrated into broader campaign doctrines for area denial.^[28] In multinational coalitions, executing FPF presents interoperability challenges, such as differing communication protocols and fire coordination timings, which are mitigated through embedded liaison officers and digital fire support applications that enable real-time data sharing and deconfliction. These measures ensure synchronized defensive fires across allied units, building on shared NATO standards while accommodating national variations.^[29]^[30]

Comparison to Other Fire Barriers

Final protective fire (FPF) differs from the final protective line (FPL) primarily in its method of delivery and placement relative to defensive positions. The FPL consists of direct fire from machine guns and other crew-served weapons oriented along a predetermined line to create interlocking fields of fire that halt an enemy assault at a specific point.^[31] In contrast, FPF employs indirect artillery or mortar fire to establish a barrier parallel to or immediately behind the FPL, adding depth to the defense by targeting enemy forces that penetrate the direct fire zone. This integration allows FPF to reinforce the FPL without overlapping its direct fire envelope, ensuring comprehensive coverage during critical assault phases.^[1] Unlike a priority target (PRTY), which designates a specific high-value objective for fires upon request based on its tactical importance or timing, FPF functions as a preplanned, non-specific barrier activated automatically via predefined triggers such as enemy proximity to the defensive line.^[32] A PRTY requires deliberate targeting and adjustment to engage a particular asset, like a command post or vehicle, whereas FPF prioritizes volume over precision to disrupt broad enemy advances across an area.^[33] Doctrine specifies that a firing unit may support either a general PRTY or an FPF but not both simultaneously, highlighting FPF's unique status as the sole defensive priority target that demands immediate, unallocated resources. FPF also operates in relation to the fire support coordination line (FSCL), a permissive measure that delineates zones where joint fires can engage targets without further coordination between ground and air components. Positioned close to friendly troops, often within the forward edge of the battle area, FPF typically falls inside or immediately adjacent to the FSCL to avoid endangering own forces, requiring strict observer control and safety protocols for execution.^[34] This placement ensures FPF supports localized defense without conflicting with broader operational fires beyond the line. A key advantage of FPF lies in its ability to deliver an immediate, high-volume barrage without the need to retask or reallocate fire support assets, enabling rapid response to breakthroughs and buying critical time for defensive repositioning or counterattacks.^[2] By preplanning the barrier, units achieve synchronized effects that disrupt enemy momentum across wide fronts, enhancing overall defensive resilience in fluid engagements.^[1]

Distinctions from Suppressive and Neutralizing Fire

Final protective fire (FPF) differs fundamentally from suppressive fire in its tactical intent and desired outcomes. Suppressive fire seeks to degrade an enemy's ability to observe, move, or engage by delivering fires that force them to seek cover, thereby temporarily reducing their combat effectiveness without necessarily inflicting heavy casualties—typically achieving at least a 3% casualty rate or equivalent materiel damage to limit actions for a short period.^[1] In contrast, FPF employs a high-density, continuous barrage to create an immediate barrier of fire across defensive lines, aiming to maximize enemy casualties and halt assaults outright through destructive effects rather than mere pinning.^[35]^[36] This distinction underscores FPF's role as a last-stand defensive measure, prioritizing the breaking of enemy momentum over the transient control provided by suppression. Neutralizing fire, meanwhile, focuses on rendering an enemy target temporarily combat-ineffective by inflicting moderate casualties—often targeting 10% of personnel or equivalent damage to disrupt operations for 24-48 hours and achieve a 30-40% loss in combat effectiveness.^[1]^[35] FPF exceeds this threshold by design, delivering concentrated, prearranged fires to not only disrupt but to impose severe, potentially decisive losses on assaulting forces, ensuring they cannot breach friendly positions.^[36] While neutralizing fire supports broader maneuver by weakening enemy capabilities, FPF is inherently protective and preemptive, triggered specifically to counter imminent assaults on defensive perimeters.^[1] These fires can overlap in execution, as FPF may incorporate suppressive elements to initially pin attackers before escalating to destructive barrages; however, its core emphasis remains on barrier creation and enemy attrition rather than the offensive or supportive pinning characteristic of suppressive or neutralizing fires.^[35]^[36] This prioritization ensures FPF serves as an integrated defensive tool, distinct from the maneuver-enabling roles of the others.

References

[1]
[PDF] Fire Support and Field Artillery Operations
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[2]
CALL -Fires in the Close Fight Newsletter 03 -1 Final Protective Fires:
The purpose of a final protective fires is to stop and destroy enemy forces crossing a defensive line or into a defensive area.
[3]
[PDF] Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for the Field Artillery Manual ...
Length: 300 M. Attitude: 1,300. Chart data to the center grid: Chart range ... final protective fire is an immediately available prearranged barrier of ...
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FM 6-40 Appendix H - GlobalSecurity.org
When necessary, the width (length) of the FPF may be increased by agreement between the commanders of the artillery and the supported unit.Missing: dimensions | Show results with:dimensions<|control11|><|separator|>
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Apr 4, 2014 · FINAL PROTECTIVE FIRE. 4-45. Final protective fire is an immediately available preplanned barrier of fires designed to impede enemy movement ...
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Final protective fires (FPFs) are immediately available preplanned barriers of fires designed to impede enemy movement across defensive lines or areas (JP 3-09) ...
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[PDF] Tactical Responses to Concentrated Artillery - DTIC
Their withdrawal could be blocked by a standing barrage, and they could be destroyed out of sight of their own supporting fires. Conceptually, the scheme of ...
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Mar 15, 2017 · As a result, the 1923 regulations clearly outlined the role of artillery at different echelons, the importance of combined arms, and field ...
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organised fire plan. The tendency was to treat artillery fire as preparing way for attack rather than covering it to the last possible moment.' 4. The war ...
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There have been noteworthy changes in ideas as regards procedure in Artillery Support and Protective Fires. Here the tendency is to give up the idea of the ...<|separator|>
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The support consists of successive concentrations, reinforced by protective fire on the exposed flanks of the attack. A definite preparation is not ...
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What you do is you're firing a final protective fire. And where these machine guns had gotten knocked out. The idea, is to try -- what you want to do is get ...
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None
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He was also instructed to call for his final protective fire. Mortars continued to fall inside the perimeter among the artillery tubes and near Alpha Company.
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Mar 1, 2013 · (See military police doctrine for additional information on internment ... Final protective fire is an immediately available preplanned barrier ...
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None
Below is a merged summary of Final Protective Fire (FPF) and Final Protective Line (FPL) from TC 3-21.76 Ranger Handbook, consolidating all information from the provided segments into a dense, comprehensive response. To maximize detail and clarity, I’ve organized the information into tables in CSV format where applicable, followed by a narrative summary for additional context. All unique details are retained, and redundancies are minimized.
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https://www.benning.army.mil/Infantry/ARTB/4th-RTBn/content/pdf/TC%203-21.76%20Ranger%20Handbook.pdf
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None
Below is a merged summary of the FM 6-30 content related to the specified topics, consolidating all information from the provided segments into a single, dense response. To maximize detail and clarity, I’ve organized the information into a table format where appropriate, followed by additional narrative details for topics that don’t fit neatly into a table. The response retains all information mentioned across the summaries while avoiding redundancy where possible.
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https://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/ARN38160-FM_3-90-000-WEB-1.pdf
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Nov 14, 2013 · The deliberate decision to deliver danger-close fires ensures the commander retains his firepower advantage over the enemy. The commander's ...
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No information is available for this page. · Learn whyMissing: Protective Fire
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[PDF] Applying the National Training Center Experience-Incidence ... - DTIC
During force-on-force battle simulations at the NTC, artillery fires are represented on the Core Instrumentation Subsystem. Unlike direct fire, however, the ...Missing: Protective | Show results with:Protective
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[PDF] Army Futures Command Concept for Fires 2028
Oct 6, 2021 · The fires warfighting function includes planning and coordinating surface to surface fires; air to surface fires; surface to air fires; ...
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[PDF] AAP-06 Edition 2013 - Joint Chiefs of Staff
Mar 1, 1973 · ... protective fire / tir d'arrêt. FPF. An immediately available prearranged barrier of fire designed to impede enemy movement across defensive ...
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[PDF] NATO STANDARD AArtyP-5 NATO FIRE SUPPORT DOCTRINE
Nov 1, 2015 · Common to joint operations at all levels of warfare are the functions command and control, intelligence, manoeuvre and fires, force protection, ...
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Exercise Reforger - Wikipedia
Exercise Campaign Reforger was an annual military exercise and campaign conducted by NATO from 1969 until 1993 during the Cold War. The exercise was ...Missing: fire | Show results with:fire
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Jan 8, 2017 · Once the fire mission is complete, the mortars lay their tubes back on a designated target, called FPF or “final protective fire”. This is a ...Why do soldiers in Middle East combat footage seem to always fire ...What does it mean when artillery and other guns are “pre-registered”?More results from www.quora.com
[31]
[PDF] Military and Security Developments Involving the People's Republic ...
Dec 18, 2024 · conducted live fire events using the new PCH191 long-range rocket artillery system, which can strike Taiwan from mainland China. The ...
[32]
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Jan 19, 2023 · The DLD liaison officer (LNO) team provides the supported coalition partner with U.S. Army subject matter experts on maneuver, fires, ...
[33]
[PDF] Commander and Staff Guide to Multinational Interoperability - Army.mil
Jan 31, 2023 · This guide is for commanders and staff who are training for, or operating in a multinational environment. The primary focus is on aiding ...
[34]
terrain-based fire control measures - Mission Command
Final Protective Line B-47. FPL is a line of fire established where an enemy assault is to be checked by the interlocking fires of all available weapons.
[35]
[PDF] FM 3-09 - - Revista de Artilharia
Apr 30, 2020 · Final protective fire example ... prepared to deliver, fire support (JP 3-09). Fire may or may not be observed. Gunfire support ships ...
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[PDF] INTRODUCTION TO FIRE SUPPORT PLANNING B2C0319XQ-DM ...
Feb 20, 2018 · 4) Final Protective Fires (FPF): These are targets are used only in defensive operations. The FPF is the only priority target in the defense. ...Missing: PRTY doctrine
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FM 6-20-30 Appendix F - Fire Support Coordinating Measures
A restrictive fire area or a no-fire area can be used to protect key facilities or terrain features beyond the FSCL.
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None
Below is a merged summary of Final Protective Fire (FPF), Suppressive Fire, and Neutralizing Fire from MCWP 3-16, consolidating all information provided across the segments. To retain maximum detail in a dense and organized format, I will use tables in CSV-style text for each fire support type, followed by a consolidated narrative summary and a list of useful URLs. This approach ensures all details (intent, effects, casualties, tactical purpose, and page references) are preserved and easily accessible.
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[PDF] JP 3-09, Joint Fire Support
Jun 30, 2010 · It is a continual and cyclical process of planning, synchronizing, and executing joint fires involving tactical, operational, and strategic.