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Fire support

Fire support is the coordinated and integrated employment of indirect fires from land, air, and naval platforms, including artillery, mortars, rockets, missiles, and armed aircraft, to deliver lethal and nonlethal effects that support ground maneuver forces in achieving operational objectives across the spectrum of conflict.^[1]^[2]^[3] In military operations, fire support plays a pivotal role in enhancing the effectiveness of maneuver units by destroying, neutralizing, or suppressing enemy forces, protecting friendly troops, and shaping the battlefield to enable decisive actions.^[1] It integrates with the commander's concept of operations to provide close support for forces in contact, deep fires against enemy reserves, and counterfire to neutralize hostile artillery, thereby contributing to the control of territory, populations, and key areas.^[2] Fire support has evolved from traditional artillery barrages to modern precision-guided munitions and joint, multi-domain operations.^[1] The fire support system encompasses three primary elements: target acquisition through intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance assets like radars and unmanned aerial systems; command and control via fire support coordinators and joint targeting boards to ensure synchronization; and delivery systems such as cannon artillery, naval gunfire, close air support, and electronic warfare for both lethal and nonlethal effects.^[2] Types of fire support include indirect surface-to-surface fires from field artillery and mortars, air-to-surface strikes via fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft, naval surface fire support, and suppressive or obscuring effects like smoke screens.^[1] These capabilities are employed across offensive, defensive, and stability operations to maximize combat power while minimizing risks to civilians and friendly forces.^[3] Effective fire support relies on principles of early and continuous planning, unity of effort among joint and multinational forces, flexibility in response to dynamic threats, and rigorous coordination measures to prevent fratricide.^[2] Key coordination tools include fire support coordination measures such as the fire support coordination line (FSCL) and coordinated fire line (CFL), which delineate areas for unrestricted fires, alongside airspace control measures like high-density airspace control zones to integrate air and ground operations seamlessly.^[1]^[3] Through these mechanisms, fire support ensures timely, precise, and sustainable effects that align with broader campaign objectives.^[2]

Definition and Principles

Definition

Fire support is defined as the rapid and continuous integration of surface-to-surface indirect fires, target acquisition, armed aircraft, and other lethal and nonlethal attack or delivery systems that converge on targets across all domains in support of the supported commander's concept of operations.^[1] In joint operations, it encompasses fires that directly support land, maritime, amphibious, and special operations forces by engaging enemy forces, combat formations, and facilities to achieve tactical and operational objectives.^[2] This includes weapons such as artillery, mortars, rockets, aviation assets, and naval guns, employed to engage, suppress, fix, or destroy enemy targets while aiding friendly maneuver forces.^[1] Unlike direct fire, which involves line-of-sight aiming and engagement by weapons like rifles or tank guns integrated into the maneuver element, fire support emphasizes indirect fire methods that deliver effects without a direct observer line to the target, requiring precise coordination to integrate with ground operations.^[4] This distinction ensures that fire support assets, often positioned rearward, provide suppressive or destructive effects to enable freedom of maneuver for forward units without exposing the firing platforms to immediate counterfire.^[1] The terminology of fire support was formalized in U.S. Army publications in the post-World War II period through field manuals that standardized its integration into combined arms tactics.^[5] This evolution reflects a shift toward systematic planning and execution, as detailed in doctrines like FM 3-09, which builds on prior manuals to address modern multi-domain operations.^[1] Fire support must operate within legal and ethical boundaries, including rules of engagement that align with international humanitarian law, such as the Geneva Conventions, which require parties to distinguish between combatants and civilians and to take feasible precautions to minimize collateral damage from indirect fires in populated areas. These obligations, reinforced by Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions (Article 51(5)(b)), prohibit attacks expected to cause excessive incidental civilian harm relative to the concrete military advantage anticipated.^[6]

Principles of Employment

The principles of fire support employment provide a doctrinal framework for integrating fires into military operations to achieve decisive effects while minimizing risks to friendly forces. U.S. Army doctrine in FM 3-09 outlines 10 key principles: Plan and coordinate fire support early and continuously; ensure the continuous availability of target information; use all available lethal and nonlethal fires; employ the fire support asset from the lowest echelon capable of delivering effective fires; furnish the type of support requested; use the most effective delivery system to deliver the required effect; provide adequate support; ensure rapid coordination of fire support; provide flexibility in response; and support the force in contact.^[1]^[3] To prevent friendly fire and ensure safe integration of joint fires, fire support coordination measures (FSCMs) such as the fire support coordination line (FSCL) and no-fire areas (NFAs) are employed. The FSCL is a line beyond which fires can be delivered without additional coordination with affected forces, facilitating a permissive environment for rapid engagement while protecting forward troops; it is established by the maneuver commander and adjusted based on operational tempo.^[7]^[1] NFAs designate zones where fires are prohibited to safeguard friendly units, civilians, or critical infrastructure, except in cases of self-defense or with explicit approval from the establishing commander.^[3]^[7] These measures are dynamically managed through liaison and communication to balance offensive momentum with force protection. The targeting process follows a structured cycle to identify, engage, and evaluate targets effectively, typically using the Decide, Detect, Deliver, and Assess (D3A) methodology. In the Decide phase, commanders identify high-payoff targets (HPTs) based on the mission and develop prioritized target lists integrated with intelligence preparation of the battlefield.^[1]^[3] Detection involves locating and tracking targets using sensors, reconnaissance, or acquisition assets to validate their status.^[7] Delivery assigns appropriate assets—such as artillery or air support—to engage targets at the optimal time, synchronizing effects through preplanned or immediate requests.^[1] Assessment evaluates battle damage and effects via reports from observers or sensors, recommending re-engagement if necessary to measure success against objectives.^[3]^[7] Integration with maneuver ensures fire support shapes the battlefield to enable ground forces' freedom of action, dividing fires into close support for immediate tactical needs and deep fires for disrupting enemy reserves. Close support directly aids advancing units by suppressing threats during assaults or breaches, coordinated through forward observers to align with the scheme of maneuver.^[1]^[7] Deep fires target enemy command nodes or logistics farther to the rear, creating windows of opportunity for maneuver by degrading the enemy's ability to reinforce or counterattack.^[3] This synchronization occurs continuously during planning and execution, using FSCMs to deconflict fires with troop movements and phase lines.^[1] Effectiveness is measured through criteria focused on achieving specific outcomes, such as suppression, which temporarily degrades enemy performance below mission-capable levels.^[1]^[3] Adjustment techniques distinguish between observed fires, which use forward observers or sensors for real-time corrections to enhance accuracy, and unobserved fires, relying on precomputed data or predicted impacts for rapid but less precise delivery in high-tempo scenarios.^[7]^[1] These metrics guide reallocation of assets and inform commanders on whether fires have met suppression thresholds, such as neutralizing key enemy capabilities without excessive expenditure.^[3]

Types of Fire Support

Ground-Based Systems

Ground-based systems form the backbone of indirect fire support in military operations, providing responsive, high-volume fires to suppress, neutralize, or destroy enemy targets while supporting maneuver forces. These systems primarily encompass artillery and mortars, which deliver projectiles via high-angle trajectories to engage defilade positions beyond direct line-of-sight. Unlike air or naval assets, ground-based platforms emphasize integration with ground maneuver elements through established coordination measures, such as the fire support coordination line (FSCL), to synchronize effects across the battlefield.^[8] Artillery systems are categorized into towed, self-propelled, and multiple-launch rocket variants, each optimized for different operational needs in terms of mobility and firepower. Towed howitzers, such as the M777 155mm lightweight system, offer high portability for rapid deployment in expeditionary environments, weighing under 10,000 pounds and compatible with air transport via C-130 aircraft. Self-propelled howitzers, like the M109A6 Paladin 155mm, provide armored protection and on-the-move firing capability, typically organized in batteries of eight guns for heavy brigade combat teams. Multiple-launch rocket systems (MLRS), including the wheeled M142 HIMARS, enable saturation fires with precision-guided rockets, launching up to six munitions per pod from a truck-mounted platform for quick setup in forward areas.^[9]^[8] Mortars serve as organic, close-range fire support assets at the battalion and company levels, prioritizing responsiveness over long-range projection. Light 60mm mortars, such as the M224, are man-portable systems weighing 18 to 45 pounds, ideal for infantry units in airborne or air assault roles due to their simplicity and ability to be carried by a single soldier. Medium 81mm mortars, like the M252, balance portability and power at around 93 pounds, breaking down into loads for a three-man team and providing greater explosive yield for platoon-level suppression. Heavy 120mm mortars, including the M120, deliver the most potent effects at 320 pounds, often vehicle-mounted for battalion support and capable of outranging lighter variants to engage targets in defilade with high-angle plunging fire.^[10]^[8] Ammunition for ground-based systems varies to achieve diverse effects, from destructive to obscuring or illuminating. High-explosive (HE) rounds form the core payload for fragmentation and blast effects against personnel and light fortifications, compatible across howitzers and mortars. Smoke munitions generate screening or marking effects to obscure enemy observation or signal friendly positions, while illumination rounds deploy parachute flares for nighttime target acquisition over areas up to several kilometers. Precision-guided munitions, such as the Excalibur GPS-guided 155mm shell, enhance accuracy to a radial miss distance of less than 2 meters, enabling reduced collateral damage by replacing up to 10 conventional rounds per target.^[8]^[11] Mobility and deployment tactics prioritize survivability against enemy counterfire, particularly through counter-battery operations that neutralize hostile artillery via radar-directed strikes. Shoot-and-scoot maneuvers involve firing a salvo or mission, then rapidly relocating to a new position—often within minutes—to evade detection and retaliation, resetting the enemy's targeting cycle and maintaining operational tempo. This tactic is especially critical for self-propelled and MLRS platforms, which can displace under armor or via wheeled chassis to minimize exposure.^[12]^[8] Range and accuracy are determined by system design, propellant, and guidance, with fire direction centers (FDCs) serving as the computational hub for missions. Modern howitzers typically achieve effective ranges of 30-40 km, such as the M777 extending to 40 km with Excalibur munitions, allowing support for brigade-level operations. FDCs, located proximate to firing units, process observer data to compute ballistic solutions—including azimuth, elevation, and fuze settings—using automated systems for rapid, precise targeting that adjusts for environmental factors like wind and terrain.^[9]^[13]^[8]

Air-Delivered Support

Air-delivered support encompasses aerial operations that provide timely and precise firepower to ground forces, primarily through close air support (CAS) and related assets. CAS involves air action by fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft against hostile targets in close proximity to friendly forces, requiring detailed integration of each mission with the fire and movement of those forces.^[14] This form of support enables dynamic battlefield effects, such as suppressing enemy positions or destroying armored threats, while minimizing risk to allied troops. Fixed-wing aircraft, such as the A-10 Thunderbolt II, excel in low-altitude strikes with heavy ordnance loads, while rotary-wing platforms like the AH-64 Apache provide agile, helicopter-based attacks in complex terrain.^[14] These assets deliver precision-guided munitions (PGMs), including laser-guided bombs like the GBU-12 Paveway II for line-of-sight targeting and GPS-guided Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAMs) such as the GBU-31 for all-weather operations.^[14] Rotary-wing systems often employ air-to-ground missiles like the AGM-114 Hellfire, which offer standoff range and high accuracy against vehicles or personnel.^[14] Effective targeting and control rely on joint terminal attack controllers (JTACs), who operate from forward positions to coordinate strikes using standardized procedures, such as the 9-line briefing format that details target location, friendly positions, and restrictions.^[14] Control types range from Type 1 (visual acquisition by both controller and aircrew) to Type 3 (pre-briefed attacks without real-time visuals), ensuring deconfliction through measures like fire support coordination measures (FSCMs).^[14] Terminal guidance may involve laser designation or infrared pointers to direct PGMs precisely. Air-delivered support offers advantages including rapid response—often within minutes when aircraft are on station—and extended reach beyond ground-based systems, enhancing maneuverability in fluid engagements.^[14] All-weather PGMs and sensor pods enable operations in adverse conditions, while loiter capabilities allow sustained observation and multiple strikes.^[14] However, limitations include vulnerability to enemy air defenses, such as man-portable systems, and challenges in urban or low-visibility environments where target identification risks collateral damage or fratricide.^[14] Detailed coordination can introduce delays compared to simpler fire support options. Unmanned aerial systems (UAS), such as the MQ-9 Reaper, extend these capabilities with persistent fire support, combining intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) for up to 27 hours on station while armed with Hellfire missiles and GBU-12 bombs.^[15] These platforms enable loitering munitions delivery and remote piloting, reducing risk to personnel in contested areas and supporting prolonged operations.^[15]

Naval and Other Systems

Naval gunfire support (NGFS) provides direct fire from surface ships to suppress, neutralize, or destroy enemy targets in littoral environments, historically employing large-caliber guns such as the 16-inch batteries on Iowa-class battleships during World War II and the Korean War, which delivered high-volume, long-range bombardment to support amphibious assaults. In modern operations, NGFS relies on 5-inch/127mm guns mounted on destroyers and cruisers, such as the Mk 45 system, which offers precision-guided munitions for improved accuracy against time-sensitive targets within 13-20 nautical miles of the shore.^[16] These systems integrate with joint fire control measures to deliver responsive support, as demonstrated in Desert Storm where NGFS from cruisers and destroyers neutralized Iraqi coastal defenses ahead of Marine landings.^[17] Cruise missiles, particularly the Tomahawk Land Attack Missile (TLAM), extend naval fire support to standoff ranges exceeding 1,000 miles, enabling deep strikes against fixed infrastructure or command nodes without exposing ships to coastal threats.^[18] Launched from submarines or surface combatants, TLAM variants like the Block V provide both land-attack and anti-ship capabilities, with inertial navigation and GPS guidance ensuring sub-meter accuracy for precision fires in support of ground operations.^[19] This capability has been pivotal in operations such as the 1991 Gulf War, where over 300 Tomahawks crippled Iraqi air defenses, creating fires corridors for follow-on forces.^[19] Emerging non-kinetic systems augment traditional naval fires through electronic warfare (EW), cyber operations, and space-based assets. EW jamming disrupts enemy communications and radar, functioning as a form of joint fires to deny adversaries electromagnetic spectrum access and suppress air defenses without physical destruction, as outlined in U.S. joint doctrine where electronic attack integrates with kinetic effects for multi-domain dominance. Cyber fires involve offensive operations to degrade command-and-control networks, potentially halting enemy movements or logistics in real-time, with U.S. Cyber Command emphasizing their role in synchronizing effects across phases of conflict to shape the battlespace.^[20] Space-based assets, including GPS satellites and reconnaissance constellations, enable precise targeting for naval strikes by providing persistent surveillance and positioning data, as seen in joint space support doctrine that links orbital systems to accurate weapons delivery for expeditionary forces. In amphibious operations, naval fire support integrates with Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) elements through coordinated planning, where offshore platforms deliver pre-landing bombardments and sustained fires to protect assault waves, using liaison teams to deconflict with ground maneuvers. This synchronization, as in historical examples like Iwo Jima, relies on shared fire support coordination measures to allocate assets across surface, air, and subsurface domains.^[21] Despite these capabilities, naval fire support faces limitations including weather dependency, which can degrade visibility and accuracy for gunfire during storms or fog, restricting operations to clear conditions unlike all-weather alternatives.^[22] Range constraints limit effective NGFS to littoral zones, with modern 5-inch guns unable to match the deep-strike reach of missiles or aircraft, while coordination challenges arise from integrating multi-service fires, necessitating robust joint networks to avoid fratricide in dynamic environments.^[23] Additionally, the vulnerability of ships to anti-ship missiles near shorelines demands standoff employment, reducing responsiveness for close support.^[16]

Historical Development

Early Development (1300-1799)

The adoption of gunpowder in Europe during the early 14th century, originating from Chinese inventions of the 10th to 13th centuries, marked the beginning of fire support in warfare, initially through rudimentary cannons used to breach fortifications in sieges.^[24] By the 1320s, the first documented European cannons appeared, with illustrations in Walter de Milemete's 1326 treatise depicting vase-shaped weapons, and references to powder formulations for the French king.^[24] These early bombards, often constructed from wooden staves hooped with iron, were employed at the Battle of Crécy in 1346 during the Hundred Years' War, where English forces reportedly used small guns to support infantry against French assaults, though their impact was more psychological than decisive due to unreliable powder and slow reloading.^[24]^[25] Similarly, at the subsequent Siege of Calais (1346–1347), such weapons aided in weakening defenses, establishing gunpowder artillery as an emerging tool for indirect support to ground troops.^[24] Medieval cannons, including the pot-de-fer—a bulbous, vase-like single-barrel device introduced around the late 13th century—and ribauldequins, multi-barreled firearms mounted on carts from the 14th century, began providing limited infantry support by firing stone or iron projectiles to disrupt enemy formations or cover advances.^[25] These weapons were primarily deployed in sieges, such as the 1453 fall of Constantinople, where large bombards breached walls to facilitate infantry assaults, but their role in open battles remained marginal.^[26]^[25] Key limitations included poor mobility, as heavy iron or early bronze pieces required teams of oxen or sledges for transport, rendering them unsuitable for rapid battlefield repositioning, and low accuracy due to inconsistent gunpowder quality and rough barrel interiors that caused erratic trajectories.^[25] Production costs for both cannons and saltpeter-based powder further restricted their widespread use, confining them mostly to royal or wealthy commanders.^[25] Advancements during the Renaissance, particularly in bronze casting techniques borrowed from bell-founders, enabled the production of lighter, more reliable field artillery by the late 15th century, shifting some applications toward battlefield support.^[26] In the Italian Wars (1494–1559), French forces under Charles VIII introduced mobile bronze cannons, including falconets—small, lightweight pieces firing 1- to 2-pound shots—that could be horse-drawn and repositioned quickly to support infantry maneuvers, as seen in the rapid conquest of Italian cities in 1494.^[27]^[26] These innovations, with smoother bores and trunnions for easier elevation, improved range to about 1,000 yards and allowed for quicker firing rates compared to medieval bombards, though accuracy still depended on manual aiming.^[28] In the late 18th century, the Gribeauval system, developed by Jean-Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval in France during the 1760s, represented a pinnacle of pre-industrial mobility reforms, standardizing lighter 4-, 8-, and 12-pounder guns along with 6-inch howitzers that reduced weight by up to 40% through shorter 18-caliber barrels and interchangeable parts.^[29] Following tests in Strasbourg starting in 1764 and official adoption in 1765, the system emphasized field, siege, and garrison categories, with mobile batteries using 4- to 6-horse teams for rapid deployment.^[29] This was demonstrated at the Siege of Yorktown in 1781, where French forces under Rochambeau employed Gribeauval-pattern 4-pounders and heavier pieces in coordinated batteries to bombard British positions, supporting American infantry advances and contributing to Cornwallis's surrender.^[29] Tactically, artillery evolved from static siege roles, where bombards were fixed to batter walls, to integrated battlefield support by the 16th century, facilitated by the French invention of the limber around 1550—a two-wheeled attachment that allowed horse-drawn cannons to be maneuvered like caissons for quicker unlimbering and firing.^[28] Influenced by earlier Hussite wagon forts and the Hundred Years' War's rudimentary field use, this shift enabled pieces like falconets to provide covering fire for infantry squares against cavalry, as in the 1525 Battle of Pavia, though full massed batteries emerged later under Gustavus Adolphus in the 1620s.^[28]^[26] By the 1760s, Gribeauval's reforms further promoted horse artillery for dynamic support, using canister shot at 300–400 yards to break enemy lines, laying groundwork for fire support as an extension of infantry firepower.^[29]^[26]

19th Century to World War I (1800-1918)

During the Napoleonic Wars, artillery transitioned from dispersed support to concentrated "grand battery" tactics, where massed guns were grouped for overwhelming firepower against key enemy positions. This approach, pioneered by Napoleon Bonaparte, emphasized mobility and coordination with infantry and cavalry, transforming artillery into a decisive battlefield element rather than mere auxiliary support. At the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805, French forces employed grand batteries featuring 12-pounder guns to shatter Austrian and Russian lines, achieving a pivotal victory through precise, en masse bombardment.^[30] In the American Civil War (1861-1865), artillery innovations marked a shift toward greater accuracy and range, driven by rifled barrels that superseded smoothbores. The Parrott rifle, a muzzle-loading rifled cannon developed by Captain Robert Parrott, exemplified this progress, with its 3-inch model offering an effective range of up to 3 miles (6,000 yards) through spin-stabilized projectiles. These advancements enabled longer-distance engagements, such as at Gettysburg, where rifled artillery outranged and outgunned opposing forces, influencing tactical doctrines for combined arms operations. Late 19th-century developments further industrialized artillery, with breech-loading mechanisms revolutionizing loading speed and safety compared to muzzle-loaders. German industrialist Alfred Krupp introduced steel breech-loading field guns in the 1870s, such as the C/73 model, which used horizontal sliding blocks for rapid reloading and employed shrapnel shells—hollow projectiles filled with bullets and timed fuses, invented by British Lieutenant Henry Shrapnel in 1784 but widely adopted for anti-personnel effects. By the 1890s, quick-firing mechanisms, incorporating hydraulic recoil systems, allowed sustained rates of fire up to 15-20 rounds per minute, as seen in the French 75 mm Mle 1897 gun, enhancing artillery's role in linear infantry tactics.^[31]^[32]^[26] World War I's trench warfare stalemate accelerated artillery's evolution into a primary offensive tool, with doctrines emphasizing massive preparatory bombardments to breach fortified lines. The Battle of the Somme in 1916 introduced creeping barrages, where artillery fire advanced incrementally ahead of advancing infantry to suppress defenders, though often with tragic coordination failures leading to friendly casualties. Chemical agents added a new dimension, as gas shells—first deployed by Germany at Ypres in 1915—delivered chlorine, phosgene, and mustard gas for area denial and psychological impact, by 1918 accounting for approximately one-fifth of all shells fired by Allied forces.^[33]^[34] Counter-battery fire targeted enemy guns, aided by precursors to modern detection like sound ranging, which used microphones to triangulate artillery positions based on acoustic signatures, neutralizing up to 40% of German batteries in key sectors.^[35]^[36] Doctrinal shifts from direct to indirect fire, initiated in the late 19th century amid increasing weapon ranges, became entrenched in World War I, requiring observation beyond line-of-sight. Forward observers, often embedded with infantry units, directed fire via telephone or signal lamps, adjusting barrages in real-time to compensate for map inaccuracies and terrain, a practice formalized after lessons from the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) and refined through British and French manuals by 1917. This integration elevated fire support from static enfilade to dynamic maneuver enabler, though communication limitations often resulted in over 70% of shells falling short or long in early offensives.^[37]^[38]^[39]

World War II (1939-1945)

World War II marked a pivotal era in fire support, integrating it deeply into mechanized warfare through combined arms operations across multiple domains, evolving from World War I's static barrages to mobile, synchronized fires that emphasized speed and disruption. This shift enabled rapid advances and large-scale encirclements, with fire support assets like artillery, aircraft, and naval guns providing decisive suppression and destruction to support ground maneuvers on a global scale. The conflict's vast theaters—from Europe's rolling plains to the Pacific's islands—tested these systems, highlighting both innovations in coordination and persistent logistical hurdles. German Blitzkrieg tactics exemplified early mechanized fire support integration during the 1939 invasion of Poland, where combined arms emphasized rapid penetration and encirclement using armored divisions, motorized infantry, and air assets to achieve daily advances of 10-15 kilometers. Artillery, including 105mm howitzers from divisional regiments like the 78th, delivered intense, short bombardments to paralyze Polish communications and fortifications, synchronized with infantry for surprise effects. Complementing these were Stuka (Ju-87) dive-bombers, which acted as "air mobile artillery," providing precision close air support by targeting artillery positions, tank assemblies, and road columns up to 1 kilometer ahead of advancing troops, creating panic and neutralizing defenses to maintain offensive momentum.^[40]^[41] Allied forces developed responsive fire support systems to counter Axis mobility, with the United States adopting the 105mm M2A1 howitzer as the backbone of divisional artillery by 1940, replacing lighter 75mm guns to match German firepower in triangular divisions featuring three battalions of 36 guns each for direct infantry support. In the Soviet Union, Katyusha multiple rocket launchers enabled massed fires during the Battle of Stalingrad (1942-1943), with truck-mounted BM-13 systems firing 16 130mm rockets in volleys from the Volga's east bank, delivering area saturation against German positions and serving as a psychological weapon through their screeching trajectory to bolster the Sixty-Second Army's urban defense.^[42]^[43] Naval gunfire provided overwhelming support in the Pacific, as seen at Iwo Jima in February 1945, where battleships like the USS Nevada, Tennessee, and Idaho delivered the war's heaviest pre-assault barrages, closing to 2,500-3,000 yards to destroy blockhouses and caves with 14-inch shells, enabling Marine landings despite intact Japanese fortifications. Air support evolved with close air support (CAS) missions during the Normandy invasion (D-Day, June 6, 1944), where IX Tactical Air Command's P-47 Thunderbolts flew armored column cover from forward strips, using 500-pound bombs and .50-caliber machine guns to destroy over 1,000 German vehicles and 45 tanks within 300-500 yards of friendly forces. Challenges included extended supply lines strained by Allied bombing of French rails, forcing reliance on truck convoys like the Red Ball Express, and adverse weather that curtailed bombardments, such as at Iwo Jima where only 13 hours of effective fire occurred over three days due to storms.^[44]^[45]^[46]^[47]

Post-World War II Conflicts (1946-1990)

In the Korean War (1950-1953), United Nations forces, led by the United States, achieved artillery dominance through superior firepower, including the deployment of 8-inch howitzers by units such as the U.S. Army's 17th Field Artillery Battalion, which provided long-range support against North Korean and Chinese positions.^[48] This superiority countered Chinese human-wave assaults, where massed infantry charges aimed to overwhelm UN lines despite heavy casualties from concentrated artillery barrages and air support.^[49] The conflict highlighted fire support's role in limited wars under the shadow of potential nuclear escalation, as UN artillery fire rates and mobility often exceeded those of Communist forces by factors of 10 to 1 in key battles.^[50] The Vietnam War (1955-1975) shifted emphasis toward air-delivered fire support in counterinsurgency operations, with Operation Arc Light involving B-52 Stratofortress strikes that delivered massive carpet bombing to interdict North Vietnamese supply lines and support ground troops, flying over 5,000 sorties in 1966 alone.^[51] Operation Rolling Thunder, a sustained air campaign from 1965 to 1968, targeted North Vietnamese infrastructure with tactical aircraft, though it faced restrictions to avoid broader escalation amid Cold War tensions.^[52] Indirect support included Operation Ranch Hand's defoliation efforts, which sprayed over 18 million gallons of herbicides like Agent Orange from 1962 to 1971 to clear vegetation around fire support bases and deny enemy cover, enhancing artillery and troop visibility in jungle terrain.^[53] These methods reflected doctrinal adaptations to asymmetric warfare, prioritizing air mobility over traditional ground artillery due to the protracted nature of the conflict. During the Yom Kippur War of 1973, Egyptian and Syrian forces employed artillery in ambushes and preparatory barrages to support initial advances, with Egyptian guns providing covering fire for infantry crossings of the Suez Canal and Syrian batteries outnumbering Israeli ones 115 to 11 on the Golan Heights.^[54] Israel responded with effective counter-battery fire, delaying initial Arab barrages—such as a 53-minute Egyptian preparation that faced no immediate Israeli response until 40 minutes in—and integrating unmanned aerial vehicles for reconnaissance to spot and neutralize enemy artillery positions.^[55] This use of early drones, including in operations against Syrian surface-to-air missile batteries, marked a technological evolution in fire support coordination under the nuclear deterrence of superpower patrons.^[56] In the Falklands War of 1982, British naval gunfire support revived as a key element in amphibious operations, with ships like HMS Glamorgan providing bombardment for ground advances, such as the Mount Kent operation, using 4.5-inch guns to suppress Argentine positions from offshore.^[57] Argentine forces countered with air-launched Exocet missiles, sinking HMS Sheffield on May 4 after it served as a radar picket and damaging HMS Glamorgan post-bombardment on June 12, demonstrating the vulnerability of naval fire support platforms in contested waters.^[58] The campaign underscored the integration of sea-based artillery in expeditionary warfare, limited by distance and logistics in a post-colonial proxy conflict. Doctrinal developments in the 1980s, particularly the U.S. Army's AirLand Battle doctrine adopted in 1982, emphasized integrating deep strikes with conventional fire support to disrupt enemy follow-on forces, synchronizing artillery, aviation, and long-range missiles for operational depth against Warsaw Pact threats.^[59] This framework extended World War II combined arms principles to Cold War scenarios, focusing on initiative through rear-area interdiction while avoiding nuclear thresholds.^[60]

Contemporary Conflicts (1991-Present)

In the Gulf War of 1991, coalition forces revolutionized fire support through the integration of GPS-guided artillery and stealth bombers, enabling precise targeting that overwhelmed Iraqi defenses during Operation Desert Storm. This approach facilitated the campaign's notably brief 100-hour ground phase, where synchronized aerial and ground fires disrupted enemy logistics and command centers with minimal allied losses.^[61]^[62] The wars in Afghanistan and Iraq from 2001 to 2021 marked a shift toward persistent, remotely delivered fire support, exemplified by MQ-1 Predator drones launching Hellfire missiles for targeted strikes against insurgent leaders and high-value targets. In urban combat, such as the Second Battle of Fallujah in 2004, close air support from A-10 Thunderbolt II aircraft and AC-130 gunships provided suppressive fires that supported Marine advances through booby-trapped buildings and intense close-quarters fighting. Counter-IED operations increasingly relied on precision fires, including drone-launched munitions and artillery, to preemptively neutralize roadside threats and protect convoys.^[63]^[64]^[65] In the Syrian Civil War since 2011, Russian Su-25 Frogfoot aircraft delivered close air support, flying over 1,600 sorties to strike rebel positions and reinforce Syrian regime forces in contested urban areas like Aleppo. The ongoing Ukraine War from 2022 to 2025 has highlighted Western precision fire support, with U.S.-supplied HIMARS rocket systems conducting strikes that destroyed Russian ammunition depots and bridges, significantly slowing advances. By late 2024, the provision of ATACMS missiles extended Ukrainian deep-strike capabilities to over 300 kilometers, targeting airfields and command nodes inside Russia.^[66]^[67]^[68] Technological shifts in fire support emphasize information-age integration, with AI-driven targeting systems accelerating the decide-detect-deliver process to enable real-time adjustments in contested environments. Hypersonic missiles, traveling at speeds above Mach 5, provide rapid, non-interceptable strike options against time-sensitive targets, enhancing suppression of enemy air defenses. Loitering munitions, such as the AeroVironment Switchblade series, offer extended reconnaissance and on-demand precision engagement, bridging the gap between surveillance and direct fire in fluid operations.^[69]^[70]^[71] Challenges in contemporary conflicts include navigating urban environments, where high civilian densities demand heightened discrimination in fires to avoid unintended harm. Rules of engagement in hybrid warfare impose strict limitations, requiring positive identification of threats amid blurred lines between combatants and noncombatants, which can delay or restrict fire support delivery. Cyber integration supports fire denial by disrupting adversary targeting networks and command links, but demands synchronized kinetic and non-kinetic effects to counter electronic warfare countermeasures effectively.^[72]^[73]^[74]

References

[1]
https://rdl.train.army.mil/catalog-ws/view/100.ATSC/9B9879F3-F213-4CD7-9D20-8D4520E8D38E-1397219978180/fm3_09.pdf
[2]
https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doctrine/pubs/jp3_09.pdf
[3]
[PDF] NATO STANDARD AArtyP-5 NATO FIRE SUPPORT DOCTRINE
Nov 1, 2015 · Firepower is a critical enabler of land combat on the battlefield, primarily through its relationship with, and contribution to, manoeuvre. The ...
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[PDF] Fire Support and Field Artillery Operations
Aug 12, 2024
[5]
[PDF] FM 3-09 - GlobalSecurity.org
Apr 4, 2014 · (ADRP 3-09). *fire support plan. A plan that that addresses each means of fire support available and describes how Army indirect fires, joint.
[6]
[PDF] The Evolution of US Army Tactical Doctrine, 1946-76
Army published its first training circular on fire support coordination. Formulation of the doctrines on fire sup- port coordination and air-ground ...
[7]
[PDF] JP 3-09 Joint Fire Support - NPS Publications
Nov 13, 2006 · The fire support system includes the target acquisition, command and control, and attack/delivery systems that must function collectively to ...
[8]
[PDF] Fire Support - GlobalSecurity.org
Nov 3, 2011 · Fire support is provided by mortars, cannon field artillery, rockets, missiles, naval surface fire support (NSFS), non-Army attack helicopters, ...
[9]
[PDF] Weapon Systems Handbook 2020-2021 - Army.mil
Thank you for your interest in our biennial publication, which is designed to acquaint you with many of the U.S. Army's current and future weapon systems ...
[10]
Mortars
Sep 12, 1998 · Medium mortars offer a compromise between the light and heavy mortars. Their range and explosive power is greater than the M224, yet they ...<|separator|>
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Excalibur Projectile | Raytheon - RTX
The Excalibur artillery projectile is the revolutionary, extended-range, precision munition for US and international artillery forces.Missing: explosive smoke
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[PDF] An Analysis of Artillery Shoot-and-Scoot Tactics - Faculty
Jul 8, 2018 · Therefore, the shooter may periodically move locations to avoid counter-battery fire. This maneuver is known as the shoot-and-scoot tactic.
[13]
[PDF] ARES Indirect Fire - IIHL
typical range of modern artillery can be 30 – 40 km, depending on system type. ... The fire direction centre (FDC) is the nerve centre of an artillery unit. An ...
[14]
https://www.bits.de/NRANEU/others/jp-doctrine/jp3_09_3(09c).pdf
[15]
MQ-9 Reaper > Air Force > Fact Sheet Display - AF.mil
The MQ-9's capabilities make it uniquely qualified to conduct irregular warfare operations in support of combatant commander objectives. Features The Reaper is ...
[16]
[PDF] Naval Surface Fire Support: An Assessment of Requirements - RAND
Dec 17, 2019 · A related issue is that with a single gun, even for targets within range, there are limitations on the number of targets that the gun can ...
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Lessons Learned - Naval History and Heritage Command - Navy.mil
Mar 2, 2015 · The importance of realtime and near-real-time tactical reconnaissance in support of strike planning, naval gunfire support (NGFS), and battle ...
[18]
Tomahawk | NAVAIR
Tomahawk provides on-scene commander with the flexibility to attack long-range fixed targets or support Special Operations Forces with a lethal, responsive, ...
[19]
Tomahawk | Missile Threat - CSIS
The Block I versions included the Tomahawk Land Attack Missile-Nuclear (TLAM ... service's ground-launched strike modernization effort. Following the ...
[20]
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Since its inaugural combat use in Desert Storm, the Tomahawk Land Attack. Missile (TLAM) has become the weapon of choice in strike warfare for U.S military.
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Understanding Cyber Effects in Modern Warfare - War on the Rocks
Jan 21, 2025 · Offensive cyber operations also may play important roles when forces are shooting at one another. This generally takes place in Phase 3 — ...
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[PDF] Naval Gunfire Support of Amphibious Operations - DTIC
Specifically, this paper addresses the role of naval guns in World War II, Korea, and Vietnam in amphibious assault and in support of ground troops in littoral ...
[23]
Naval Gunfire Today and Tomorrow - September 1966 Vol. 92/9/763
The close coordination of air and naval fire support is essential and when ... Mobile, all- weather support will continue to be a ground force and landing force ...
[24]
[PDF] Challenges Remain in Developing Capabilities for Naval Surface ...
Nov 30, 2006 · Since land-based artillery is restricted by the need for a large presence ashore, and air-based fire support can be restricted by weather ...
[25]
The Management of Gunshot Wounds From the 14th Century ... - NIH
Jul 17, 2023 · With the introduction of gunpowder-based firearms in the early-to-mid-14th century, European surgeons were primed for originative action.
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May 28, 2018 · Limitations in the widespread use of canNons were the sheer cost of producing them & acquiring a sufficient supply of gunpowder. Such early ...Missing: ribauldequins pot- fer
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[PDF] King of Battle: A Branch History of the U.S. Army's Field Artillery
Dastrup, Field Artillery Branch Historian, King of Battle: A. Branch History of the U.S. Army's Field Artillery, is the first volume in the TRADOC Branch.
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The Italian Wars | COVE
The French cannons were far superior to the cannons of the Italians, which were outdated and primitive. The light, cast bronze cannons could be shot quickly and ...Missing: falconets | Show results with:falconets
[29]
NPS Interpretive Series: Artillery Through the Ages
Sep 11, 2003 · After 1470 the art of casting greatly improved in Europe. Lighter cannon began to replace the bombards. Throughout the 1500's improvement was ...Missing: advancements 1494-1559
[30]
[PDF] SOJ 5(10) Gribeauval Cannon 1765-1789 - The Napoleon Series
May 1763, Gribeauval writes a report upon his return to France in response to the Duc de Choiseul, Secretary of State for War's request for suggestions for the ...
[31]
[PDF] The Maturation of Napoleon's Artillery Arm - DTIC
Apr 5, 2020 · Under Napoleon's leadership, the artillery arm matured from an ancillary support branch into a decisive force to be employed on the battlefield.
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[PDF] The Evolution of the American Modern Light Field Gun - DTIC
Next, the breech is closed and a percussion primer is inserted into the firing mechanism in the breech, which completes the loading of the weapon. This type ...
[33]
Cannon - Castillo de San Marcos National Monument (U.S. National ...
Apr 14, 2015 · Invented in1784 by Lt. Henry Shrapnel, of British Royal Artillery modern shells of this type still bear his name. Shell: A 19th century ...
[34]
[PDF] Lethal and Non-Lethal Fires: Historical Case Studies of Converging ...
A few of the German guns attempted to conduct counter-battery fire against ... fire a creeping barrage as the infantry left their trenches. Though the ...
[35]
[PDF] Chemical Warfare in World War 1 - DTIC
In World War I terms, chemical warfare included not only gas, but liquid flammable material, thermite, and smoke (all of which are relevant to the modern ...
[36]
[PDF] 'PASS' GR-8 Sound Ranging Data. - DTIC
Since World War I, artillery sound ranging has yielded more confirmed target ... Fire Department, US Army Field Artillery School (USAFAS) at Fort Sill ,.
[37]
[PDF] Direct Fire to Indirect Fire: Changing Artillery for the Future - DTIC
May 15, 2000 · Toward the end of the nineteenth century, advances in metallurgy, casting and ammunition increased the range of military weapons. The rifle ...
[38]
[PDF] Part One Indirect Fire and the Need for a Forward Observer
Forward observer teams served in the thick of battle but, as artillerymen, they were ineligible to receive the award. Thus, the Army never recognized forward ...Missing: WWI | Show results with:WWI
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[PDF] U.S. Field Artillery after World War I: Modernizing the Force ... - DTIC
Jun 13, 2014 · The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 convinced most artillerymen that indirect fire should be the primary method of employment. Although Japanese ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[40]
[PDF] The Development of German Doctrine and Command And ... - DTIC
In this role, the Stukas were viewed more as air mobile artillery. The 7th Panzer Division received strong air support from the Stuka dive bombers directed ...
[41]
[PDF] Toward Combined Arms Warfare:- - Army University Press
a limited number of close support dive-bombers patterned after the U.S. Navy ' s Curtlss Helldiver. The resulting. JU-87 Stuka dive-bombers equipped four of ...
[42]
M2A1 105mm Howitzer - GlobalSecurity.org
The War Department made a concerted effort to replace the obsolete 75-mm. gun with the 105-mm. howitzer, the weapon that was to become the backbone of the ...<|separator|>
[43]
Stalingrad: Apocalypse on the Volga - Warfare History Network
... Katyusha rockets. Dubbed “Stalin's organs,” the truck-launched, 130mm rockets fired 16 at a time. Nearly five feet in length, the missiles were deadly ...
[44]
[PDF] H-Gram 042: The Battle for Iwo Jima, February– March 1945
Feb 20, 2020 · Nevertheless, 30,000 Marines went ashore on just the first day, with accurate naval gunfire and air support keeping casualties from being even ...
[45]
[PDF] D-Day 1944. Air Power Over the Normandy Beaches and Beyond
The Thunderbolt was particularly successful flying armored column cover missions. P.47's of Brig. Gen. Elwood Quesada's IX Tactical Air Command supported ...
[46]
Red Ball Express - Transportation Corps
The Army expected the convoys to "Keep 'em Rolling," whatever the weather conditions or circumstances. Consequently, the demands of the operation eventually ...
[47]
Battle of Iwo Jima - Naval History and Heritage Command
Jun 26, 2024 · Adverse weather curtailed bombardment operations on 16 February, the first day. Ultimately, only 13 hours of effective bombardment were carried ...Missing: challenges | Show results with:challenges
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The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II
Aug 4, 2020 · The bombings were the first time that nuclear weapons had been detonated in combat operations. They caused terrible human losses and destruction.
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RIGHT OF THE LINE
The 8-inch howitzers of the 17th Field Artillery ... "In addition to bravery, the factors that gave us our artillery superiority were sound doctrine,
[50]
Korean War horrors linger, 50 years later - The Globe and Mail
Jul 21, 2003 · The human-wave attacks were one of the biggest reasons for the stunning Chinese battle successes in late 1950 and early 1951, when they pushed ...
[51]
When It Comes to Artillery, U.S. Is Outgunned by Enemy's Weaponry
Jan 29, 1991 · Indeed, the Korean War was the last time the United States had clear artillery dominance. ... inch (203-millimeter) howitzers in general support.
[52]
1965 - Operation Arc Light - Air Force Historical Support Division
In 1966, over 5,000 B-52 sorties were flown to support operations against the enemy. Although the B-52s were used primarily against targets in South Vietnam ...Missing: Rolling Thunder defoliation fire
[53]
Vietnam and Rolling Thunder: 1965–1966 (Chapter 3)
Jan 4, 2024 · Chapter 3 examines the first two years of major US combat operations from 1965 through 1966. Over North Vietnam, the Rolling Thunder air campaign failed.
[54]
1962 - Operation Ranch Hand - Air Force Historical Support Division
The Air Force used C-47s and C-123s equipped to spray herbicides for the defoliation missions. By the time Ranch Hand ended nine years later, some 18 million ...
[55]
The War for the Golan Heights - Tablet Magazine
May 7, 2019 · Opposite 11 Israeli artillery batteries were 115 Syrian batteries. On the Egyptian front the odds were similar. The Syrians calculated that ...Missing: tactics | Show results with:tactics
[56]
ASSESSMENT OF THE WEAPONS AND TACTICS USED IN ... - CIA
(U) During the October 1973 War, the Israeli, Egyptian, and ... During the preparatory fire phase, there was no Israeli counter-battery fire until H+40....
[57]
[PDF] An Historical Analysis of Israeli Drone Use, 1971-2014
Nov 24, 2012 · ... 1973 Yom-Kippur war, the IAF launched. Operation Doogman-5, with the goal of destroying the Syrian missile batteries so that the IAF could ...
[58]
HMS Glamorgan Reflections on a Falklands War Frontline ...
Glamorgan picked up activity in the evening much as before, undertaking Naval Gunfire in support of the Mount Kent operation ashore. When it came to leave at ...Hms Glamorgan -- Into War... · At War · Exocet Missile Hit<|control11|><|separator|>
[59]
Revealed: catalogue of failings that sank Falklands warship HMS ...
Oct 15, 2017 · Twenty people died and 26 were injured when HMS Sheffield was hit by an Argentinian Exocet missile during the early days of the 1982 conflict.
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[PDF] Airland Battle Doctrine - DTIC
In 1982, the United States Army promulgated a new warfighting doctrine. Dubbed AirLand Battle because of its purported emphasis on.
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[PDF] Synchronizing Airpower and Firepower in the Deep Battle - DoD
In 1982 the US Army (USA) introduced AirLand Battle doctrine. AirLand Battle was developed specifically to counter the Soviet armor threat facing western Europe ...
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GPS and the World's First "Space War" | Scientific American
Feb 8, 2016 · Satellite-based navigation proved its mettle during the 1991 Persian Gulf War, leading to what some say is an overdependence on “jammable” GPS technology.
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The Story of America's Very First Drone Strike - The Atlantic
May 30, 2015 · By mid-November 2001, the CIA's drones had reportedly fired 40 Hellfire missiles throughout Afghanistan, although this should be measured ...
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Urban Warfare Case Study #7: Second Battle of Fallujah
Jul 25, 2023 · Units lacking armor had to rely on artillery fires or close air support, which took much longer—especially if another unit had priority of fires ...
[66]
Rethinking IED Strategies: from Iraq to Afghanistan | Article - Army.mil
Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) have been emblematic of the insurgency in Iraq. Why have so many disparate insurgent groups with varying resource levels ...
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https://www.csis.org/analysis/russias-battlefield-woes-ukraine
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Russia's Battlefield Woes in Ukraine - CSIS
Jun 3, 2025 · Russian military forces have failed to effectively advance along multiple axes in Ukraine, seized limited territory, lost substantial quantities of equipment.
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Ukraine Gets Long Range ATACMs - by Mick Ryan - Futura Doctrina
Apr 24, 2024 · The new ATACMs are an important new capability for the Ukrainians. It enhances their capacity for operational strike and complicates ground and air defence ...<|separator|>
[70]
Targeting at Machine Speed: The Capabilities—and Limits—of ...
Jul 17, 2025 · The United States Army's ability to deliver precision fires and effects is fundamentally tied to its doctrinal targeting methodology: decide, detect, deliver, ...
[71]
The imperative for hypersonic strike weapons and ... - Atlantic Council
Oct 9, 2025 · The Army and Navy have worked to develop a common hypersonic missile that can deliver a hypersonic glide body with a conventional warhead that ...
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Switchblade® 300 Loitering Munition Systems | Kamikaze Drone | AV
AV's Switchblade 300 Block 20 loitering munition system is an advanced direct fire loitering missile system that acts as a suicide drone with high precision ...
[73]
[PDF] A PRIMER ON CIVILIAN HARM MITIGATION IN URBAN ...
Jun 2, 2022 · Understanding the urban environment, including the terrain, population, supporting infrastructure, and technology, is essential for military ...
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[PDF] Rules of Engagement in Hybrid Warfare Integrated into Operational ...
Thesis. Hybrid warfare is transforming the complexities surrounding rules of engagement (ROE). The integral foundation for developing ROE in a hybrid warfare ...
[75]
Differentiating Kinetic and Cyber Weapons to Improve Integrated ...
Nov 19, 2020 · The ability to win and prevent modern wars brings an urgent need to understand the unique risks and opportunities of integrated kinetic and ...