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Direct fire

Direct fire is a fundamental military engagement method in which weapons systems deliver projectiles toward a visible target by maintaining a direct line of sight, using the target itself as the aiming point for the weapon or its fire director. According to the U.S. Department of Defense, direct fire is defined as "Fire delivered on a target using the target itself as a point of aim for either the weapon or the director."^[1] This technique is commonly employed with small arms such as rifles (e.g., M16/M4), machine guns (e.g., M249, M240B), pistols (e.g., M9), and heavier systems like tank main guns or anti-tank guided missiles, enabling rapid response in line-of-sight scenarios.^[2] In contrast to indirect fire, which involves arcing projectiles over obstacles or terrain without a direct view of the target—relying instead on forward observers, calculations, and ballistic adjustments—direct fire prioritizes immediacy and simplicity, allowing firers to observe impacts and correct aim in real time. Indirect fire, often used by artillery or mortars (e.g., 60mm mortars, 105mm/155mm howitzers), extends range and concealment but requires more complex coordination.^[2] Direct fire's effectiveness stems from its low setup time and high precision in open or close-range engagements, though it exposes crews to counterfire, limiting its use against distant or obscured threats.^[3] Historically, direct fire dominated artillery tactics from ancient times through the 19th century, with gunners sighting directly down the barrel to engage targets within visual range, as seen in early cannons and field guns.^[3] The shift toward indirect fire began during the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), where Japanese forces demonstrated the advantages of concealed firing with observer-directed barrages, prompting Western militaries to adapt.^[3] By 1907, the U.S. Army formalized indirect fire procedures in its Field Artillery Drill Regulations, incorporating telescopic sights and mathematical computations, though direct fire remained integral for infantry support and anti-personnel roles.^[3] This evolution reflected broader changes in warfare, balancing direct fire's responsiveness in mobile operations with indirect fire's ability to deliver massed effects over longer distances.

Fundamentals

Definition

Direct fire is the delivery of weapon effects against a target that is visible to the firer, where the projectile follows a straight or near-straight trajectory along the line of sight (LOS) from the weapon to the target. This method requires an unobstructed LOS for aiming and impact, distinguishing it from other fire types such as indirect fire, which employs arcing trajectories to engage targets beyond direct visibility, or guided munitions that rely on self-homing rather than manual aiming.^[4] In military doctrine, direct fire necessitates the use of integrated sighting systems on the weapon platform to acquire and engage the target precisely. Basic components include the ranged weapon (e.g., small arms, tank guns, or anti-tank guided missiles), sighting devices such as iron sights for basic alignment or advanced optics like telescopic or thermal sights for enhanced accuracy, and the fundamental LOS requirement to ensure the firer maintains visibility throughout the engagement.^[5]^[6]^[7] The terminology "direct fire" originates from established military practices emphasizing visible targeting, with its formal definition standardized in NATO doctrine through the Allied Administrative Publication 6 (AAP-6) glossary since March 1, 1973, where it is described as "fire directed at a target which is visible to the aimer."^[8] This concept was predominant in pre-modern warfare, where most combat occurred within direct visual ranges.^[4]

Key Principles

Direct fire fundamentally requires an unobstructed line of sight (LOS) between the firer and the target to enable accurate acquisition and engagement.^[7] This visibility is essential for the shooter to visually align the weapon and adjust for target movement in real time.^[9] Factors such as terrain features, including high points or landforms, can block LOS by creating elevation differentials that obscure the target.^[7] Obstacles like vegetation, walls, fences, or berms further impede visibility by physically interrupting the sight line.^[7] Weather conditions, including dense fog, heavy rain, smoke, or blowing sand, degrade LOS by reducing atmospheric clarity and limiting visual range.^[5] The ballistics of direct fire involve projectiles following a near-straight-line trajectory over short distances, with the point of impact closely aligning with the point of aim when properly adjusted.^[10] Gravity causes a downward drop in the projectile's path, which becomes more pronounced with increasing range and time of flight, though this effect is minimal at shorter distances due to high initial muzzle velocity.^[10] Muzzle velocity determines the projectile's speed at launch, influencing how quickly it reaches the target and mitigating gravity's impact over the engagement distance.^[11] Wind, particularly crosswinds, exerts lateral force on the projectile, causing deviation from the intended path that must be compensated for during aiming.^[12] Unlike indirect fire, which relies on computational adjustments for arcing trajectories, direct fire prioritizes visual observation to account for these ballistic variables.^[13] Sighting mechanisms in direct fire facilitate precise point-of-aim alignment by providing reference points that the firer uses to direct the weapon toward the target. Open sights, consisting of a front sight post and rear aperture, allow basic alignment where the target is superimposed on the front post for zeroed ranges. Telescopic optics magnify the target and incorporate reticles for finer adjustments, enabling alignment of the crosshair with the point of impact at extended distances. Laser rangefinders integrate with these systems by emitting a beam to measure distance accurately, allowing the firer to adjust elevation or reticle for precise ballistic compensation without manual estimation.^[14] These mechanisms ensure the weapon's bore axis intersects the LOS at the desired range through boresighting and zeroing procedures.^[14] Range limitations in direct fire arise from the need to maintain LOS and ballistic accuracy, typically rendering most systems effective up to 2-3 kilometers depending on weapon caliber and firing elevation. Larger calibers, such as those in tank main guns, extend this to approximately 3-4 kilometers due to higher muzzle velocities and flatter trajectories, while smaller arms are constrained to under 2 kilometers by greater susceptibility to environmental drift.^[4] Elevation adjustments can slightly increase effective range by reducing gravity drop, but beyond these limits, visibility and precision degrade significantly.^[10]

Historical Development

Pre-Modern Origins

Direct fire, the practice of aiming and launching projectiles at visible targets, emerged as a cornerstone of pre-modern warfare, allowing combatants to engage enemies within line of sight while minimizing personal risk compared to close-quarters melee. In ancient civilizations, weapons such as slings, bows, javelins, and early catapults exemplified this approach, where targeting relied on direct visibility to strike foes effectively. Greek forces, for instance, employed slings and javelins to harass and repel attackers during sieges. Similarly, Roman legions integrated bows, slings, and javelins into their tactics for repelling enemies from battlements, emphasizing the precision afforded by sighting the target. In ancient China, the crossbow represented an advanced form of direct fire, enabling soldiers to aim and release bolts at discernible opponents with mechanical precision, a technology that dated back to the Warring States period (475–221 BCE) and was mass-produced for imperial armies. Early catapults, such as the Greek and Roman ballista, functioned as direct-fire engines, propelling arrows, spears, or bolts toward visible personnel or structures in sieges and field engagements, with operators adjusting aim based on immediate observation. These weapons extended the lethal reach of infantry beyond hand-to-hand combat, transforming battles by allowing archers and artillery crews to target specific threats while maintaining visual confirmation of impact.^[15] The transition from predominantly melee-based fighting to ranged direct fire marked a doctrinal shift in pre-modern warfare, as these weapons provided a safer means to engage while preserving the need for line-of-sight aiming to ensure accuracy. This evolution was evident in the integration of javelins and bows alongside spears in Greek phalanxes and Roman legions, where ranged volleys softened enemy formations before closing for hand-to-hand combat. By the medieval period, developments like the European longbow and crossbow further amplified this trend; longbowmen unleashed direct-fire barrages at visible armored knights, decimating advances through superior range and rate of fire. Crossbows, prized for their penetrating power against armored targets, were similarly aimed point-blank in open-field clashes and sieges, allowing infantry to exploit visibility for tactical advantage. Culturally and doctrinally, direct fire dominated pre-gunpowder warfare, particularly in open-field battles where armies maneuvered for clear shots and in fortifications where defenders targeted approaching assailants. Longbows and crossbows became symbols of national prowess, with English doctrine emphasizing massed archery volleys in pitched engagements, while siege warfare relied on direct-fire catapults and early cannons to breach walls visible to operators. This sight-based aiming prevailed in doctrines favoring decisive engagements over prolonged maneuvers, though the advent of gunpowder began shifting emphasis toward indirect trajectories in the late medieval era.^[16]^[17]

Modern Evolution

The Industrial Revolution profoundly influenced direct fire capabilities through advancements in metallurgy and manufacturing, notably the introduction of rifled barrels in artillery during the mid-19th century. Rifled barrels, first implemented in designs like the British Armstrong gun of 1855, imparted spin to projectiles for greater accuracy and range, allowing field guns to engage targets effectively at distances up to 1,000 yards while maintaining line-of-sight firing.^[18] This innovation extended the lethality of direct fire against infantry and fortifications, shifting artillery from smoothbore limitations to more precise, sustained engagements. Complementing this, the Gatling gun, patented in 1862 by Richard Jordan Gatling, represented a breakthrough in rapid-fire weaponry with its multi-barreled, hand-cranked design capable of firing up to 200 rounds per minute using paper cartridges.^[19] Adopted by the U.S. Army in 1866, the Gatling enabled continuous direct fire suppression, transforming small units' defensive and offensive potential during conflicts like the American Indian Wars.^[19] In World War I, the dominance of trench warfare marked a significant decline in direct fire as the primary artillery method, as machine guns and long-range rifles exposed crews to devastating counterfire when advancing guns into line-of-sight positions.^[20] The static front lines of the Western Front necessitated a doctrinal shift toward indirect fire for safety and coverage, with artillery pieces like the French 75mm gun often elevated in pits to arc shells over obstacles rather than firing directly.^[3] However, direct fire retained utility in specialized anti-tank roles, where field guns were employed to target emerging armored threats; by early 1917, German forces adapted existing field artillery for direct-fire anti-tank tactics, using high-velocity rounds to penetrate early tanks at close range.^[21] This adaptation underscored direct fire's niche persistence amid the war's emphasis on massed, indirect barrages. World War II saw substantial advancements in direct fire systems, particularly through versatile anti-tank guns and integrated vehicle-mounted weapons. The German 8.8 cm Flak 18/36/37/41, originally developed as an anti-aircraft gun in the 1930s, proved exceptionally effective in direct-fire anti-tank roles due to its high muzzle velocity of over 800 m/s and armor-piercing ammunition, destroying Allied tanks at ranges exceeding 2,000 meters during campaigns like North Africa and Normandy.^[22] Its adaptability extended to tank main guns, such as the KwK 36 L/56 variant mounted on Tiger I heavy tanks, which delivered devastating direct fire against enemy armor with penetration capabilities up to 150mm at 1,000 meters.^[23] Anti-aircraft direct fire systems like the Flak 88 also evolved to support ground engagements, providing rapid, flat-trajectory barrages that integrated seamlessly into defensive lines.^[22] Post-World War II, direct fire standardized within combined arms doctrine, emphasizing artillery's integration with infantry and armor for flexible battlefield support. The M101 105mm howitzer, a lightweight towed piece introduced in the 1940s, exemplified this evolution during the Korean War (1950–1953), where it was employed in direct-fire modes against point targets like bunkers and tanks. Despite limitations in tube depression for anti-tank roles, the M101's versatility supported artillery operations, with 20 battalions delivering massed fires, expending over 381,000 rounds in 10 days at the Soyang River in May 1951 to repel infantry assaults.^[24] This usage aligned with U.S. Army Field Manual 6-20 (1948), which formalized artillery's role in coordinated maneuvers, enhancing responsiveness through fire direction centers and forward observers.^[24]

Comparison with Indirect Fire

Core Differences

Direct fire and indirect fire represent two foundational approaches to employing weapons in military operations, distinguished primarily by their aiming methods and visibility requirements. Direct fire involves delivering projectiles along a low, relatively flat trajectory directly toward a visible target, using the target itself as the point of aim for the weapon.^[25] In contrast, indirect fire employs a high-angle, parabolic arc that allows projectiles to clear obstacles and strike targets beyond line of sight, necessitating computed ballistic solutions rather than visual alignment.^[26] This trajectory difference stems from the need for indirect fire to engage concealed or distant positions, often requiring adjustments for elevation and wind via fire direction centers that process observer data.^[25] Visibility is a core technical variance, as direct fire mandates a clear line of sight between the firer and the target, enabling immediate visual acquisition and aiming without intermediary calculations.^[26] Indirect fire, however, operates without such direct visibility, relying instead on forward observers, maps, or modern systems like GPS to locate and designate targets hidden by terrain, structures, or distance.^[25] This reliance on external targeting introduces complexities in coordination but extends engagement ranges far beyond direct fire's effective limits, typically constrained to a few kilometers. Weapon systems are adapted accordingly to their primary modes, with direct fire platforms like tank main guns featuring limited elevation angles—such as the M1 Abrams' 120mm gun, which elevates to a maximum of +20 degrees—to prioritize mobility, low silhouette, and precision in line-of-sight engagements. Howitzers designed for indirect fire, by comparison, incorporate high-elevation capabilities, exemplified by the M777's barrel that reaches up to +71.7 degrees, allowing for the steep parabolic trajectories essential to lobbing shells over obstacles. These adaptations reflect doctrinal priorities: direct fire weapons emphasize rapid, close-range lethality, while indirect systems focus on variable charges and adjustable angles for extended, unobserved strikes.^[26] Response time further underscores these distinctions, as direct fire permits near-instantaneous engagement—often within seconds of target identification—due to its straightforward visual aiming process.^[25] Indirect fire, however, demands a more deliberate sequence, including observer calls for fire, plotting, and potential adjustments, which can extend from 30 seconds to several minutes depending on complexity and environmental factors.^[25] This immediacy in direct fire suits dynamic, close-quarters scenarios, whereas indirect fire's structured approach supports sustained, area-denial operations.^[26]

Tactical Trade-offs

Direct fire is preferentially employed in scenarios involving close-range engagements against visible threats, such as breaching fortified defenses or neutralizing immediate obstacles, where precision and rapid response are paramount.^[27] In contrast, indirect fire is selected for area suppression or interdiction of targets beyond line of sight, enabling broader coverage without exposing forces to direct confrontation.^[28] This selection hinges on factors like terrain visibility and operational tempo, with direct fire offering immediate effects in decisive close combat while indirect fire shapes the battlefield for subsequent maneuvers.^[27] A primary risk in opting for direct fire is the heightened exposure of crews and platforms to enemy counterfire, as positioning requires proximity to the target and often generates detectable firing signatures.^[27] Self-propelled systems may mitigate some vulnerability through mobility, but towed units demand additional infantry security to counter threats, increasing overall operational complexity.^[27] Indirect fire, by allowing units to operate from concealed or defilade positions, substantially reduces this exposure risk, though it necessitates robust coordination to prevent fratricide or collateral effects.^[28] In fire support integration, direct fire complements indirect methods during assaults by providing suppressive or destructive effects at the point of decision, synchronizing with maneuver elements to maintain momentum.^[27] U.S. Army doctrine, as outlined in FM 3-09, emphasizes direct support (DS) artillery units for such close integration, where fires are echeloned to transition from indirect preparation to direct execution, supported by fire support coordination measures (FSCMs) like coordinated fire lines (CFLs).^[27] This doctrinal approach ensures unity of effort, with rehearsals combining both fire types to exploit enemy weaknesses without disrupting the scheme of maneuver.^[28] Logistically, direct fire imposes simpler demands on ammunition types and crew training, relying on line-of-sight aiming that bypasses complex ballistic computations.^[27] However, its forward deployment strains resupply chains due to high consumption rates in sustained engagements, requiring pre-positioning and shuttling under fire.^[27] Indirect fire, conversely, entails more intricate logistical support, including meteorological data, advanced fire direction centers like the Advanced Field Artillery Tactical Data System (AFATDS), and larger munitions stockpiles for extended ranges.^[27] These trade-offs underscore the need for balanced sustainment planning to maintain fire support effectiveness across echelons.^[28]

Applications in Warfare

Infantry and Small Arms

In infantry operations, direct fire serves as the primary means of engaging visible enemy targets at close to medium ranges, relying on line-of-sight aiming with man-portable small arms to achieve immediate suppressive or destructive effects.^[13] Rifles such as the M16, with an effective range of up to 550 meters against point targets, enable individual soldiers to deliver precise fire during advances or defensive stands.^[29] Machine guns like the M240, effective to 800 meters for point targets, provide sustained volume of fire to pin down adversaries, while squad automatic weapons such as the M249 SAW extend this capability to 600 meters for point engagements, all oriented toward visible foes typically within 500 meters to maximize accuracy and minimize exposure.^[30]^[31] Urban and patrol tactics heavily incorporate direct fire with small arms, where inherent line-of-sight opportunities in confined spaces dictate rapid engagement protocols. In room-clearing operations, infantry squads use rifles and squad automatics to methodically breach and neutralize threats inside structures, employing precision fire at ranges of 0-15 meters while advancing under cover to isolate and eliminate isolated positions.^[32] Ambushes leverage direct fire from concealed positions along enemy avenues of approach, with machine guns and rifles massing effects to destroy advancing forces before they can react, emphasizing trigger-based fire control to avoid overkill and fratricide.^[33] Defensive positions in urban terrain integrate small arms into strongpoint defenses of buildings, where soldiers orient sectors of fire through windows or barricades to engage intruders at close range, consolidating after initial volleys to reorganize and shift fires as needed.^[32] Training for direct fire proficiency in infantry units centers on marksmanship drills that build foundational skills for accurate aiming under combat stress. Drills emphasize sight picture—aligning the front and rear sights with the target to form a clear, centered image—and trigger control, where soldiers apply steady rearward pressure without disturbing the sight alignment, often practiced in dry-fire and live-fire sequences at 25-300 meters. These elements, integrated with stable body position, breathing pauses, and follow-through, ensure soldiers can execute direct fire effectively in dynamic scenarios like patrols or building assaults.^[34] A notable case study is the 2017 Siege of Marawi, where Philippine infantry forces employed direct fire with small arms to counter ISIS-affiliated militants entrenched in urban strongholds. Light reaction companies and scout rangers cleared buildings at an average rate of three per day using rifles and machine guns for precise, line-of-sight engagements at close quarters, often combining suppressive fire with explosives to isolate and eliminate snipers and fighters in multi-story structures.^[35] In the final constriction phase, these tactics enabled the seizure of key positions, culminating in the neutralization of militant leaders through targeted direct fire support from overwatch elements.^[35]

Armored and Heavy Weapons

In armored warfare, direct fire plays a central role through main battle tanks and armored vehicle guns, which engage visible enemy armor using high-velocity projectiles. The M1 Abrams main battle tank, for instance, employs a 120mm smoothbore M256 gun capable of targeting threats at effective ranges of up to 4 kilometers with kinetic energy rounds like the M829 sabot. These systems prioritize line-of-sight engagements to penetrate armored targets rapidly, integrating with vehicle mobility to maintain offensive momentum during advances.^[36] Anti-tank guided missiles and field artillery pieces also operate in direct fire configurations to neutralize point targets such as bunkers or vehicles. The BGM-71 TOW missile system, a wire-guided anti-tank weapon, allows operators to track and strike armored vehicles at ranges extending to 4.5 kilometers, requiring continuous line-of-sight guidance via optical sighting. Similarly, the M777 lightweight 155mm howitzer can switch to direct fire mode using its panoramic telescope for engaging visible threats like enemy armor or fortifications at close ranges, providing rapid suppression in support of mechanized maneuvers.^[37]^[38] Direct fire from armored and heavy weapons integrates into combined arms operations, particularly during breakthroughs where tanks lead assaults against fortified lines. In the Battle of Kursk during World War II, German and Soviet tank forces clashed in massive direct-fire engagements, with units like the Soviet 5th Guards Tank Army using T-34s to counterattack German Panthers and Tigers at ranges under 2 kilometers, halting advances through concentrated point-blank volleys that destroyed hundreds of vehicles. Such tactics emphasized coordinated direct fire to exploit breakthroughs, synchronizing with infantry for close protection.^[39] Effective direct fire from these platforms demands specialized crew training and advanced vehicle features to handle dynamic battlefield conditions. Tank crews, typically consisting of a commander, gunner, loader, and driver, must coordinate via intercoms to identify, track, and engage moving targets while the vehicle is in motion. Stabilized turrets, equipped with gyroscopic systems and servo motors, maintain gun alignment during traversal, enabling accurate fire on targets while moving at speeds up to 45 km/h; fire control systems further enhance this by incorporating laser rangefinders and ballistic computers to adjust for motion and environmental factors.^[40]^[41]

Advantages and Limitations

Strengths

Direct fire offers exceptional precision and accuracy when line-of-sight conditions permit, as gunners can visually confirm targets and adjust aim in real time, minimizing trajectory errors associated with environmental factors like wind or elevation. This visual confirmation enables high hit probabilities, with the Javelin missile demonstrating 92% first-round hit probability in early trials.^[4] The M1 Abrams tank further exemplifies this strength, providing a "one shot, one kill" capability at effective ranges up to 4,000 meters through direct optical and thermal sighting.^[4] The rapid engagement cycle of direct fire allows for swift aiming and firing sequences, making it ideal for countering dynamic, fast-moving threats in close-quarters or fluid combat environments. Fire-and-forget technologies, like those in the Javelin system, permit immediate post-launch displacement without sustained tracking, enhancing operational tempo.^[4] Compared to indirect methods, direct fire avoids delays from coordination and ballistic computations, enabling quicker responses to visible enemy actions.^[3] Direct fire's simplicity reduces the reliance on complex fire direction calculations, forward observers, or specialized spotters, thereby lowering training requirements and operational overhead for infantry and armored units. Line-of-sight aiming allows straightforward point-and-shoot procedures that can be mastered with minimal doctrinal instruction.^[3] This approach contrasts with the mathematical and communication demands of indirect fire, making direct fire more accessible for smaller units in decentralized engagements.^[3] The psychological impact of direct fire is profound, as visible, immediate effects on enemy positions—such as destroying vehicles or strongpoints—can suppress advances and erode adversary morale by instilling a sense of vulnerability and helplessness. Systems like the TOW have been noted for dismantling enemy fortifications, which disrupts coordinated attacks and halts motorized units through observable destruction.^[4] For friendly forces, the tangible results of direct engagements boost confidence and cohesion, reinforcing morale in direct confrontations where outcomes are immediately apparent.^[42]

Weaknesses

Direct fire exposes the firer to significant risks, as maintaining line-of-sight to the target often requires positioning in vulnerable locations that invite counterfire or ambushes from the enemy. In military doctrine, this vulnerability is highlighted as a primary drawback, since the shooter must typically reveal their position to acquire and engage the target, allowing the enemy to return fire directly or maneuver for a flanking attack.^[43] For instance, artillery units employing direct fire historically faced infantry rifle fire that neutralized their effectiveness, compelling a doctrinal shift toward protected positions.^[3] The limited range and coverage of direct fire further constrain its utility, rendering it ineffective against concealed, distant, or dispersed area targets that fall beyond the line-of-sight. Weapons systems optimized for direct engagement, such as tank main guns, achieve optimal effectiveness at ranges up to 1,500 meters but degrade significantly beyond 2,500 meters, while urban environments often restrict engagements to under 200 meters due to structural obstructions that mask targets and canalize movement.^[44] This line-of-sight dependency means direct fire cannot reliably suppress or neutralize threats hidden by terrain, foliage, or fortifications without advancing into hazardous proximity, contrasting with its precision against visible point targets. Environmental factors severely hinder direct fire operations, particularly in conditions like fog, darkness, dust, smoke, or heavy precipitation that obscure visibility and impair target acquisition. Optical systems and crew observation are compromised in low-light or cluttered urban settings, creating dead spaces where threats remain undetected and unengaged, as seen in restricted terrains where intervisibility lines limit fields of fire.^[44] Night operations or adverse weather thus demand additional aids to maintain effectiveness, but without them, direct fire's reliance on clear sightlines leads to missed opportunities or failed engagements. Sustained use of direct fire proves resource-intensive, especially for suppressive roles that demand a high volume of ammunition to maintain pressure on enemy positions without achieving decisive destruction. Infantry doctrine emphasizes delivering "high volume of accurate fire" through automatic weapons to degrade enemy performance, but this rapid expenditure—such as machine guns firing at cyclic rates of 750-850 rounds per minute—quickly depletes limited onboard supplies, necessitating frequent resupply that exposes logistics lines. Unlike indirect fire's more economical area coverage, direct suppression requires continuous, localized bursts to sustain the effect, amplifying logistical burdens in prolonged engagements.

Modern Developments

Technological Advances

Since the early 2000s, advancements in optics and sensors have significantly enhanced visibility and targeting capabilities in direct fire systems, allowing operations in low-light, obscured, or adverse conditions. Thermal imaging technologies, which detect heat signatures to penetrate smoke, fog, and darkness, have become standard in military sighting systems, enabling gunners to identify and engage targets beyond traditional visual limits. For instance, the AN/PVS-14 monocular night vision device, a helmet-mountable image intensifier with an infrared illuminator, provides amplified low-light visibility up to 150 meters and weighs just 1.2 pounds, facilitating precise aiming for infantry and vehicle-mounted direct fire weapons.^[45] Additionally, active protection systems (APS) incorporate radar and electro-optical sensors to detect incoming threats in real-time, indirectly improving crew situational awareness and visibility of potential hazards during direct engagements.^[46] Digital fire control systems have evolved to incorporate computerized ballistics computers, automating range calculations, wind adjustments, and lead computations for faster and more accurate targeting. In main battle tanks like the Leopard 2 series, post-2000 upgrades to the fire control system, including digital ballistic computers and stabilized laser rangefinders, allow for on-the-move firing with high first-hit probability at ranges up to 2,000 meters, reducing engagement times from seconds to milliseconds.^[47] These systems integrate data from vehicle sensors and global positioning to dynamically update firing solutions, enhancing direct fire effectiveness in dynamic battlefield scenarios. Precision-guided direct fire munitions represent a key innovation, shifting from unguided projectiles to controllable rounds that minimize dispersion and collateral damage. Laser-guided munitions, such as the LAHAT (Laser Homing Anti-Tank) missile compatible with tank cannons like the 105mm or 120mm, use semi-active laser homing to follow a designated beam to the target, achieving circular error probable (CEP) values of less than 1 meter even at extended ranges up to 8 km.^[48] In October 2025, Israel Aerospace Industries unveiled the LAHAT ALPHA variant, doubling the range to 16 km while maintaining high precision. Complementing these, smart bullets like those developed under DARPA's EXACTO program employ optical guidance and micro-actuators to self-correct trajectory mid-flight, demonstrating repeatable hits on moving targets at sniper ranges during live-fire tests in 2015, thereby extending effective direct fire precision for snipers and small arms.^[49] Integration of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) with direct fire platforms has extended line-of-sight capabilities through over-the-horizon spotting, where drones relay real-time video and targeting data to ground units. Post-2000 DoD initiatives, including the UAV Roadmap, emphasize UAVs equipped with electro-optical and infrared sensors to designate targets beyond direct visual range, enabling fires units to engage hidden or distant threats with coordinated precision.^[50] This networked approach, tested in cross-domain operations, reduces detection-to-engagement timelines by providing persistent surveillance and cueing for direct fire systems.^[51]

Contemporary and Future Roles

In contemporary warfare, direct fire maintains a critical role in urban counter-insurgency operations, where precision engagements are essential to neutralize threats in densely populated or fortified environments while minimizing civilian casualties. During operations in Afghanistan, such as Operation Anaconda in the Shah-i-Kot Valley in 2002, coalition forces employed direct fire from small arms and supported by close air assets to dislodge insurgents from fortified mountain positions, achieving tactical successes in threat neutralization despite challenges from terrain and collateral risks.^[52] U.S. military doctrine, as outlined in FM 3-24/MCWP 3-33.5, emphasizes direct fire in the "clear" phase of counterinsurgency through raids, cordon-and-search operations, and deliberate attacks to eliminate combatants in urban settings, prioritizing escalation-of-force procedures and integration with host-nation forces to build legitimacy.^[53] This approach proved effective in securing key sites and disrupting insurgent networks, though it required careful coordination to avoid overreaction that could alienate populations.^[52] Amid hybrid threats, direct fire systems are adapting to counter drones and asymmetric actors by enabling immediate, line-of-sight intercepts that complement electronic warfare and longer-range defenses. In ongoing conflicts like Ukraine, forces have used direct fire weapons, such as machine guns or short-range missiles, to engage drones directly, allowing rapid kinetic responses against low-cost unmanned aerial systems used by non-state or hybrid adversaries, while electronic techniques trace control signals for targeting operators.^[54] These adaptations leverage existing direct fire platforms for cost-effective neutralization of swarms, preserving high-value assets from saturation attacks in asymmetric scenarios.^[54] Doctrinal shifts in the U.S. Marine Corps underscore direct fire's centrality in distributed operations, where small, dispersed units rely on it for independent maneuver and decisive engagement. Per MCDP 1 Warfighting (formerly FMFM 1), tactics emphasize combined arms integration, with direct fire creating enemy dilemmas through suppressive automatic weapons and grenades during assaults. In distributed operations, as reexamined in Marine Corps analyses, direct fire enables platoon- and company-level units to gain positional advantages for precise strikes against dispersed adversaries, enhancing survivability and reducing reliance on centralized support.^[55] MCDP 1-3 Tactics further highlights its role in ambushes and rapid maneuvers, fostering an "ambush mentality" to concentrate fire in kill zones for shock effects.^[56] Looking to the 2030s, direct fire is evolving through AI-assisted aiming to improve targeting accuracy and decision speed in contested environments. Initiatives like Project Maven integrate AI algorithms for combat applications, including real-time image analysis to support direct fire engagements by identifying threats amid complex battlespaces. Hypersonic direct projectiles, such as the Army's Hypervelocity Projectile (HVP), offer Mach 5+ speeds for extended-range, precision strikes from existing gun systems, enabling intercepts of advanced aerial threats like drones or missiles.^[57] Reduced-crew systems, including unmanned platforms, minimize personnel needs while enhancing direct fire delivery in distributed setups, aligning with Army modernization goals for efficiency and reduced risk by 2030.^[58] These trends prioritize joint integration and precision to address peer and hybrid challenges.^[58]

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The Greeks and Romans both used slingers in naval warfare (Ferrill 1997;. Korfmann 1973), and Ferrill (1997:87) provides a depiction of a slinger perched in ...Missing: catapults | Show results with:catapults
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[PDF] Science And Civilisation In China Volume 5 Chemistry And ...
Science and Civilisation in China Volume V Part 6 is the first of the three parts dealing with the arts of war in ancient and medieval China.
[18]
Arms & Armor – Science Technology and Society a Student Led ...
While close range combat styles were most popular in medieval combat, ranged weapons were just as effective as melee (close contact combat) weapons as they ...
[19]
[PDF] Weapons From Ancient Greece
Ranged Weapons: Bows and Javelins. Although Greek warfare is often associated with melee combat, ranged weapons played a. Page 19. 19 vital role. Archers used ...
[20]
Castles, Battles, and Bombs: How Economics Explains Military ...
Medieval armed forces maneuvered, ravaged, and besieged more often than they fought each other in the open field. This was the result of a rather methodical and ...Missing: pre- | Show results with:pre-
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Was there a Military Revolution in Sixteenth
The discovery of guns and gunpowder, especially canon, overthrew that balance: siege artillery quickly rendered old-fashioned, “vertical” fortifications ...
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Jan 5, 2019 · In 1855, England's Lord Armstrong designed a rifled, breech-loading cannon which meant the beginning of the end for the old, cast iron, ...<|separator|>
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Tank Killers on the Western Front - Warfare History Network
The Antitank Field Gun. As the war progressed, the Germans determined that the best counter to tanks was direct fire. By early 1917, the high command directed ...
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Flak 36 88mm Multipurpose Gun - Air Force Museum
The versatile 88mm cannon was Germany's main heavy antiaircraft—or “flak”—gun during World War II. When an 88mm projectile exploded at altitude, ...Missing: advancements | Show results with:advancements
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Mar 8, 2016 · The German 88mm gun, originally designed as an antiaircraft artillery weapon, was equally effective as an antitank gun.Design Improvements (and... · Deadly Effective ``ap''... · The 88 On The Tiger IiMissing: direct | Show results with:direct<|separator|>
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[PDF] Fire for Effect: field artillery and close air support in the US Army
Foreword. The Combat Studies Institute is pleased to announce its latest Special. Study, Fire for Effect: Field Artillery and Close Air Support in the US.
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[PDF] ATP 3-09.30 Observed Fires - Central Army Registry (CAR)
Sep 28, 2017
[30]
[PDF] ARES Indirect Fire - International Institute of Humanitarian Law
Direct fires are employed when the target is within line of sight, and the weapon can be aimed directly at the target.
[31]
https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/3-21-9/appb.htm
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https://rdl.train.army.mil/catalog-ws/view/100.ATSC/3E28226C-188E-47A3-9D4F-37263BC89E0D-1308973487832/tc90_1.pdf
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M16 5.56mm Rifle Specifications - GlobalSecurity.org
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M240B/L/H 7.62mm Medium Machine Gun - PEO Soldier - Army.mil
The system has a maximum effective range of 1,200 meters. The M240L incorporates a titanium receiver and alternative materials for fabricating major M240B ...
[35]
m240b machine gun and m249 saw employment - GlobalSecurity.org
Effective Ranges: Point. 800 m. 600 m. Area. 1100 m (Tripod). 800 m. Table B-1. Specifications for M240B and M249. a. In the offense the platoon leader has the ...Missing: M240 | Show results with:M240
[36]
[PDF] TC 90-1 Training for Urban Operations - Army.mil
May 19, 2008
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actions on the objective – ambush - Mission Command
Ambushes employ direct fire systems as well as other destructive means, such as command-detonated mines and explosives, and indirect fires on the enemy force.<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] New Army Training Circulars
Soldier's must properly point the weapon (sight alignment and sight picture) and then fire the weapon without disturbing the aim (trigger control.) Even though ...
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Urban Warfare Case Study #8: Battle of Marawi - Modern War Institute
May 23, 2024 · The Battle of Marawi occurred from May 23 to October 23, 2017. Marawi is the capital city of Lanao del Sur province on the island of Mindanao.
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[PDF] The TOW Missile— Precise and Powerful
Increased maximum range to 4.5 km by adding wire and aerodynamic nose. Army contracted production of new wireless TOW 2B RF missile. More than 17,000 TOW ...
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M777 155mm Ultralightweight Field Howitzer, US - Army Technology
Apr 17, 2024 · The maximum firing range is 24.7km with unassisted rounds and 30km with rocket-assisted rounds. The M777A2 can fire the Raytheon/Bofors XM982 ...
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[PDF] Analysis and Significance of the Battle of Kursk in July 1943. - DTIC
Jun 2, 1995 · This is a study on the results of Operation "Citadel, " the Battle of Kursk. This was the greatest tank engagement of World War II.
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Jul 7, 2011 · A sophisticated fire control system provided main gun stabilization for shooting on the move and a precise laser range finder, thermal-imaging ...
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[PDF] Steeling the Mind: Combat Stress Reactions and Their ... - RAND
direct fire likely instill a sense of helplessness on the combatants. Fi ... multiple fields of enemy fire, to name but a few. These stress- provoking ...
[46]
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Direct fire is often more precise and more easily controlled than indirect fire. In addition, direct fires generally produce less collateral damage than ...Missing: doctrine | Show results with:doctrine
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The AN/PVS-14 is a head/helmet-mounted device that amplifies light for night operations, has an IR illuminator, and a 150m range. It weighs 1.2 pounds and has ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] Army and Marine Corps Active Protection System (APS) Efforts
Jun 29, 2016 · Active Protection Systems (APSs) are subsystems integrated into or installed on a combat vehicle to automatically acquire, track, ...Missing: 2000 | Show results with:2000
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Leopard 2 German Main Battle Tank (MBT)
Aug 6, 2024 · All models feature digital fire control systems with laser rangefinders, a fully stabilized main gun and coaxial machine gun, and advanced ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
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[PDF] Six Decades of Guided Munitions and Battle Networks - CSBA
This report covers six decades of guided munitions and battle networks, including their origins, Cold War developments, and prospects for change.<|separator|>
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EXACTO Guided Bullet Demonstrates Repeatable Performance ...
Apr 27, 2015 · DARPA's Extreme Accuracy Tasked Ordnance (EXACTO) program, which developed a self-steering bullet to increase hit rates for difficult, ...
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This document presents the Department of Defense's (DoD) roadmap for developing and employing unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) over the next 25 years. (2000 ...
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Jun 23, 2016 · We recommend an architecture based on Link 16 and organic rotary- wing unmanned aerial vehicles to transfer sensor to shooter data in demanding ...
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https://www.mca-marines.org/wp-content/uploads/Reexamining-Distributed-Operations.pdf
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None
Below is a merged summary of the information from all provided segments regarding Chapter 9: Direct Approaches to Counter Insurgency from FM 3-24/MCWP 3-33.5. To retain all details in a dense and organized manner, I will use a combination of narrative text and a table in CSV format where applicable. The response integrates all key points, addresses discrepancies (e.g., absence of Chapter 9 in some excerpts), and includes useful URLs.
[57]
Lessons from the Ukraine Conflict: Modern Warfare in the Age of ...
May 2, 2025 · Both Ukraine and Russia have developed techniques to trace drone control signals to their source, enabling counter-battery fire or direct ...
[58]
[PDF] Reexamining Distributed Operations - Marine Corps Association
2. To improve maneuver options in order to gain a positional advantage to assault or engage more effectively with direct or indirect fires.
[59]
None
Summary of each segment:
[60]
Hypervelocity Projectile (HVP) - BAE Systems
The Hypervelocity Projectile (HVP) is a next-generation, common, low drag, guided projectile capable of executing multiple missions for a number of gun systems.
[61]
https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR2124.html