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Fissure vent

A fissure vent, also known as a volcanic fissure or eruption fissure, is an elongated linear fracture in the Earth's crust through which magma erupts primarily as low-viscosity basaltic lava flows, typically in a non-explosive manner.^[1] These vents represent the surface expression of underlying dikes—magma-filled fractures that propagate upward due to tensional stresses from tectonic rifting or volcanic activity—and often align parallel to regional fracture systems or rift zones.^[1] Eruptions from fissure vents commonly produce "curtains of fire" with fountain heights of tens of meters, building spatter ramparts or small cones while feeding extensive, low-volume to high-volume lava flows that can extend for kilometers.^[2] Fissure vents are prevalent in divergent tectonic settings, such as mid-ocean ridges and continental rifts, as well as on the flanks of shield volcanoes and in monogenetic volcanic fields influenced by hotspots.^[3] They differ from central vents of composite volcanoes by lacking tall edifices and instead contributing to broad, low-relief landforms like lava plains or the gradual growth of shield structures.^[1] In intraplate environments, such as Iceland and Hawaii, fissure activity is driven by mantle plumes, resulting in Hawaiian-style eruptions with fluid, gas-poor basaltic to basaltic-andesite compositions.^[2] Prominent examples include the 1783 Laki fissure eruption in Iceland, which extruded approximately 12 cubic kilometers of lava along a 25-kilometer-long vent system, covering over 500 square kilometers and causing significant environmental impacts.^[2] In the United States, the 2018 Kīlauea lower East Rift Zone event featured multiple fissure vents producing lava fountains up to 150 feet high and destroying nearby communities, while ancient activity formed features like the Craters of the Moon lava field in Idaho along the Great Rift.^[1] More recently, fissure eruptions have occurred along the Sundhnúkur crater row in Iceland's Reykjanes Peninsula from 2023 to 2025 and at Kīlauea's Southwest Rift Zone in June 2024.^[4]^[5] On a grander scale, prehistoric fissure vents generated massive flood basalt provinces, such as the Columbia River Basalts (17–14 million years ago), which covered about 210,000 square kilometers with flows up to 500 kilometers long, illustrating their role in shaping continental landscapes and potentially influencing global climate through voluminous outpourings.^[2]

Definition and Characteristics

Definition

A fissure vent, also known as a volcanic fissure, is a linear volcanic vent characterized by an elongated fracture in the Earth's crust through which magma ascends and erupts primarily as low-viscosity lava flows, with minimal explosive activity. These vents form the surface manifestation of underlying dikes—tabular igneous intrusions consisting of fractures filled with magma that propagate upward from deeper magmatic sources. Unlike central vents associated with conical volcanoes, fissure vents facilitate broad, effusive eruptions that can cover extensive areas.^[1] In terms of scale, fissure vents typically measure 1 to 10 meters in width, though variations occur, with lengths ranging from hundreds of meters to tens of kilometers, depending on the extent of the feeding dike system. The narrow width allows for the initial simultaneous eruption along much of the fissure length, often producing fire fountains and spatter that may build small cones, while the elongated form enables voluminous lava output. Over time, eruptive activity can migrate and concentrate at discrete points along the fissure, potentially evolving into more localized vents.^[6]^[7] Fissure vents are integral to basaltic volcanism, where fluid basaltic magma dominates, contributing to the formation of shield volcanoes through repeated effusive episodes or vast plateau basalts via large-scale flood eruptions. These features commonly generate lava channels that guide flows and may develop into lava tubes for subsurface transport, emphasizing their role in non-explosive, high-volume magmatic discharge.^[1]^[8]

Morphological and Physical Features

Fissure vents exhibit a distinctive linear morphology characterized by elongated cracks that typically align parallel to regional fractures or rift zones, reflecting the underlying structural controls of the volcanic terrain. These vents often span lengths from hundreds of meters to several kilometers, forming curvilinear or straight alignments that serve as surface expressions of deeper feeder dikes.^[1] During eruptive episodes, the fissures may segment into active and inactive portions, with certain sections remaining open while others become sealed or inactive, leading to localized venting along the length.^[9] This segmentation contributes to the dynamic evolution of the vent system, where initial continuity gives way to discrete eruptive sites.^[3] Surface features of fissure vents evolve progressively from broad initial openings to more defined structures as activity persists. At the onset, fissures present as wide cracks, often several meters across, which can narrow through the accumulation of erupted materials along their margins.^[10] Over time, these vents develop prominent features such as spatter cones and ramparts, formed by the aggregation of molten ejecta along the fissure sides; spatter cones are typically small, steep-sided mounds less than 10 meters in height, arranged in linear rows parallel to the vent.^[1] Crater rows may also emerge as aligned depressions or low rims, while pseudocraters—rootless cones resulting from steam explosions—can dot the surrounding landscape, particularly in areas with subsurface water interaction, mimicking true volcanic cones but lacking magmatic origins.^[11] In terms of dimensions, fissure vents initially feature shallow depths ranging from 1 to 6 meters, with widths varying between 1 and 10 meters, though these measurements can fluctuate based on local geology and activity intensity.^[10] The connected dike systems extend far deeper, potentially reaching mantle depths of tens of kilometers, facilitating magma transport to the surface.^[12] Repeated eruptions can cause widening of the surface fissures through thermal and mechanical stress, as observed in rift zone examples where vents broaden over multiple events, altering their cross-sectional profile.^[13] Fissure vents are instrumental in shaping associated landforms, primarily through the extensive emplacement of lava that infills and modifies the surrounding topography. Eruptions from these vents commonly produce vast lava fields and plateaus, where low-viscosity flows spread across broad areas, creating flat to gently undulating terrains rather than elevated edifices.^[14] In rift settings, prolonged activity contributes to the development of rift valleys by exploiting and widening existing fractures, resulting in elongated depressions flanked by fault scarps.^[1] Post-eruption, the vents themselves often become infilled with solidified lava, transforming the open cracks into linear ridges or subdued channels embedded within the newly formed lava landscapes.^[15]

Formation and Geological Context

Underlying Mechanisms

Fissure vents form through the ascent of magma from shallow crustal reservoirs, where overpressure builds due to volatile exsolution or renewed influx from deeper sources, driving the magma into pre-existing or newly formed fractures in the brittle upper crust. This process propagates tabular intrusions known as dikes, which serve as conduits for magma transport toward the surface, often at rates of 0.1–1 m/s in elastic host rocks.^[16] The buoyancy of the denser surrounding rock relative to the magma provides the primary driving force, with pressure gradients on the order of 1–2 MPa facilitating upward migration until the dike intersects the surface.^[17] Fracture propagation in fissure vents occurs primarily through tensile stresses induced by either regional tectonic extension or the direct injection of pressurized magma, which opens linear cracks parallel to existing rift zones or fracture systems. In brittle host rocks, dike tips advance via mode I tensile fracturing, with stress intensity factors exceeding the fracture toughness of the crust (typically 30–100 MPa·m^{1/2}), leading to echelon-segmented dikes that coalesce over time.^[16] Dyke-induced faulting further accommodates this propagation by localizing shear along the intrusion margins, enhancing the efficiency of crack opening without significant viscous resistance in the magma.^[17] The evolution of fissure vents typically begins with a broad, initial eruption along the full length of the fracture, forming a "curtain of fire" as multiple segments simultaneously extrude low-viscosity basaltic magma. As eruption progresses, pressure drops within the dike cause flow to localize at points of least resistance, often due to minor topographic variations or early cone-building by spatter accumulation, transitioning to focused vents.^[2] This localization concentrates eruptive activity, reducing the active fissure length from kilometers to meters over hours to days.^[1] Key influencing factors include the low viscosity of basaltic magma, which enables rapid, linear flow through narrow fractures with minimal resistance, allowing extensive lateral propagation before solidification.^[2] Additionally, interactions between ascending magma and groundwater can briefly trigger phreatomagmatic explosions by rapid vaporization, though this is secondary to the primary magmatic processes.^[18]

Associated Tectonic Settings

Fissure vents primarily form in tectonic environments characterized by extensional stresses that facilitate the propagation of dikes and the opening of linear fractures through which magma ascends. The most common setting is at divergent plate boundaries, including mid-ocean ridges and continental rifts, where lithospheric plates pull apart, creating tensile stresses that generate fissures. These features are prevalent along submarine spreading centers, such as the East Pacific Rise, where fissures control crustal permeability and enable the effusion of basaltic magma, contributing to seafloor spreading and the formation of new oceanic crust.^[13]^[19] In intraplate settings, fissure vents are associated with hotspots driven by mantle plumes, particularly within radial rift zones of shield volcanoes. These zones develop due to gravitational spreading and tensile forces on the volcanic edifice, allowing dikes to intrude and erupt along elongated fissures rather than central vents. Oceanic hotspots, such as those in Hawaii, exemplify this, where fissure eruptions along rift zones build extensive basaltic shields and contribute to the growth of volcanic islands.^[20]^[19] Fissure vents play a key role in the development of large basaltic provinces, including large igneous provinces (LIPs), by enabling massive outpourings of low-viscosity mafic magma in extensional settings, thereby altering regional geology and contributing to large-scale crustal modifications. Ancient LIPs, such as the Deccan Traps and Siberian Traps, formed through prolonged fissure-fed flood basalt eruptions, covering vast areas with layered lava flows and influencing global climate and tectonics. These events highlight the vents' capacity for high-volume effusions in extensional or plume-related contexts.^[19]^[21]^[22] Fissure vents are most frequent in regions dominated by low-silica (basaltic) magmas, which flow readily through fractures, but they are rare in subduction zones where higher-silica (andesitic to rhyolitic) magmas exhibit greater viscosity, favoring centralized vents in stratovolcanoes over linear fissures. This distinction underscores the vents' strong linkage to low-viscosity magma systems in divergent and hotspot environments.^[19]

Eruptive Styles and Products

Effusive Eruptions

Effusive eruptions from fissure vents are characterized by the continuous ejection of basaltic magma in the form of lava fountains along the length of the fissure, often creating spectacular displays known as "curtains of fire."^[23] These fountains arise from the low-viscosity nature of basaltic magma, which has a silica content of 45-55 wt% and erupts at temperatures of 1000-1200°C, allowing gases to escape gradually without building sufficient pressure for violent explosions.^[24] The low gas content in basaltic magma further contributes to this non-explosive style, resulting in minimal fragmentation and ash production compared to more silicic central-vent eruptions.^[1] The dynamics of these eruptions involve high-volume outpourings of low-viscosity lava, primarily forming pahoehoe (smooth, ropy surfaces) or 'a'ā (rough, blocky) flows that can cover extensive areas.^[25] Initial flow speeds near the vent typically range from 1-10 km/h, driven by gravitational forces and the fluid nature of the magma, which has a viscosity 10,000-100,000 times that of water but still permits rapid advance.^[26] As flows progress, they develop channels to concentrate the lava, insulating tubes that protect inner molten material from cooling, and occasionally deltas where flows enter bodies of water, building new landforms.^[25] These features enable basaltic flows to travel tens of kilometers, with discharge rates often exceeding 10 m³/s, sustaining broad sheet-like spreads.^[27] Such eruptions can extrude volumes up to 10-15 km³ of lava over durations spanning months to nearly a year, reflecting sustained magma supply from underlying reservoirs.^[28] Cooling occurs primarily at the flow surfaces, where exposed lava loses heat rapidly to form crusts, while insulated interiors remain mobile; overall cooling rates allow flows to thicken to several meters over days to weeks.^[25] Associated with these events is the aggregation of molten spatter—ejected lava fragments—from the fountains, which welds into low ramparts along the fissure margins, typically 5-6 m high and composed of agglutinated material.^[6] These spatter ramparts form broad embankments on one or both sides of the fissure, enhancing the vent's structure without significant airborne ash dispersal.^[6]

Explosive Activity

Explosive activity at fissure vents is relatively rare compared to effusive eruptions, typically comprising brief phases within otherwise dominantly lava-producing events along linear vents that can span hundreds of meters to several kilometers.^[29] These explosive episodes often manifest as hybrid events, where initial effusive flow from the fissure transitions to violent fragmentation due to localized conditions.^[30] Such activity is documented in basaltic settings, where the low viscosity of magma generally favors non-explosive outflow, but interruptions can lead to significant pyroclastic output.^[29] The primary triggers for explosive phases include phreatomagmatic interactions, where ascending magma contacts groundwater or surface water, rapidly fragmenting the melt through steam explosions, and volatile exsolution, particularly of CO2, which builds overpressure in the conduit during later eruption stages.^[30] In phreatomagmatic cases, shallow aquifers or lacustrine environments along the fissure promote fine fragmentation, while gas buildup from CO2 saturation at depths around 15 km accelerates magma ascent and bubble expansion near the surface.^[31] These mechanisms can concentrate activity on subsections of the fissure, forming temporary explosive vents amid ongoing effusion.^[29] Products of these explosive events consist of scoria, volcanic bombs, and ash deposits, often with poorly vesicular pyroclasts showing hydration cracks from water interaction, alongside ballistic ejecta hurled from the vents.^[30] Deposits are typically localized, forming thin tephra layers or small craters and maars along the fissure trace, in contrast to the widespread accumulations from central volcano explosions; plume heights can reach 20-35 km, generating buoyant columns and minor pyroclastic flows.^[29]^[31] Hazards from fissure vent explosions include ballistic projectiles that travel up to several kilometers, posing risks to nearby areas, and widespread ash clouds that disrupt aviation and agriculture.^[32] Gas emissions, such as SO2 released during fragmentation, contribute to atmospheric loading and potential short-term climate cooling, while base surges from phreatomagmatic bursts can extend over 5 km and ascend slopes up to 100 m.^[30]^[29] These effects underscore the elevated risks during transitional phases, despite the overall effusive nature of most fissure activity.^[32]

Global Distribution and Examples

Iceland

Iceland exemplifies fissure vents in a setting of mid-ocean ridge volcanism influenced by a mantle plume, where the Mid-Atlantic Ridge intersects the Icelandic hotspot, resulting in frequent magmatic activity due to abundant magma supply from plume-driven upwelling and plate divergence.^[33]^[34] The combination of these tectonic elements produces a thin effective lithosphere beneath active rift zones, facilitating repeated dike intrusions and eruptions along linear fissures that can extend up to 30 km in length within volcanic systems.^[34] These fissures are integral to the country's volcanic infrastructure, often occurring within larger swarms spanning 100 km, and contribute to the propagation of rift zones by accommodating lateral magma transport and crustal extension.^[35]^[34] In addition to the Eastern Volcanic Zone, recent fissure activity as of 2025 has been prominent in the Reykjanes Peninsula's Western Volcanic Zone, including eruptions at the Fagradalsfjall and Sundhnúkur systems from 2021 to 2025, highlighting ongoing rifting and plume influence in divergent settings.^[36] Key features of Icelandic fissure vents include their association with central volcanoes like Grímsvötn and Bárðarbunga, where eruptions frequently occur subglacially beneath Vatnajökull, the largest ice cap in Europe.^[37] Subglacial activity generates hyaloclastite—fragmented basaltic glass formed by rapid quenching in ice or water—building ridges and mounds that characterize much of the terrain, while meltwater accumulation often triggers jökulhlaups, catastrophic glacial outburst floods that can discharge vast volumes of water.^[34]^[38] Fissures in these systems trend northeast-southwest, aligning with the regional stress field, and can evolve from broad curtains of fire to localized vents as eruptions progress.^[37]^[39] Representative examples include the Laki fissure, a 27 km-long feature within the Grímsvötn system that exemplifies large-scale effusive activity in the southeastern highlands.^[33] Eldgjá, part of the Katla volcanic system in the Eastern Volcanic Zone, forms a prominent segment of a 40-75 km chain of craters and vents, representing one of the most voluminous fissure events in historical times and aiding rift propagation through extensive dike emplacement.^[40]^[41] These vents, along with those at Grímsvötn and Bárðarbunga, underscore the dynamic interplay of magmatism and tectonics, with short fissures (up to several kilometers) along caldera margins frequently reactivating during rifting episodes.^[39]^[42] The significance of fissure vents in Iceland lies in their high eruption frequency—driven by the hotspot's enhanced magma production—and their profound influence on the landscape, where extensive lava fields cover vast areas and hyaloclastite deposits form table mountains (tuyas) and ridges from subglacial interactions.^[34] These features not only record the ongoing divergence of the North American and Eurasian plates but also propagate the rift axis, shaping Iceland's topography through repeated cycles of extension, subsidence, and volcanic infilling.^[35]^[43]

Hawaii

In Hawaii, fissure vents are integral to the shield-building processes of volcanoes like Kīlauea and Mauna Loa, which owe their activity to magma supplied by the underlying Hawaiian hotspot plume—a stationary column of hot mantle material rising from deep within the Earth. This plume drives the formation of radial fissures emanating from central calderas, primarily along the northeast and southwest rift zones, where extensional stresses facilitate dike propagation and magma ascent. On Mauna Loa, these radial fissures trend outward from the summit caldera along the flanks, while Kīlauea's fissures align with its prominent rift zones, reflecting the intraplate dynamics of hotspot volcanism that construct broad, low-angle shields over the Pacific Plate.^[44]^[12] Recent activity as of 2025 includes ongoing effusive eruptions at Kīlauea, with fissure vents contributing to summit and rift zone flows in 2024–2025, demonstrating continued hotspot-driven volcanism.^[45] These Hawaiian fissure vents typically measure 1–5 km in length and often evolve into pit craters through repeated collapses and drainback of molten material, as seen in features like 'Alae and 'Alo'i craters on Kīlauea. Eruptive episodes frequently commence with a "curtain of fire," a spectacular linear array of vents producing synchronized lava fountains that rise 100–400 m high, driven by the rapid degassing of basaltic magma. This initial phase transitions to focused flow from dominant vents, with the fountains' uniformity resulting from the shallow, interconnected plumbing system beneath the rift zones.^[46]^[47] A representative example occurs in Kīlauea's Southwest Rift Zone, where fissure vents have historically generated spatter cones—accumulations of molten ejecta that solidify into steep-sided aggregates—and expansive fields of pahoehoe lava, characterized by its ropy, billowy texture formed during low-viscosity flows. These features emerge as magma intrudes along en echelon fractures, building localized shields and extending the volcano's southern flank toward the ocean. Such activity underscores the vents' role in lateral growth, with pahoehoe flows covering vast areas to thicken and widen the island's profile.^[48]^[49]^[50] The significance of Hawaiian fissure vents lies in their contribution to island construction, where effusive outputs from these systems accumulate to form the bulk of the shield's volume, enhancing slope stability and shoreline extension through repeated layering of thin flows. Frequent, small-scale events along these vents necessitate vigilant monitoring by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, which employs seismic networks, geodetic instruments, and gas sampling to detect dike intrusions and forecast potential activity, thereby mitigating risks to surrounding communities.^[47]^[51]^[52]

Other Regions

Fissure vents are prominent in continental rift systems, particularly within the East African Rift, where extensional tectonics facilitate magma ascent along linear fractures. In the Ethiopian Afar Depression, a key segment of this rift, the Erta Ale volcano exemplifies ongoing activity, with recent fissure eruptions documented on its northern flank, contributing to the formation of basaltic lava fields and volcanic plateaus through repeated effusive events.^[53] These processes have built extensive highland plateaus, such as the Ethiopian Highlands, over millions of years, as magma exploits crustal weaknesses in the diverging Nubian and Somali plates.^[54] Beyond major oceanic hotspots like Hawaii, similar fissure-dominated volcanism occurs at other intraplate settings influenced by mantle plumes. The Galápagos Islands, situated over the Galápagos hotspot, feature shield volcanoes with distinctive patterns of circumferential and radial eruptive fissures, as observed on Fernandina and Isabela islands, where vents align with stress fields around caldera rims and flank slopes.^[55] In the Azores archipelago, which straddles the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and a hotspot, fissure vents characterize systems like the Picos Fissural Volcanic System on São Miguel Island, producing scoria cones and basaltic flows along linear swarms that reflect combined ridge and plume dynamics.^[56] Ancient fissure vents are best illustrated by massive flood basalt provinces, where enormous volumes of lava erupted from extensive swarm systems, reshaping continental landscapes. The Columbia River Basalt Group in the northwestern United States, formed during the Miocene, originated from fissure vents near the Oregon-Idaho border, producing over 210,000 cubic kilometers of tholeiitic basalt that spread across more than 210,000 square kilometers, creating the vast Columbia Plateau.^[57] Similarly, the Paraná Traps in South America, erupted around 132 million years ago, involved fissure swarms that fed one of the largest known flood basalt events, covering approximately 1.1 million square kilometers with up to 1.5 kilometers of stacked flows, linked to the initial rifting of Gondwana.^[58] In remote and less-studied areas, fissure vents play a crucial role in global volcanism. Along mid-ocean ridges, submarine fissures dominate effusive activity, where diverging plates allow magma to extrude as pillow lavas from linear vents, as seen in the Galápagos Rift and other segments, sustaining the creation of oceanic crust at rates of several centimeters per year.^[59] On continents, rare extensions of Icelandic-style rifting appear in Greenland as part of the North Atlantic Igneous Province, where Paleogene dyke swarms in East Greenland, such as the Scoresby Sund complex, fed ancient fissure eruptions that contributed to the province's voluminous basalts during the opening of the North Atlantic.^[60]

Notable Fissure Vents and Eruptions

Historical Eruptions

One of the most significant historical fissure vent eruptions occurred at Eldgjá in Iceland between 934 and 940 CE, producing an estimated 19.6 km³ of basaltic lava, marking it as the largest eruption in the Holocene epoch. This event formed extensive lava fields covering over 700 km², contributing to widespread tephra deposition that reached depths of up to 21 cm in some Icelandic regions and influenced atmospheric conditions across the Northern Hemisphere. The 1783 Laki fissure eruption in Iceland, lasting eight months, emitted approximately 14.7 km³ of lava and released about 122 megatons of sulfur dioxide (SO₂), leading to global climate cooling of around 1°C in the Northern Hemisphere through sulfate aerosol formation.^[61]^[62] Eyewitness accounts from Europe and Iceland described a persistent "famine fog" of sulfuric aerosols that caused acid rain, livestock poisoning, and crop failures, exacerbating famines and resulting in significant human mortality.^[63] In Hawaii, Mauna Loa's rift zones hosted multiple 19th-century fissure eruptions, including those in 1843, 1852, 1855–1856, and 1880–1881 from the Northeast Rift Zone, which produced voluminous pāhoehoe and ʻaʻā lava flows that advanced toward populated areas and reshaped coastal landscapes.^[64] These events highlighted the rift zone's role in channeling magma laterally, forming broad lava fields without major explosive activity. Early 20th-century activity at Chile's Cordón Caulle included fissure eruptions in 1905, 1914–1915, and 1921–1922, where rhyodacitic to andesitic lavas and pyroclastic flows emanated from linear vents along the rift system, constructing small domes and altering local vegetation cover.^[65] On a deeper timescale, ancient fissure vents associated with large igneous provinces like the Siberian Traps, erupted around 252 Ma, released vast basaltic volumes exceeding 3 million km³, contributing to the end-Permian mass extinction through sulfate aerosols, CO₂ emissions, and environmental perturbations that eliminated over 90% of marine species.^[66] These eruptions formed immense flood basalt plateaus, demonstrating how prolonged fissure activity can drive planetary-scale geological and biological impacts.^[67]

Recent Events

In the Reykjanes Peninsula of Iceland, a series of fissure vent eruptions has occurred at the Sundhnúkur crater row since late 2023, marking a resurgence of volcanic activity in the region. The first in this sequence began on December 18, 2023, with a fissure approximately 4 km long opening north of Grindavík, producing lava flows that advanced toward the town but halted short of infrastructure. Subsequent eruptions followed at intervals: January 14, 2024 (lasting about 2 days, with a short fissure near the town); February 8, 2024 (brief, under 24 hours); March 16, 2024 (over 2 days, with multiple fissures); May 29, 2024 (short-lived); August 22, 2024; and November 20, 2024, each characterized by effusive basaltic lava from linear vents amid ongoing seismic swarms and magma accumulation at depths of 4-5 km. These events, totaling seven by late 2024, have extruded an estimated 0.5-1 km³ of lava cumulatively, with flows confined mostly to uninhabited areas but prompting evacuations and infrastructure protections.^[68] The ninth Sundhnúkur eruption commenced on July 16, 2025, at around 4:00 AM local time, along a 1-2 km fissure northeast of Stóra-Skógfell, featuring initial high lava fountains up to 100 m and subsequent sustained flows covering about 2.5 km² before concluding on August 5, 2025. This event, like its predecessors, was preceded by intense earthquake activity and ground uplift, with the Icelandic Meteorological Office raising the alert level to orange due to the proximity to populated areas. No injuries occurred, but it disrupted access to Grindavík and the Blue Lagoon, highlighting the ongoing tectonic rifting in the area driven by plate divergence. By September 2025, post-eruption monitoring indicated renewed magma accumulation beneath Svartsengi at rates of about 4-5 million m³ per month, increasing the likelihood of future fissures.^[69]^[70]^[36] In Hawaii, Kīlauea volcano experienced notable fissure vent activity along its rift zones in 2024. On June 3, 2024, an eruption initiated in the Southwest Rift Zone, about 2 km southwest of the Koʻoki chain, with multiple fissures producing lava fountains up to 20 m high and flows that covered 40 hectares (99 acres) within Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park over several days before pausing. This effusive event, fed by shallow magma storage, posed no immediate threat to communities but added to the volcano's active profile. Later, from September 15 to 20, 2024, fissures opened in the middle East Rift Zone near Nāpau Crater, extending over 1.6 km and generating small lava pads and flows totaling 18 hectares (44 acres) in a remote area west of the crater. These short-lived episodes underscored Kīlauea's persistent rift propagation, with seismic and deformation data indicating episodic magma intrusions.^[5]^[71]^[45] Beginning on December 23, 2024, Kīlauea entered an ongoing summit eruption within Halema'uma'u crater, characterized by episodic fountaining from fissure vents along the crater floor and walls, with over 36 episodes recorded by November 18, 2025. These events produced lava fountains up to 100 m high, building spatter and small flows confined to the caldera, with no threat to surrounding communities but occasional pauses in activity followed by renewed inflation and seismicity. As of November 2025, glow and tremor indicate potential for additional episodes.^[72]

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Hawaiian Eruptions (U.S. National Park Service)
Apr 14, 2023 · Hawaiian-style eruptions are non-explosive eruptions of gusher-like lava fountains (“fire fountains” or “curtains of fire”) that generate red-hot lava rivers.
[22]
Volcanoes and Volcanic Eruptions - Tulane University
Aug 26, 2017 · Effusive or Non explosive eruptions are favored by low gas content and low viscosity magmas (basaltic to andesitic magmas). If the viscosity is ...
[23]
Basaltic Lava Flows - National Park Service
Apr 18, 2023 · Lavas that are discharged at high rates generally travel faster and further from their vent than ones that are erupted at lower rates.
[24]
Rapid ascent and emplacement of basaltic lava during the 2005–06 ...
... speed of ∼1–10 km h−1. The lava slowed with distance, however ... Basaltic lava leaving the vent at Hawaii commonly flows at less than 0.6 m·s−1 in ...
[25]
Lava Flow - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
At high eruption rates (101–103 m3 s− 1), basaltic flows can travel tens of kilometers and can cover hundreds of square kilometers. For example, rapidly erupted ...
[26]
Unexpected large eruptions from buoyant magma bodies within ...
May 15, 2020 · This is the same process by which eruptive fissures that initially produce “curtains of fire” eruptions evolve with time; some parts of ...
[27]
Explosive volcanic eruptions from linear vents on Earth, Venus, and ...
Jan 28, 2011 · Explosive phases from fissure vents ... These episodes commonly involve localized activity along various subsections of the fissure as the ...
[28]
Contemporaneous phreatomagmatic and effusive activity along the ...
In Iceland, many volcanic eruptions start as fissure eruptions, but activity quickly becomes focused into a few (or even a single) vents. Examples of the ...Missing: vents | Show results with:vents
[29]
Highly explosive basaltic eruptions driven by CO2 exsolution - PMC
Jan 11, 2021 · This comparison suggests that the exsolved CO2 phase is a critical pre-eruptive condition that drives highly explosive basaltic eruptions.
[30]
Drivers of explosivity and elevated hazard in basaltic fissure eruptions
Here we investigate the conditions controlling the most explosive styles exhibited along basaltic fissure eruptions on volcanic islands, by reanalysing the ...
[31]
The Laki Fissure eruption, 1783-1784
May 1, 2025 · A 27-kilometer-long fissure tore through the landscape, beginning an eruption, which would last until February 7, 1784.
[32]
Magmatic fissures and their systems in Iceland: A tectonomagmatic ...
Oct 26, 2007 · The surface dimensions and trends of active fissures show their spatial relation with fault systems. Structure of the Fremri-Namur and Hengill ...
[33]
Rift structure and development: The Krafla Fissure Swarm (Northern ...
Geological and tectonic background. Iceland is situated along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and above a mantle plume, which has led to large magma upwelling and ...
[34]
Grímsvötn - Global Volcanism Program
This report summarizes past eruptions, jökulhlaups, and possible co-occurrences of the two with respect to Grímsvötn, and then describes in more detail events.
[35]
Three-dimensional lithofacies variations in hyaloclastite deposits
This paper describes two examples of basaltic hyaloclastite successions in Iceland. Detailed field documentation and geological mapping has allowed key ...
[36]
Grímsvötn - Catalogue of Icelandic Volcanoes
The observed eruption sites (eruptions since 1934 CE) have all occurred on short fissures along the southern caldera fault. Eruption triggering by sudden drop ...
[37]
Eldgjá and Laki: Two large Icelandic fissure eruptions and a ...
Jan 28, 2025 · Both Eldgjá and Laki were fissure eruptions in southern Iceland that released exceptionally large volumes of lava and volcanic gases. In their ...<|separator|>
[38]
High‐Resolution Ice‐Core Analyses Identify the Eldgjá Eruption and ...
Aug 22, 2024 · The Eldgjá eruption, associated with Katla volcanic system, is considered the largest Icelandic lava flood, by volume, of the Common Era. This ...3 Results · 3.3 Cryptotephra · 4.3 Volcano-Climate Impacts
[39]
The impact of the 1996 subglacial volcanic eruption in Vatnajökull ...
The volcanic fissure, which was given the name Gjálp, extended between Bárdarbunga and Grı́msvötn (Fig. 1), two major subglacial central volcanoes. The volcanic ...
[40]
The Mid-Atlantic ridge on Reykjanes - IUGS-Geoheritage.org
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge on Reykjanes is an active rift zone with faulting, fissure eruptions, and geothermal areas, part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, with a 45km ...
[41]
Geology of Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park - USGS.gov
It began when a fissure 2.5-miles (4 km) long opened along the southwest rift zone near the Lua Hou pit crater. The lava flowed westward and advanced 5 miles (8 ...
[42]
[PDF] Geologic Map of the Northwest Flank of Mauna Loa Volcano, Island ...
Jul 5, 2024 · Subparallel eruptive fissures and ground cracks cut vent deposits and flows in and near the rift zone. Fissure vents, commonly en echelon, are ...
[43]
[PDF] Eruptions of Hawaiian Volcanoes— - USGS Publications Warehouse
Hawaiian volcanoes have frequent spectacular eruptions, including fissure eruptions and lava flows, and are often viewable and studied with relative ease and ...
[44]
[PDF] Geologic Map of the Summit Region of K´lauea Volcano, Hawaii
Additionally, radial fissure vents are present on the northwest flank ... The morphology of near-vent structures from. Hawaiian eruptions depends on ...
[45]
[PDF] to Early 19th-Century Volcanic Eruptions in the Southwest Rift Zone ...
Mar 1, 2019 · The index map shows the general relations of the Southwest Rift Zone (SWRZ) and East Rift Zone (ERZ) to. Kīlauea's caldera. The Kamakai'a Hills ...
[46]
[PDF] KILAUEA VOLCANO, HAWAII
the vent area is characterized by open fissures and spatter ramparts ... 57 Index map of the upper southwest rift zone between Yellow Cone and. Puu ...
[47]
Hawaiian Volcano Observatory | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
HVO monitors earthquakes and the active volcanoes in Hawaii, assesses their hazards, issues warnings, and advances scientific understanding.Volcano Watch · Observatory Messages · Monitoring Earthquakes in... · Multimedia
[48]
[PDF] Seismic Instrumentation Plan for the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory
FRONT COVER. Two volcanic plumes from the Kïlauea magmatic system with Mauna Loa in the background on the Island of Hawai`i.
[49]
Erta Ale - Global Volcanism Program
The Afar Rift Consortium also noted that recent fissure eruptions occurred on Erta Ale's N flank. References. Field, L, and Keir, D. 2010, Observations from ...
[50]
Volcanic activity and hazard in the East African Rift Zone - Nature
Nov 25, 2021 · Multidisciplinary studies have unearthed a rich history of volcanic activity and unrest in the densely-populated East African Rift System.
[51]
The pattern of circumferential and radial eruptive fissures on the ...
Maps of the eruptive vents on the active shield volcanoes of Fernandina and Isabela islands, Galapagos, made from aerial photographs, display a distinctive ...
[52]
Picos Fissural Volcanic System
Geological Summary. Nearly 200 scoria cones of the Picos volcanic system dot the narrow central zone of Sao Miguel Island between Sete Cidades and Agua de ...
[53]
Columbia River Basalt Group Stretches from Oregon to Idaho
Jun 22, 2017 · The Columbia River Basalt Group (CRBG) is the youngest, smallest and one of the best-preserved continental flood basalt province on Earth.
[54]
[PDF] Open-File Report 90-415 - USGS Publications Warehouse
basalts and the Reunion track, the Parana basalts and the Tristan track, and ... Some extension parallel to the ENE trend of the. SRP is indicated by fissures and ...
[55]
Image GVP-11883 - Global Volcanism Program
Submarine eruptions at mid-ocean ridges produce pillow lavas, which form as lava slowly erupts from a fissure on the sea floor. The E-W-trending Galápagos ...
[56]
[PDF] Ocean Drilling Program Leg 152 Scientific Prospectus
Offshore continuation of East Greenland dyke swarm and North Atlantic. Ocean formation. Nature, 274:220-223. Larsen, H.C., 1980. Geological perspectives of ...
[57]
[PDF] Atmospheric and environmental effects of the 1783–1784 Laki ...
The Laki eruption emitted 122 Mt SO2, creating a sulfuric aerosol veil, causing acid precipitation, a hot July, and a severe winter with a 1.3C cooling.
[58]
Volcanoes Can Affect Climate | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
The large 1783-1784 Laki fissure eruption in Iceland released a staggering amount more sulfur dioxide than Pinatubo (approximately 120-million ton vs. 20).Missing: volume | Show results with:volume
[59]
Laki, Iceland - 1783 | Volcano World - Oregon State University
The Laki eruption lasted eight months during which time about 14 cubic km of basaltic lava and some tephra were erupted.
[60]
Frequently Asked Questions about Mauna Loa Volcano - USGS.gov
Mauna Loa is similar to Kīlauea in that both volcanoes can produce 'a'ā lava or tube-fed pāhoehoe flows that can travel long distances from an active vent.Missing: context | Show results with:context
[61]
Puyehue-Cordón Caulle - Global Volcanism Program
Historical eruptions have occurred from several points along the Cordón Caulle fissure system during the 19th and 20th centuries. Photo by Klaus Dorsch ...
[62]
Synchrony and Causal Relations Between Permian-Triassic ...
Volcanogenic sulfate aerosols and the dynamic effects of the Siberian plume likely contributed to environmental extrema that led to the mass extinctions.
[63]
Volume and rate of volcanic CO2 emissions governed the severity of ...
Indeed, the Siberian Traps, which have the highest CO2 emission volume, are associated with Earth's deadliest extinction event at the Permian–Triassic boundary ...
[64]
Eruption at the Sundhnúkur crater row remains likely | News
Mar 25, 2025 · Red lines indicate the onset of the last seven eruptions (18 December, 2023; 14 January, 8 February, 16 March, 29 May, 22 August, and 20 ...The Next Eruption Could Be... · Hazard Assessment Unchanged · Increased Hazard In Three...
[65]
2025 - News | Icelandic Meteorological office
The ninth eruption on the Sundhnúkur crater row has ended - 5.8.2025. Updated 5 August. The volcanic eruption that began on 16 July on the Sundhnúkur crater row ...
[66]
Volcanic Activity in Reykjanes - Government of Iceland
Updated 30 July 2025. An eruption began on the Reykjanes Peninsula shortly before 4 AM on July 16th, in the Sundhnúkur fissure just north of Grindavík.
[67]
Reykjanes - Global Volcanism Program
For a short period of time the interaction of groundwater and magma produced tephra-laden gas-and-steam plumes. By noon the entire fissure was about 2.4 km ...
[68]
June 2024 Kīlauea Southwest Rift Zone Eruption - USGS.gov
This reference map depicts the June 3, 2024, eruption along Kīlauea's Southwest Rift Zone. The lava flows are shown in pink, covering about 99 acres (40 ...
[69]
September 17, 2024 —Kīlauea middle East Rift Zone eruption ...
Sep 17, 2024 · In total, the fissure system has stretched over 1.6 kilometers (1.0 miles) of the East Rift Zone, with lava flows now covering 18 hectares (44 ...
[70]
Kīlauea | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
Sep 15, 2024 · Kīlauea is one of the world's most active volcanoes; since December 23, 2024, it has been intermittently erupting within the summit caldera in Hawaiʻi ...Missing: context | Show results with:context