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Followership

Followership denotes the behaviors, attitudes, and roles of individuals who engage with leaders to advance collective goals, often involving active participation, critical thinking, and independent contribution rather than mere compliance.^[1] Unlike passive subordination, effective followership requires followers to self-manage, solve problems autonomously, and provide constructive input, thereby complementing leadership and driving organizational outcomes.^[1]^[2] Pioneering work by Robert E. Kelley in the late 1980s introduced a typology distinguishing followers by their independence and activity: passive types who require constant direction, conformists who uncritically obey, alienated critics who withhold effort despite insight, pragmatic survivors who adapt minimally, and exemplary followers who combine initiative, competence, and loyalty to enhance group efficacy.^[1] Barbara Kellerman extended this by framing followers along a spectrum of engagement and power relative to leaders, categorizing them as isolated (disengaged and powerless), bystanders (observant but uninvolved), participants (somewhat active), activists (committed supporters or challengers), and diehards (intensely devoted, for better or worse).^[3] These models underscore that followership is not monolithic but varies in quality, with high-caliber followers capable of shaping leaders and mitigating poor leadership through courage and accountability.^[3] Empirical research since the 2010s has validated followership's causal influence on performance metrics, including team coordination, creative output, and even the emergence of new leaders in fluid settings, as effective following fosters shared influence and reduces reliance on singular authority figures.^[2]^[4] Studies demonstrate that proactive followership correlates with higher innovation and adaptability in teams, countering the historical overemphasis on leaders alone and revealing how follower dynamics co-construct successful hierarchies.^[5] Controversies persist regarding followership's perceived subordination, yet data affirm its parity with leadership in explanatory power for group success, particularly in contexts demanding distributed responsibility over top-down control.^[4]

Definition and Core Concepts

Defining Followership

Followership encompasses the roles, behaviors, and dynamics of individuals who support leaders in pursuing shared goals, extending beyond mere compliance to include active participation, critical thinking, and mutual influence within leadership processes. It is formally studied as the examination of followers' nature, following actions—such as deference, resistance, or collaboration—and their effects on individual, relational, and organizational outcomes.^[6] This perspective, articulated in foundational reviews, positions followership as inherently relational and reciprocal, rather than subordinate or unidirectional.^[7] Key behaviors defining effective followership include endorsing others' directives, elevating collective priorities over personal ones, and competently performing assigned functions, which complement leadership actions like initiative and motivation.^[2] Empirical analyses in team settings demonstrate that such followership correlates with reduced interpersonal conflict (e.g., dyadic beta = -0.72, p = 0.002; team-level beta = -0.49, p < 0.001), fostering adaptability and performance through interdependence.^[2] Unlike leadership's emphasis on direction, followership prioritizes execution and feedback, yet both are essential: leadership without followership yields isolation, while followership absent leadership devolves into aimlessness.^[2] Pioneering scholars have refined this concept through typologies and agency-focused lenses. Robert E. Kelley, in his 1988 framework, classified followers along dimensions of engagement and independence, identifying exemplary types as proactive critical thinkers who drive results, contrasted with passive, conformist, alienated, or pragmatic variants that vary in contribution.^[1] Barbara Kellerman advanced the view of followers as active agents capable of shaping or challenging leaders, emphasizing their growing influence in modern contexts and rejecting the notion of inherent passivity, with the axiom that "there is no leader without at least one follower."^[3] These models underscore followership's causal role in outcomes, grounded in observable behaviors rather than ascribed status.^[8]

Evolutionary and Psychological Foundations

From an evolutionary perspective, followership co-evolved with leadership as complementary adaptations to solve coordination challenges in ancestral small-scale societies, such as collective foraging, defense against predators, and migration decisions. Natural selection promoted psychological mechanisms allowing individuals to cede autonomy to competent others in situations exceeding personal expertise, thereby improving group-level outcomes like survival rates and resource acquisition over solitary or consensus-based efforts.^[9] These dynamics likely originated in Pleistocene hunter-gatherer bands of 50-150 individuals, where situational leadership emerged for specific tasks, with followership enabling rapid alignment without constant renegotiation.^[10] Human followership diverges from primate dominance by prioritizing prestige—earned through demonstrated skills, planning, or generosity—over force, as prestige facilitates voluntary deference, knowledge sharing, and alliance-building with lower conflict costs. Evolutionary models posit context-sensitive followership psychology, activating under uncertainty or threat (e.g., resource scarcity or intergroup rivalry), where followers assess leaders via cues like past success and benevolence to maximize inclusive fitness.^[11] Heritability studies estimate 24-33% genetic variance in leadership emergence, implying parallel underpinnings for followership traits like agreeableness and initiative responsiveness, corroborated by twin research and cross-cultural patterns in egalitarian societies.^[10] This flexibility counters exploitation risks, as ancestral environments selected against indiscriminate submission, favoring mechanisms to monitor and abandon ineffective leaders.^[12] Psychologically, followership rests on reciprocity-based mechanisms, including service-for-prestige exchanges where deference to skilled leaders yields deferred benefits like skill imitation and protection coalitions, rooted in human hyper-cooperation beyond kin. Cognitive processes involve implicit evaluation of leader signals (e.g., confidence, expertise) to reduce decision uncertainty, akin to agency detection systems evolved for social navigation.^[13] These underpin active followership styles, blending compliance with independent judgment, as evidenced by preferences for non-dominant leaders in experimental threat scenarios and real-world data from disaster responses where followership enhances resilience without passivity.^[10] Safeguards, such as defection triggers for detected opportunism, reflect causal realism in selection pressures balancing cooperation gains against free-rider costs in repeated interactions.^[14]

Historical Development

Ancient and Pre-Modern Views

In ancient Greek philosophy, Plato outlined a hierarchical society in The Republic (c. 375 BCE), dividing citizens into three classes: philosopher-guardians as rulers, auxiliaries as enforcers who obeyed the guardians' directives to maintain order, and producers who followed societal norms for economic stability.^[15] This structure implied followership as dutiful adherence to rational authority, preventing chaos through class-specific obedience without questioning superior wisdom. Aristotle, in Politics (c. 350 BCE), emphasized obedience as crucial for constitutional stability, arguing that citizens must follow laws and rulers to avoid factional strife, with the masses obeying more from necessity and fear of punishment than voluntary virtue.^[16]^[17] Biblical texts portrayed followership through discipleship and submission to divine or appointed authority. In Proverbs 14:28 (c. 6th century BCE), loyal followers signified effective leadership, equating a ruler's success with subject allegiance.^[18] New Testament exhortations, such as Hebrews 13:17 (c. 60-70 CE), urged believers to obey leaders accountable to God, framing followership as vigilant submission for communal accountability.^[19] This model extended Old Testament patterns, where prophets like Elijah gathered followers through exemplary conduct and divine mandate, emphasizing imitation and loyalty over independent agency.^[20] In ancient China, Confucian thought (c. 551-479 BCE) structured followership within the "five relationships," mandating subordinates—such as ministers to rulers or sons to fathers—to exhibit loyalty (zhōng) and propriety (lǐ) toward superiors, reciprocated by benevolent governance (rén).^[21] This paternalistic hierarchy viewed effective followership as moral cultivation through emulation of virtuous superiors, fostering social harmony via reciprocal duties rather than egalitarian participation.^[22] Pre-modern European views, as in Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince (1532), treated subjects pragmatically: rulers should cultivate loyalty to prevent rebellion, preferring to be feared yet not hated, arming followers to bind them as partisans while avoiding policies breeding contempt.^[23] In medieval feudalism (c. 9th-15th centuries), vassalage formalized followership as oaths of fealty exchanging land (fiefs) for military service and counsel, creating mutual bonds of protection and fidelity amid decentralized power.^[24]^[25] These arrangements prioritized personal loyalty over abstract institutions, with breaches punishable by forfeiture, reflecting a contractual realism in hierarchical allegiance.

20th-Century Emergence

The study of followership gained initial traction in the mid-20th century amid a broader shift in organizational psychology from rigid, leader-centric models to those incorporating group dynamics and subordinate roles. Research in the 1950s began exploring followers' behaviors in small groups and authority structures, though it remained marginal compared to dominant trait and behavioral leadership theories.^[26]^[27] This early work laid groundwork by recognizing followers not merely as passive recipients but as active participants influencing outcomes, influenced by post-World War II emphases on democratic processes and human relations in management.^[28] Significant emergence as a distinct scholarly focus occurred in the late 1980s, driven by critiques of overemphasizing leaders while undervaluing followers' agency in hierarchical systems. Robert E. Kelley's 1988 Harvard Business Review article "In Praise of Followers" marked a pivotal moment, positing that effective organizations depend on competent, independent followers rather than charismatic leaders alone; he classified followers into five types—alienated, conformist, passive, pragmatic, and exemplary—based on dimensions of independence and active engagement.^[26] Kelley's framework, expanded in his 1992 book The Power of Followership, argued empirically that "star" followers, characterized by critical thinking and initiative, contribute disproportionately to success, drawing from surveys of over 1,000 employees in diverse firms.^[29]^[8] Parallel developments included Ira Chaleff's introduction of the "courageous follower" model in the early 1990s, which stressed followers' ethical duty to support leaders while challenging unethical decisions, informed by analyses of historical obedience studies like Milgram's 1960s experiments.^[30] These contributions reflected causal shifts in workplace realities, such as flattening hierarchies and rising knowledge work, prompting recognition that follower behaviors explain up to 80% of variance in team performance, per contemporaneous organizational studies.^[31] By the 1990s, followership research had coalesced into typological and relational models, countering earlier biases in academia toward elite-focused leadership, though it faced resistance due to cultural preferences for heroic narratives.^[32]

Key Scholars and Milestones

Robert E. Kelley is widely recognized as a pioneer in formalizing followership studies, with his 1988 Harvard Business Review article "In Praise of Followers" introducing a typology classifying followers into five styles: exemplary (independent critical thinkers), alienated (independent but pessimistic), conformist (dependent and uncritical), passive (dependent and uncritical), and pragmatist (variable engagement).^[26] ^[8] Kelley's 1992 book The Power of Followership: How to Create Leaders People Want to Follow, and Followers Who Lead Themselves elaborated on these categories, arguing that effective followership—characterized by initiative, critical thinking, and accountability—drives organizational performance more than leadership alone.^[33] ^[34] Ira Chaleff advanced the discourse in 1995 with The Courageous Follower: Standing Up to and for Our Leaders, proposing a model where followers assume responsibility for supporting leaders while challenging them on ethical or strategic grounds, positioning followership as a dynamic partnership rather than passive obedience.^[35] ^[36] This framework emphasized five dimensions: assuming responsibility, serving the group, challenging authority, participating in transformation, and leaving if necessary.^[37] Barbara Kellerman contributed a broader societal perspective in her 2008 book Followership: How Followers Are Creating Change and Changing Leaders, analyzing how followers' engagement levels—from isolated to participatory—shape leadership outcomes and historical events, with empirical examples drawn from politics and organizations.^[38] ^[3] She categorized followers by participation (inaction, participation, etc.) and attitudes (from committed to alienated), underscoring followers' growing influence amid democratizing trends.^[39] A synthesizing milestone came in 2014 with Mary Uhl-Bien, Ronald F. Riggio, and colleagues' review "Followership Theory: A Review and Research Agenda," published in The Leadership Quarterly, which traced followership's evolution from leader-centric views (e.g., Taylor's 1911 scientific management) to relational models, proposing a formal theory emphasizing followers' co-productive role in leadership emergence.^[40] ^[31] This work highlighted earlier relational foundations, such as Mary Parker Follett's 1920s-1940s advocacy for "power with" over power over, and Edwin Hollander's 1958 studies on mutual influence, while calling for empirical agendas to test followership's causal impacts.^[41] ^[31]

Theoretical Models

Typological Approaches

Typological approaches to followership classify individuals based on behavioral dimensions such as engagement level (active versus passive participation) and critical thinking (independent judgment versus conformity). These classifications aim to delineate how followers contribute to or hinder group dynamics, with empirical studies linking certain types to organizational outcomes like performance and innovation.^[42] Robert E. Kelley's typology, introduced in 1988 and expanded in his 1992 book The Power of Followership, remains the most cited framework, plotting followers on two axes: independent critical thinking (high to low) and active organizational engagement (high to low). This results in five categories: exemplary followers (high on both axes), who proactively support leaders while offering constructive criticism and demonstrating initiative; alienated followers (high critical thinking, low engagement), who identify flaws but withhold effort due to cynicism; conformist followers (low critical thinking, high engagement), who prioritize harmony and execute tasks without question; passive followers (low on both), who require constant direction and contribute minimally; and pragmatist followers (moderate on both), who adapt situationally but rarely excel or challenge. Kelley estimated that exemplary followers comprise about 20% of typical workforces, correlating their traits with higher team efficacy in case studies of organizations like DuPont.^[43] Ira Chaleff's 1995 model in The Courageous Follower shifts emphasis to ethical dimensions, using axes of leader support (high to low) and willingness to challenge (high to low), yielding types such as implementers (high support, low challenge), partners (high both), individualists (low support, high challenge), and resource followers (high support, low challenge but supportive in non-direct roles). This typology, validated in military and corporate training contexts, underscores the causal role of challenging followers in preventing ethical lapses, as evidenced by analyses of historical failures like the Challenger disaster where low-challenge types predominated.^[44] Barbara Kellerman's 2008 typology in Followership categorizes by engagement level: isolates (disengaged and detached), bystanders (aware but uninvolved), participants (moderately engaged), activists (highly committed and vocal), and diehards (extreme loyalty or opposition). Drawing from political and organizational examples, Kellerman's framework highlights how contextual factors like perceived leader competence influence type prevalence, with empirical surveys showing activists driving change in 30-40% of high-stakes groups but risking polarization if diehards dominate. These approaches collectively reveal that effective followership typologies prioritize causal mechanisms—such as cognitive independence fostering adaptability—over mere compliance, though critiques note their static nature overlooks situational fluidity observed in longitudinal studies.^[45]

Role-Based and Relational Theories

Role-based theories of followership conceptualize followers primarily as occupants of formal subordinate positions within hierarchical organizations, emphasizing their traits, behaviors, and styles as causal factors in leadership processes. These approaches "reverse the lens" from leader-centric views, treating followers as active influencers rather than passive recipients, with behaviors such as obedience, resistance, or proactivity shaping outcomes like group performance. Pioneered by scholars like Boas Shamir in 2007, who advocated examining followers' independent contributions, role-based perspectives draw on entity-based paradigms to classify followership along continua of engagement and autonomy. A seminal contribution is Robert E. Kelley's 1988 framework, which identifies five follower types—exemplary (high engagement and critical thinking), alienated (critical but disengaged), conformist (dependent and uncritical), passive (low engagement overall), and pragmatist (variable)—based on dimensions of independence and active participation.^[1] Ira Chaleff's 1995 model of courageous followership further delineates roles like implementer, partner, and challenger, stressing ethical support or opposition to leaders even at personal risk. Empirical studies support variability in role enactment; for instance, Carsten et al. (2010) found that contextual factors, such as leader style, influence whether followers adopt passive, active, or proactive orientations, with proactive followers enhancing leader effectiveness in surveys of 218 U.S. employees. Similarly, Sy's 2010 research on implicit followership theories identified six prototype traits (e.g., industry, enthusiasm) and six antiprototype traits (e.g., irresponsible, inflexible) that subordinates and supervisors attribute to followers, validated across 249 participants. Critics argue that role-based theories risk oversimplification by conflating followership with low-power positions, potentially overlooking fluid power dynamics or non-hierarchical contexts, as noted in Uhl-Bien et al.'s 2014 review. Despite this, the approach has informed practical applications, such as training programs emphasizing proactive subordinate behaviors to mitigate risks like destructive obedience, evidenced in organizational studies linking exemplary followership to higher team productivity. Relational theories of followership, in contrast, frame following as a co-constructed social process embedded in leader-follower interactions, rather than fixed roles, drawing on constructionist paradigms to highlight mutual identity formation and influence. Followers and leaders jointly enact leadership through reciprocal exchanges, where behaviors like identity claiming (follower initiatives) and granting (leader responses) produce outcomes, as modeled by DeRue and Ashford in 2010. This perspective aligns with social constructivism, positing that followership emerges from discursive and relational practices, not inherent traits or hierarchies. Key examples include Shamir's 2007 co-production model, where followers actively shape leadership scripts, and Fairhurst and Uhl-Bien's 2012 discursive approach, analyzing how language in interactions constructs follower identities. Empirical grounding is more process-oriented; DeRue and Ashford's framework, tested in longitudinal studies, demonstrates how mutual reinforcement of leader-follower identities predicts sustained role commitment in teams, with data from organizational simulations showing reciprocal effects on performance. Relational views extend to leader-member exchange (LMX) theory adaptations, where high-quality dyads foster bidirectional influence, supported by meta-analyses linking LMX quality to follower initiative in over 200 samples. Challenges include measurement difficulties for dynamic processes and potential overemphasis on interdependence at the expense of individual agency, prompting calls for mixed-methods research to validate co-construction empirically. Nonetheless, these theories underscore followership's causal role in leadership emergence, with evidence from qualitative case studies indicating that relational engagement buffers against follower alienation in volatile environments.

Implicit Followership Theories

Implicit followership theories (IFTs) constitute cognitive structures comprising individuals' assumptions about the traits and behaviors that define followers in organizational and social contexts. These theories parallel implicit leadership theories by emphasizing subjective prototypes over objective roles, with followers categorized via positive prototypes—such as diligence, enthusiasm, and good citizenship—and counter-prototypes, including incompetence, submissiveness, and disobedience.^[46]^[47] Originating in organizational psychology, IFTs gained prominence through empirical work distinguishing leaders' perceptions of followers from followers' self-concepts, highlighting how these schemas influence relational dynamics and performance evaluations.^[48]^[49] Key research identifies IFTs as shaped by socialization and personal predispositions, with Sy (2010) developing an 18-item measurement scale demonstrating strong psychometric properties for assessing prototype endorsement.^[47] Leaders' IFTs, for instance, correlate positively with subordinates' internal and external marketability perceptions, as evidenced in studies of employee outcomes where positive follower prototypes foster supportive behaviors.^[50] Followers' IFTs similarly affect attitudes, with stronger alignment to positive prototypes linked to proactive engagement rather than passive conformity.^[51] Carsten et al. (2010) further categorized follower traits into proactive, active, and passive dimensions, underscoring IFTs' role in differentiating effective from ineffective followership beyond mere obedience.^[47] Empirical investigations reveal causal links between IFT antecedents and outcomes; for example, core self-evaluation significantly predicts endorsement of positive IFTs (β = 0.308, p < 0.01) while negatively associating with counter-prototypes (β = -0.312, p < 0.01) among 452 recent graduates, whereas proactive personality shows no such effect.^[46] Leaders espousing positive IFTs report higher subordinate job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behaviors, as corroborated in multiple studies.^[47] These findings, drawn from cross-sectional and experimental designs, indicate IFTs dynamically process follower traits, influencing recognition and cooperation in leader-follower exchanges, though cultural variations in prototype traits remain underexplored.^[48]^[52]

Applications Across Contexts

In Organizational Settings

In organizational settings, followership refers to the dynamic behaviors of non-leadership personnel who actively support hierarchical goals while exercising independent judgment, thereby co-producing outcomes alongside leaders. Unlike passive obedience, effective followership involves initiative, critical thinking, and accountability, which enable organizations to adapt and innovate beyond top-down directives.^[1]^[8] Robert Kelley's 1988 framework delineates five follower types along dimensions of engagement (passive to active) and critical thinking (dependent to independent): passive followers, who comply minimally without input; conformists, who actively follow but lack independence; alienated followers, who critique independently but withdraw effort; pragmatists, who adapt situationally; and exemplary followers, who combine high activity with autonomous problem-solving. Exemplary followers demonstrate competence, courage to challenge constructively, and commitment to organizational missions, making them pivotal for leveraging collective intelligence in firms.^[8]^[1] Empirical evidence links effective followership to tangible performance gains. In a 2022 three-wave study of 341 Taiwanese university administrators, effective followership directly predicted creative performance (γ = 0.48, p < 0.01), with indirect effects mediated by increased work autonomy (indirect effect = 0.13, 95% CI [0.06, 0.20]) and creative self-efficacy (indirect effect = 0.17, 95% CI [0.08, 0.26]).^[53] A systematic review of 89 quantitative and qualitative studies from 2014 to 2022 found proactive followership behaviors, such as voice and feedback-seeking, positively associated with task performance, organizational citizenship, and leader effectiveness, underscoring followers' role in elevating group productivity.^[4] These patterns hold across sectors, with exemplary traits correlating to reduced reliance on constant supervision and higher adaptive capacity in dynamic markets.^[54]

In Military and Security Domains

In military organizations, followership facilitates the implementation of doctrines like mission command, which relies on subordinates exercising disciplined initiative within commander’s intent to achieve objectives in uncertain environments.^[55] Effective followers demonstrate critical thinking, engagement, and adaptability, enabling cohesive teams to respond dynamically to threats, as outlined in U.S. Army publications emphasizing mutual trust between leaders and subordinates.^[56] Robert Kelley's typology of followership styles—exemplary, alienated, conformist, passive, and pragmatic survivors—has been adapted to military contexts, with exemplary followers promoting initiative and alienated ones requiring targeted feedback to align with operational needs.^[55] ^[1] Empirical research underscores followership's impact on performance; a 2021 study of military interprofessional health teams identified qualities like flexibility, mutual respect, and emotional safety as key to collaboration, directly supporting mission success in high-stakes settings.^[57] In the Armed Forces of the Philippines, analysis of 423 personnel revealed significant correlations between personality traits (e.g., conscientiousness and openness) and proactive followership behaviors, linking these to enhanced unit cohesion and task execution.^[58] Professional military education programs advocate integrating followership training, noting that 87% of lieutenant colonels spend most careers as subordinates, and failure to cultivate dissent risks ethical lapses, as historical cases like unchecked command decisions illustrate.^[56] In security domains, including law enforcement and intelligence operations, followership maintains hierarchical discipline while enabling vigilant adaptation; for instance, Korean security police studies highlight differences in follower styles influencing compliance and innovation under pressure.^[59] FBI training frameworks stress foundational followership to build trust and operational alignment, preventing rigid obedience that could undermine threat response.^[60] Critical followership, involving reasoned challenge to orders, enhances resilience in fluid security environments, reducing errors in intelligence analysis and field actions.^[61] These applications prioritize verifiable outcomes, such as improved team adaptability, over unquestioned loyalty. Followership in politics encompasses the behaviors, perceptions, and active engagement of citizens who support and co-produce leadership outcomes with political figures, particularly in personalized electoral systems. Recent analyses highlight that followers' evaluations of leaders' traits and actions shape political legitimacy and mobilization, as evidenced in studies of the 2016 U.S. presidential election where observer perceptions influenced leadership attribution.^[62] In democratic contexts, this dynamic underscores followers as strategic actors rather than passive recipients, contributing to leader selection and policy endorsement through voting and advocacy.^[62] The adaptive followership theory posits that political followers preferentially elevate dominant leaders during periods of intergroup conflict or threat to bolster collective aggression against rivals, a preference that fluctuates with environmental cues rather than fixed personality traits. Empirical data from U.S. and Western European samples indicate stronger inclinations among conservative identifiers, with preferences intensifying post-threat events like the September 11, 2001, attacks.^[63] This mechanism explains heightened support for assertive figures in uncertain times, where followers balance potential benefits of dominance against risks of exploitation.^[63] In social movements and populist surges, followership drives mobilization via shared social identities and charisma attribution, enabling rapid collective action. Research demonstrates that aligned identity content between leaders and followers enhances participation, as seen in experimental findings on group mobilization.^[64] Populist contexts amplify this, with followers exhibiting increased sensitivity to charismatic signals, fostering loyalty in movements challenging establishments.^[65] In hybrid autocratic systems, such as those under Viktor Orbán in Hungary since 2010 or Donald Trump during 2016–2020, followers actively legitimize leaders through emotional allegiance and opposition to dissenters, often without reciprocal accountability.^[66] These patterns contribute to polarization but also sustain regime stability amid electoral facades.^[66]

In Religious and Ideological Groups

In religious groups, followership frequently embodies a model of voluntary submission and active partnership with spiritual authorities, akin to biblical discipleship, where adherents consciously align their actions to fulfill communal or divine missions.^[67] Studies of Christian congregations reveal that followers, including volunteers, shape leadership dynamics through influence and power exertion, often inverting hierarchical expectations by holding leaders accountable to doctrinal standards.^[68] ^[69] This relational followership fosters group cohesion but can amplify obedience when leaders invoke sacred authority, as evidenced in phenomenological analyses of local church contexts where followers prioritize collective spiritual goals over individual autonomy.^[70] In ideological groups, followership sustains movements by enabling conformity to core tenets, with adherents deriving identity and purpose from alignment with charismatic or dominant figures.^[63] Research highlights how susceptible followers—often categorized as conformers or colluders—facilitate destructive outcomes by endorsing toxic leadership traits like narcissism or manipulation, particularly in environments conducive to extremism.^[71] ^[72] Empirical data from terrorist organizations indicate that followers perpetrate more violent acts than leaders, underscoring a pattern of escalated commitment in ideological settings where group ideology overrides personal ethical boundaries.^[73] Cults, blending religious and ideological elements, exemplify extreme followership through psychological manipulation that exploits vulnerabilities, yielding no uniform psychopathology among members but consistent patterns of compliance and isolation from external critique.^[74] Followers in such groups often internalize leader demands via threats of spiritual or communal exclusion, leading to behaviors like resource surrender or self-harm, as documented in analyses of ideology-based sects.^[75] Historical cases, including the 1978 Jonestown mass suicide involving 918 People's Temple adherents under Jim Jones's directive, illustrate causal links between unchecked followership and catastrophic obedience, where ideological purity justified lethal compliance.^[76] Destructive followership here stems from relational bonds and prestige-seeking reciprocity, amplifying leader influence in insulated communities.^[13] Across both domains, empirical studies caution against romanticizing followership as inherently benign; in high-stakes religious or ideological contexts, it correlates with reduced critical thinking and heightened risk of exploitation, particularly when leaders exploit followers' prior beliefs or traumas.^[77] ^[78] While adaptive for doctrinal adherence or movement mobilization, such patterns reveal evolutionary tensions, where followership's benefits for group survival yield societal costs through blind allegiance.^[79]

Benefits and Empirical Evidence

Contributions to Group Success

Effective followership enhances group success by enabling the execution of collective goals, providing critical support to leaders, and fostering adaptive team dynamics that amplify overall performance. Empirical research demonstrates that followership behaviors complement leadership actions, creating interdependence that underpins shared leadership emergence. In a prospective study of 104 leaderless project teams with 429 engineering students, team-level followership reputation correlated strongly with leadership reputation (r = 0.77, p < 0.001) and was negatively associated with relationship conflict (b = -0.49, p < 0.001 for team-referent effects), showing that effective followership reduces interpersonal tensions and facilitates smoother collaboration essential for task achievement.^[2] Beyond cohesion, followership drives substantive contributions to productivity and innovation, which aggregate to superior group outcomes. A three-wave survey of 341 Taiwanese university administrative employees found that effective followership at Time 1 boosted creative performance at Time 3, mediated by work autonomy (indirect effect = 0.13, 95% CI [0.06, 0.20]; path γ = 0.40 from followership to autonomy, p < 0.01) and creative self-efficacy at Time 2 (indirect effect = 0.17, 95% CI [0.08, 0.26]; path γ = 0.49 from followership to self-efficacy, p < 0.01), with self-efficacy exerting a stronger influence on creativity (γ = 0.34, p < 0.01).^[53] This mediation highlights how followers' proactive orientation empowers autonomous action and intrinsic motivation, directly causal to elevated group-level creativity and problem-solving. Foundational analyses further quantify followership's outsized role, with Robert Kelley positing that followers contribute to roughly 80% of organizational success through their competence, commitment, and independent critical thinking, shifting causal emphasis from leaders alone to the follower base that operationalizes strategies and mitigates execution risks.^[8]^[1] Such contributions are evident in how effective followers shape leader behaviors toward productivity, as corroborated by patterns where strong followership compensates for leadership gaps to yield higher performance than mismatched dynamics.^[80]

Verifiable Outcomes from Studies

Empirical research has demonstrated that effective followership behaviors, such as active engagement and proactive voice, correlate with enhanced individual and group performance outcomes. In a study of U.S. Army acquisition and research employees (N=57), exemplary followers—characterized by high active engagement and critical thinking—exhibited significantly higher self-reported job performance (M=5.3, SD=0.5) compared to pragmatist followers (M=4.8, SD=0.6; t(19.73)=3.16, p=0.005), with active engagement showing a strong positive correlation (r=0.56, p<0.01).^[8] Similarly, work groups containing more exemplary followers reported superior performance (M=4.6, SD=0.5) versus those with pragmatists (M=4.0, SD=0.7; t(18.21)=2.78, p=0.012), underscoring followership's role in elevating collective efficacy.^[8] Followership also fosters creative performance through motivational pathways. A three-wave longitudinal survey of 341 Taiwanese university administrative staff found that effective followership at Time 1 positively predicted creative performance at Time 3 (γ=0.48, p<0.01), with partial mediation via work autonomy (indirect effect=0.13, 95% CI [0.06, 0.20]) and creative self-efficacy (indirect effect=0.17, 95% CI [0.08, 0.26]).^[53] These mechanisms highlight how followers' supportive behaviors enhance intrinsic motivation and output innovation, independent of direct leadership inputs.^[53] In team settings, followership mitigates relational friction, promoting cohesion. Analysis of dyadic ratings within teams revealed that perceiving a teammate as a strong follower was associated with reduced relationship conflict (b=-0.72, p=0.002), while team-level followership ratings inversely predicted overall conflict (b=-0.49, p<0.001).^[2] Effective followership reputations further diminished individuals' involvement in conflict networks (b=-1.17, p<0.001), complementing leadership's effects (r=0.77 between leadership and followership at team level, p<0.001) to underpin shared leadership dynamics.^[2] Systematic reviews of post-2014 research affirm these patterns, with proactive followership elements like voice behaviors linked to improved group effectiveness, higher performance evaluations, and reduced supervisory abuse across studies (e.g., N=56–212,223).^[4] Such outcomes persist in diverse contexts, indicating followership's causal contribution to adaptive group functioning beyond mere compliance.^[4]

Risks, Dangers, and Criticisms

Destructive Followership Patterns

Destructive followership patterns encompass follower behaviors that facilitate or exacerbate harm to individuals, groups, or institutions by enabling destructive leaders or perpetuating unethical group dynamics. These patterns emerge when susceptible followers, characterized by traits such as unmet psychological needs, low self-esteem, or ideological alignment, comply with or amplify harmful directives rather than resisting them. Central to this phenomenon is the toxic triangle framework, which posits that destructive outcomes require not only flawed leaders but also followers who are predisposed to conformity or collusion within environments tolerant of deviance.^[81] Conformers represent a primary destructive pattern, involving passive acquiescence to unethical or abusive actions to avoid personal discomfort, retaliation, or social exclusion. Such followers often exhibit insecurity, ambiguous self-concepts, or dependency, leading them to prioritize short-term stability over long-term ethical concerns; empirical analyses link these traits to reduced resistance against coercive authority, as seen in organizational settings where employees overlook fraud or harassment to maintain job security.^[82] In experimental paradigms echoing Milgram's obedience studies (1963), conformist tendencies manifest as compliance rates exceeding 60% under perceived authority pressure, contributing to collective harms like policy failures or safety violations. Colluders form another destructive pattern, actively endorsing or advancing a leader's destructive agenda for self-interested or ideological reasons. Opportunistic colluders exploit the chaos for personal advancement, such as promotions amid weakened oversight, while acolyte colluders internalize the leader's vision, rationalizing atrocities as necessary; a taxonomy of these subtypes reveals that colluders often possess higher narcissism or Machiavellianism, correlating with 20-30% greater endorsement of unethical decisions in group simulations.^[82] Historical cases, including Fidel Castro's regime, illustrate colluders' role in sustaining oppression through shared paranoia and ambition, where followers not only tolerated but propagated purges affecting thousands.^[81] Empirical research underscores the causal role of these patterns in amplifying damage, with meta-analyses showing destructive followership linked to elevated follower stress, turnover intentions up to 40% higher, and organizational ethical breaches; for instance, in healthcare and military contexts, conformist silence and colluder advocacy have prolonged scandals, resulting in measurable losses like billions in fines or lives endangered.^[4]^[83] Unlike leader-centric views prevalent in some management literature, evidence from longitudinal studies emphasizes followers' agency, revealing that interventions targeting follower resilience—such as ethical training—reduce destructive compliance by 15-25% in high-risk groups.^[84]

Critiques of Passive or Blind Obedience

Psychological experiments have demonstrated the perils of passive obedience, where individuals relinquish personal judgment to authority figures, potentially leading to harmful actions. In Stanley Milgram's obedience studies conducted from 1961 to 1963 at Yale University, 65 percent of participants administered what they believed to be a 450-volt electric shock—labeled as lethal—to a confederate learner solely on the experimenter's directive, despite audible protests.^[85] This outcome underscored how ordinary people, in the absence of critical evaluation, could perpetrate destructive acts under perceived legitimate authority, challenging assumptions of inherent moral resistance.^[86] Historical events further exemplify the consequences of blind obedience in followership. During the My Lai massacre on March 16, 1968, U.S. Army soldiers under Lieutenant William Calley's command killed 347 to 504 unarmed Vietnamese civilians, with participants later citing obedience to orders as justification amid a context of escalating Vietnam War tensions.^[87] Analysts Herbert Kelman and V. Lee Hamilton classified such incidents as "crimes of obedience," where followers' deference to hierarchical directives overrides ethical scrutiny, enabling atrocities that might otherwise be rejected.^[88] Similarly, in Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945, bureaucratic and military personnel's routine compliance with escalating orders facilitated the Holocaust, as mid-level functionaries like Adolf Eichmann deferred to superiors without independent moral assessment.^[89] In organizational contexts, passive followership manifests as employees conforming to unethical directives, amplifying corporate scandals. Surveys of white-collar workers reveal that commonplace destructive obedience—such as falsifying reports or ignoring safety violations—stems from habitual deference to managerial authority, eroding accountability. For instance, empirical studies indicate that deference to leaders correlates with increased unethical pro-organizational behavior, as followers prioritize loyalty over ethical evaluation.^[90] Recent scholarship critiques the traditional "blind obedience" framing, positing instead "engaged followership" where adherents actively align with authority's perceived mission; however, this dynamic heightens risks when the mission veers destructive, as uncritical identification supplants passive compliance with zealous endorsement.^[91]

Evolutionary Puzzles and Societal Costs

Followership poses an evolutionary puzzle, as it entails subordinates deferring to superiors in ways that may reduce their ability to pursue personal preferences, raising the question of why natural selection would favor such a strategy over consistent leadership attempts.^[92] In ancestral small-scale groups, followership likely emerged as an adaptation to solve coordination challenges, such as synchronized movement during migration or defense against predators, where ceding autonomy to competent or generous individuals improved collective fitness despite individual risks like exploitation.^[11] Primate analogs, including deference hierarchies in chimpanzees, suggest deep roots, yet the persistence of followership mechanisms amid potential costs—such as resource diversion to leaders—remains paradoxical without group-level selection pressures.^[93] This puzzle intensifies in light of followership's vulnerability to maladaptive exploitation, where followers incur fitness costs from supporting self-serving dominants rather than merit-based coordinators, a dynamic observed in evolutionary models of intergroup rivalry.^[93] Experimental evidence from coordination games indicates that followership stabilizes groups but at the expense of individual autonomy, with subordinates accepting lower payoffs to maintain harmony, highlighting the tension between personal agency and adaptive deference.^[11] In contemporary societies, these mechanisms create an evolutionary mismatch, as cues evolved for evaluating leaders in intimate bands—such as physical formidability or kinship ties—lead to suboptimal selections in anonymous, large-scale hierarchies, favoring charismatic but incompetent figures over effective ones.^[94] Societal costs include diminished organizational efficacy, with studies showing preferences for dominant traits correlating with poorer team performance in merit-driven settings.^[95] Destructive followership amplifies these risks, as demonstrated in Milgram's 1961-1962 experiments where 65% of participants complied with instructions to deliver potentially lethal shocks (450 volts) to a learner, reflecting engaged deference to perceived authority rather than passive blindness, yet enabling harm when safeguards fail.^[85] ^[96] This dynamic has facilitated historical-scale damages, including policy failures from groupthink and compliance with authoritarian directives, underscoring followership's role in amplifying leader errors at population levels.^[97]

Myths and Misconceptions

Debunking Follower Passivity

The portrayal of followers as passive recipients of leadership, devoid of initiative or influence, persists as a misconception rooted in traditional leader-centric models that marginalize subordinate agency. Followership theory, however, posits that effective followers actively engage by exercising independent critical thinking and proactive behaviors, such as challenging flawed decisions or amplifying group goals, which directly contribute to organizational and team efficacy. Robert Kelley's seminal framework classifies followers along dimensions of engagement and thinking independence, identifying exemplary followers—who demonstrate high active involvement—as key drivers of success, in contrast to the minority exhibiting true passivity characterized by dependency and uncritical compliance.^[8]^[98] Empirical studies in organizational psychology substantiate this active role, revealing correlations between follower engagement and tangible outcomes like enhanced job performance and innovation. For example, followers displaying high active engagement and critical thinking foster creative performance by promoting psychological safety, enabling idea generation and refinement within teams, as evidenced in field experiments measuring idea implementation rates. Proactive follower behaviors, including voice and initiative-taking, also reciprocally motivate leaders, eliciting positive emotions such as contentment and increasing leader-directed efforts, thereby inverting the unidirectional power dynamic implied by passivity.^[53]^[99]^[8] Recent systematic reviews of followership research since 2014 further dismantle the passivity myth by documenting prevalent follower behaviors—enacted deliberately from a subordinate position—that include co-constructing leadership processes and adapting to contextual demands, rather than mere obedience. These findings, drawn from over 200 empirical studies, emphasize followers' causal influence on leadership emergence and effectiveness, with active orientations predicting superior group dynamics across sectors like healthcare and business. Such evidence underscores that passivity represents a suboptimal style, not an inherent trait, and that cultivating active followership yields measurable benefits, including higher productivity metrics in self-managing teams.^[4]^[32]^[100]

Addressing Anti-Hierarchy Biases

Anti-hierarchy biases refer to pervasive cultural and ideological predispositions that frame hierarchical structures as inherently oppressive or inefficient, often prioritizing absolute egalitarianism over evidence-based coordination mechanisms. These biases can undermine effective followership by discouraging individuals from engaging in supportive roles within ranked systems, viewing deference to authority as a moral failing rather than a pragmatic adaptation. Evolutionary models suggest hierarchies emerged in human groups to mitigate scalar stress as population sizes grew beyond small-scale bands, enabling division of labor and rapid decision-making under resource constraints; for instance, simulations show that groups exceeding 150 members transition from consensus to hierarchical governance for survival advantages.^[101]^[102] Empirical research counters anti-hierarchy sentiments by demonstrating that clear rank differentiation in teams reduces uncertainty in interactions, enhances processing ease, and fosters a sense of control, leading to superior collective outcomes compared to ambiguous or flat arrangements. In experimental and field studies of workgroups, moderate hierarchy steepness correlates with lower conflict and higher performance, as it clarifies roles and allocates influence based on competence rather than diffusion. Hierarchical cultural orientations have also predicted national success metrics, such as economic productivity and longevity in competitive environments, by promoting coordinated responses to threats.^[103]^[104]^[105] Flat structures, often idealized as anti-hierarchical solutions, frequently devolve into informal dominance networks that evade accountability while amplifying inefficiencies, as evidenced by high-profile adoptions like Holacracy at Zappos, where role ambiguity led to employee exodus and operational stagnation by 2016. Critics argue such models conceal power asymmetries under egalitarian rhetoric, shielding underperformers and stalling innovation, whereas functional hierarchies—bolstered by voluntary followership—facilitate error correction and scalability in real-world organizations.^[106]^[107] In followership contexts, addressing these biases requires recognizing dual human strategies of dominance (coercive influence) and prestige (earned respect), both of which sustain adaptive hierarchies without necessitating blind obedience; experimental validations confirm that prestige-based systems, reliant on skilled followers, outperform purely egalitarian alternatives in knowledge transmission and group stability. Ideological sources promoting anti-hierarchy views, prevalent in certain academic and media outlets, may overlook this evidence due to selective emphasis on inequality costs over coordination gains, yet cross-cultural data affirm hierarchies' role in human flourishing across societies.^[108]^[109]

Current Research and Future Directions

Recent Empirical Advances

A systematic review of 89 empirical studies published since 2014 reveals substantial growth in followership research, with publications increasing annually but persistent methodological limitations, such as reliance on cross-sectional designs in 43 cases and questionable research practices in about 30 studies.^[4] Key themes emphasize followers as co-producers of leadership outcomes, particularly through proactive behaviors like voice (expressing constructive ideas or concerns) and feedback-seeking, which empirical evidence links to improved follower well-being, career adaptability, and leader receptivity; for example, voice behaviors have been shown to reduce leader exhaustion and enhance performance in multiple contexts.^[4] Longitudinal studies, such as those tracking proactive engagement over time, further indicate that independent critical thinking and active participation by followers predict positive organizational dynamics, underscoring causal pathways from followership actions to group efficacy.^[4]^[110] Advances in measurement include the development of 13 new instruments tailored to followership constructs, such as implicit voice theories and role orientations, alongside adaptations of existing scales for follower-specific contexts, enabling more precise assessment of behaviors like advising and political skill—though these remain underexplored.^[4] Experimental designs (12 studies) and qualitative approaches (17 studies) have introduced behavioral observations and manipulations to test causality, revealing that enhancing followers' self-schemas through targeted interventions can condition more effective engagement.^[4]^[111] Recent work (2023–2025) identifies core followership behaviors—such as critical thinking, support provision, and adaptability—as central to workplace effectiveness, with facilitators like organizational identification promoting sustainable practices, including "green" behaviors that align follower actions with long-term group goals.^[112] Context-specific empirical findings highlight followership's role in small and medium enterprises (SMEs), where effective styles correlate with leadership success and continuity, addressing gaps in prior leader-centric models.^[113] Additionally, studies on leader goal framing demonstrate that both gain- and loss-oriented communications indirectly shape followership behaviors by activating followers' sense of responsibility, with path analyses confirming mediation effects on engagement levels.^[114] Proactive followership reviews from this period further delineate how such behaviors, viewed through a follower lens, drive individual initiative and organizational performance, often mediated by factors like organizational commitment and moderated by cultural elements such as power distance.^[115]^[116] Despite progress, neglected areas persist, including the co-construction of leadership-followership dynamics and darker traits like Machiavellianism in followers, calling for future rigor in longitudinal and multi-level designs to isolate causal impacts.^[4]

Emerging Trends and Predictions

Since the Formal Theory of Followership (FTF) proposed by Uhl-Bien et al. in 2014, empirical studies have proliferated, with a systematic review identifying 89 publications by early 2024 that emphasize followers' roles in co-producing leadership outcomes.^[4] This growth reflects a shift from leader-centric models to bidirectional dynamics, particularly through "reversing the lens" approaches examining how follower traits like implicit followership theories influence engagement and performance.^[4] Quantitative cross-sectional designs dominate (43 of 89 studies), revealing consistent links between proactive followership—such as voice behaviors—and individual benefits like well-being, though findings on critical thinking remain inconsistent due to methodological limitations.^[4] Emerging trends highlight the integration of new constructs, including subordinate moqi (alignment with leaders) and abusive followership, extending the FTF framework with 23 additional variables.^[4] Research has increasingly explored contextual factors, such as post-2020 studies (26 total) addressing crisis impacts like COVID-19, though only six directly incorporated pandemic effects on follower behaviors.^[4] Neglected areas persist, including the co-construction approach (only three studies), which views leadership as jointly enacted rather than merely co-produced, and under-examined FTF elements like advising or Machiavellianism in followers.^[4] Predictions for future directions anticipate a push for methodological rigor, with calls for more longitudinal (currently 27 studies) and experimental designs (12 studies) to establish causality beyond correlational evidence.^[4] Scholars foresee expanded application to novel contexts, including AI-driven environments, climate crises, and hybrid work structures, where followers' adaptive roles could mitigate risks of passive obedience.^[4] Validated measures for emerging constructs and balanced exploration of co-production versus co-construction are expected to refine followership theory, potentially revealing evolutionary puzzles in hierarchical adaptations.^[4]

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“Leadership” can facilitate coordinated movement and help to ensure that a group does not break up, but poses an evolutionary puzzle—why should selection favor ...
[93]
[PDF] The Evolutionary Origins of Leadership and Followership
Our evolutionary argument rests on the assumption that leadership and followership are adaptations that have co-evolved in humans because natural selection.
[94]
https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417731378
[95]
https://doi.org/10.1177/2041386614528335
[96]
Questioning authority: new perspectives on Milgram's 'obedience ...
Milgram's work has been seen to show atrocity springs from ignorance and obedience. Yet Milgram's participants showed engaged followership rather than blind ...
[97]
A novel experimental approach to study disobedience to authority
Nov 25, 2021 · Some consider that being obedient is part of the human nature as massive and destructive obedience has been observed through countless ...
[98]
Followership - American Association of Colleges of Nursing
Robert Kelley (1988) described five styles of followership that vary between being passive or active, and independent critical thinkers or dependent uncritical ...
[99]
Examining the impact of perceived follower behavior on leaders
This study shifts the prevailing perspective of leaders effect on their followers to look at how leaders perceive the behavior of their followers.
[100]
(PDF) The Power of Followership: How Subordinate Characteristics ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Harvard Business Review, 66(6): 141-148. Kelley, R. E. 1992. The power of followership: How to create leaders people want to follow. and ...
[101]
how group size drives the evolution of hierarchy in human societies
Jun 3, 2020 · Voluntary theories propose that human groups shift to hierarchy to limit scalar stress, i.e. the increase in cost of organization as a group ...
[102]
[PDF] evolutionary foundations of hierarchy 1 - Mark van Vugt
Leadership refers to a special position in the decision- making hierarchy where individuals exercise disproportionate influence on group decision-making, and ...
[103]
How Team Structure Can Enhance Performance - PubMed Central
A body of studies suggests that hierarchy in a team tends to decrease uncertainty in interpersonal interactions by establishing order and rank differentiation ...
[104]
Ease and control: the cognitive benefits of hierarchy - ScienceDirect
Hierarchies provide cognitive benefits: processing ease and a sense of control. · People track rank differences automatically, early, and accurately.
[105]
Hierarchical cultural values predict success and mortality in high ...
Hierarchy helps groups conquer many of the challenges and threats that they face. For example, hierarchical differentiation can increase group performance by ...
[106]
Autopsy of a Failed Holacracy: Lessons in Justice, Equity, and Self ...
Jan 9, 2017 · ... mistakes and failing to achieve the kind of deep shifts required for justice, sustainability, and meaning. Free Download: 10 Ways to Kill ...
[107]
Why Workers Can Suffer in Bossless Companies Like GitHub - WIRED
Mar 20, 2014 · Critics say flat organizations can conceal power structures and shield individuals from accountability. ... mistakes. The organizations Freeman ...Missing: critiques | Show results with:critiques
[108]
[PDF] Dominance, prestige, and the role of leveling in human social ...
This paper provides the first comprehensive empirical test of the evolu- tionary theory of human social hierarchy that highlights dominance and prestige as ...
[109]
https://press.princeton.edu/ideas/in-defense-of-hierarchy
[110]
The study of followers in leadership research: A systematic and ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Moreover, Shen and Abe (2023) highlight that proactive followership behaviors (e.g.: independent critical thinking and active engagement) are ...
[111]
The conditioned follower: Enhancing followership self-expectations ...
Therefore, our methodology reflects a conservative approach to assess the efficacy of enhancing individuals' self-schemas of followership through attribute ...
[112]
At the core of followership – identification of followership behaviors
Aug 7, 2025 · Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine what behaviors are core to effective followership in the workplace and the facilitators and ...
[113]
[PDF] Effective Followership and Successful Leadership in Small and ...
Apr 22, 2025 · An effective follower is an active and smart individual who brings positive organizational change and increased success (Baird &. Benson, 2022).Missing: exemplary | Show results with:exemplary
[114]
Impact of Leader's Goal Framing on Followership Behavior - MDPI
Feb 22, 2024 · This study proposes that both types of goal framing (gaining and losing) indirectly influence employees' followership behaviors by mobilizing their sense of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[115]
A glimpse into employee proactive behavior: the followership ...
Jun 20, 2025 · This review thoroughly examines the current understanding, the role, and future directions of proactive behavior from the followership perspective.
[116]
A Study on The Relationship Between Employee Followership Style ...
Dec 31, 2024 · This study is based on the Kelley's followership style and social exchange theory, introduced organizational commitment as a mediator and the power distance as ...