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Elijah

Elijah was a prominent Hebrew of the ninth century BCE who ministered in the northern Kingdom of during the reign of King and the Omride dynasty, zealously opposing the state's sponsorship of worship and performing miracles to demonstrate Yahweh's supremacy. His biblical accounts, found primarily in 1 Kings 17–19 and 21, and 2 Kings 1–2, depict him as an independent figure unaffiliated with official sanctuaries, engaging both monarchs and ordinary people to uphold . Among Elijah's most notable actions was his declaration of a severe as against , which lasted for years and initiated a period of hiding and miraculous sustenance, including multiplying food for a in Zarephath and resurrecting her son. On , he orchestrated a dramatic contest with 450 prophets of , calling down fire from heaven to consume his water-drenched offering, leading to their defeat and the restoration of Yahweh's altar. Elijah also confronted over the unjust seizure and murder of Naboth's vineyard, pronouncing doom on the king's house, and later rebuked King Ahaziah for seeking oracles from Baal-Zebub, foretelling his death. In a moment of divine encounter on , Elijah experienced God not in wind, earthquake, or , but in a "still small voice," receiving reassurance and instructions to anoint successors amid his despair. His prophetic career culminated in the parting of the with his mantle and his to in a , accompanied by a and horses of , without tasting death—an event witnessed by his disciple . Elijah's legacy as a model of unwavering faith and heroic restoration has profoundly influenced Jewish and Christian traditions, symbolizing and eschatological expectation.

Biblical Accounts

In the Books of Kings

Elijah emerges as a central prophetic figure in the Books of Kings during the reign of King of (c. 874–853 BCE), a time marked by the promotion of worship under and his wife . As a Tishbite from in the northern kingdom of , Elijah is introduced when he appears before to prophesy a severe as , declaring that there would be neither nor "except by my word." This event sets the stage for Elijah's confrontational ministry amid the of the divided , which had split from around 931 BCE following Solomon's death. Fleeing Ahab's wrath, Elijah hides east of the at the Brook Cherith, where commands ravens to bring him bread and meat morning and evening, sustaining him until the brook dries up due to the . The Lord then directs him to Zarephath in , where he encounters a gathering sticks; despite her , Elijah promises that her of and of oil will not run dry until the rain returns, and the provisions miraculously endure. When the 's son falls ill and dies, Elijah stretches himself upon the boy three times, praying fervently, and the child revives, leading the woman to affirm Elijah as a whose words prove true. After three years of , Elijah returns to and proposes a public confrontation on between and to resolve the religious crisis. Gathering the people and 450 prophets of , Elijah challenges them to prepare sacrifices; while the Baal prophets' cries go unanswered despite self-laceration and frantic appeals from morning until noon, Elijah rebuilds an altar to , drenches it with water three times, and prays simply, calling down fire from heaven that consumes the sacrifice, the wood, stones, dust, and even the water in the trench. The people proclaim, "The Lord, he is God," and Elijah orders the execution of Baal's prophets at the Kishon Brook. Repairing to the mountain's top, Elijah prays with his head between his knees, and a small signals impending ; heavy downpour follows, ending the , after which Elijah runs ahead of 's to Jezreel. Jezebel threatens Elijah's life for slaying the prophets, prompting him to flee into the , where provides food and water for a 40-day journey to . There, in a , reveals himself not in , , or , but in a low whisper, commissioning Elijah to anoint as king of , as king of , and as his prophetic successor, foretelling that these would execute judgment on . Elijah then finds plowing with oxen and casts his cloak upon him; slaughters the oxen, burns the plowing equipment, and follows Elijah as his attendant. Later, Elijah rebukes over the seizure of 's vineyard in Jezreel. covets the adjacent plot, but refuses to sell his ancestral inheritance; orchestrates false accusations of against , leading to his and execution, allowing to claim the land. Confronting as he takes possession, Elijah declares divine judgment: dogs will lick 's blood at the very spot, and in Jezreel, they will devour ; 's house will face destruction, with his descendants dying violently, though 's humility averts immediate doom upon him. Elijah's final acts occur under Ahab's son Ahaziah. When Ahaziah, injured in a fall, sends messengers to inquire of Baal-zebub in , Elijah intercepts them, prophesying the king's death for forsaking . Ahaziah dispatches two companies of fifty soldiers each to seize Elijah, but fire from heaven consumes them at Elijah's call; the third captain pleads, and Elijah accompanies him to deliver the message personally before returning. Ahaziah dies as foretold, without an heir. As Elijah and Elisha journey from to , , and the , Elisha insists on staying with his master until the end. At the Jordan, Elijah strikes the water with his cloak, parting it so they cross on dry ground; granting Elisha's request for a double portion of his spirit, Elijah is suddenly separated by chariots and horses of fire, ascending to in a while Elisha watches and cries out. Elisha retrieves the fallen cloak, parts the Jordan similarly, and the prophetic company at Jericho recognizes that "the spirit of Elijah rests on Elisha," confirming his succession.

In the Books of Chronicles

In the Books of Chronicles, Elijah appears in a single, non-narrative reference that underscores his prophetic role beyond the northern kingdom of . Specifically, in 2 Chronicles 21:12–15, Elijah sends a written to King , condemning the king's idolatrous practices and alliance with the house of , which involved promoting worship. The warns of , predicting that Jehoram's people, his children, wives, and possessions will be struck by the , culminating in a fatal bowel for the king himself as a consequence of forsaking the . This episode is chronologically placed after the main accounts of Elijah's in the Books of , which focus on his confrontations in , thereby extending his authoritative voice to the southern . The Chronicler's inclusion highlights Elijah's enduring prophetic influence across both kingdoms, portraying him as a guardian of Yahwistic fidelity without the dramatic miracles or personal appearances detailed elsewhere. Theologically, the passage emphasizes the consequences of unfaithfulness, particularly the adoption of worship, which invites severe to maintain Israel's religious purity. Unlike the vivid, action-oriented narratives in , this epistolary form in Chronicles serves a didactic purpose, reinforcing themes of royal accountability and the prophetic enforcement of in a Judah-centered historical framework.

In the Book of Malachi

The Book of Malachi, the final book in the collection of the Twelve Minor Prophets, concludes with a pivotal prophecy in 4:5–6 that references Elijah as a future eschatological figure. The oracle declares: "See, I will send the prophet Elijah to you before that great and dreadful day of the Lord comes. He will turn the hearts of the parents to their children, and the hearts of the children to their parents; or else I will come and strike the land with total destruction" (NIV). This announcement positions Elijah not as a historical actor but as a harbinger whose mission precedes the Day of the Lord, a climactic event of divine intervention. As the concluding verses of the —encompassing through —this prophecy forms a seam that integrates overarching prophetic motifs of against covenant unfaithfulness, purification through , and as prerequisites for . 's placement at the end of this unified emphasizes its forward-looking orientation, bridging the prophetic writings with expectations of future renewal while echoing earlier calls for fidelity to the ( 4:4). The themes of fiery (Mal 4:1–3) and relational in 4:5–6 thus culminate the collection's emphasis on God's dual role as destroyer of the arrogant and refiner of the righteous remnant. In the post-exilic Jewish setting of the fifth century BCE, amid temple reconstruction and Persian governance, this prophecy reflects concerns over social fragmentation, intermarriage, and priestly corruption that threatened communal stability. Elijah's anticipated return symbolizes a prophetic effort to mend generational divides and familial bonds, thereby forestalling the "curse" (ḥērem) of utter devastation on the land—a motif rooted in covenantal warnings. Scholars interpret this role as central to averting eschatological catastrophe, promoting reconciliation as a means to preserve Israel's covenant identity and invite divine mercy in an era of partial restoration.

Historicity

Scholarly Debates on Existence

Scholarly debates on the of Elijah as a historical figure center on contrasting minimalist and maximalist interpretations within . Minimalist scholars argue that Elijah represents a composite , constructed from various oral traditions and shaped by Deuteronomistic editors during the in the BCE to emphasize themes of prophetic zeal and fidelity. This view posits that the Elijah narratives in 1 and 2 Kings were redacted to serve the ideological agenda of the Deuteronomistic History, blending legendary elements to critique and rather than recounting verifiable events. In contrast, maximalist perspectives maintain that Elijah likely existed as a 9th-century BCE in the northern kingdom of , with his activities synchronizing to the reigns of (c. 874–853 BCE) and the subsequent rise of (c. 841 BCE), as corroborated by inscriptions such as the Kurkh Monolith mentioning Ahab's participation in the and depicting Jehu's tribute. These external records provide a chronological framework supporting the possibility of a historical Elijah active during the Omride dynasty's conflicts with prophetic figures opposing worship. The character's portrayal also draws on Canaanite religious motifs, particularly parallels to Baal as a storm god who controls rain, thunder, and fire, which Elijah appropriates to assert Yahweh's supremacy—evident in narratives of drought, fire from heaven, and rain restoration that invert Baal's attributes to depict Yahweh as the true life-giver over death. Elijah's name, derived from Hebrew roots meaning "Yahweh is my God," further underscores this polemical etymology, reinforcing his role as a monotheistic exemplar against polytheistic influences. Key figures in these debates include , who traced the evolution of from ecstatic, pre-classical figures like Elijah to later writing prophets, viewing early narratives as idealized heroic traditions within the broader development of Israelite religion. Modern , extending principles akin to the JEDP theory for the Pentateuch, applies to the Elijah stories through analysis of Deuteronomistic redaction layers, debating whether core traditions predate the 6th-century editing or form entirely from exilic composition.

Archaeological and Textual Evidence

The , discovered in 1868 at Dhiban (ancient Dibon) in modern and dated to approximately 840 BCE, records the achievements of King of , including his rebellion against the "House of ," the dynasty founded by of that ruled during the time of , Elijah's contemporary. This inscription corroborates the biblical timeline of Israelite-Moabite conflicts in the mid-9th century BCE, providing external validation for the political instability in the northern kingdom during Elijah's prophetic activity. The Tel Dan Inscription, unearthed in 1993–1994 at Tel Dan in northern and dated to the mid-9th century BCE, is an victory stele likely erected by King of , referencing military campaigns against the "House of " in and the king of . This artifact confirms the existence of divided kingdoms of and by the 9th century BCE, offering contextual support for the geopolitical setting of Elijah's ministry amid alliances and rivalries between these entities and neighboring powers like . No direct archaeological artifacts, such as inscriptions or personal items, have been identified that mention Elijah by name, reflecting the challenges of preserving evidence for individual prophetic figures from this era. Indirect environmental evidence from paleoclimatic studies, including speleothem records from Soreq Cave and pollen analyses from the Sea of Galilee, indicates recurrent arid periods and droughts in the Levant during the 9th century BCE, particularly in its latter decades, which align with descriptions of prolonged dry spells in the region. Comparative textual evidence from Ugaritic literature, discovered at Ras Shamra (ancient ) in and dating to the 14th–13th centuries BCE, reveals parallels to motifs in Elijah's narratives, such as the role of Baal prophets in cultic practices and theophanies involving , , and controlled by a . The , a series of epic poems, depicts as a warrior god who battles chaos and brings fertility through tempests, echoing the religious context that Elijah confronted in his challenges to worship.

Jewish Interpretations

In the Talmud, Aggadah, and Extra-Canonical Texts

In rabbinic literature, particularly the , Elijah's origins are subject to diverse interpretations that expand on his biblical portrayal. One tradition in associates him with the , linking his fierce zeal to the Gadites' reputation as warriors. Another view, drawn from I Chronicles 8:27, posits him as a Benjamite from , emphasizing his roots in a tribe known for loyalty to the . A third perspective in (chapter 47) identifies Elijah with the priest , grandson of , suggesting a Levitical descent and portraying him as an eternal figure whose soul transcended ordinary human birth, assuming angelic roles even before his prophetic mission. These aggadic accounts further elaborate on Elijah's pre-birth angelic nature, depicting him as a divine emissary incarnated into human form without conventional parentage, tasked from creation with upholding God's covenant. In , this connection to underscores his timeless zeal, positioning him as a bridge between heavenly and earthly realms, where his soul was prepared in the divine assembly to combat . Such traditions highlight Elijah's otherworldly essence, influencing later kabbalistic views of him as like Sandalfon, free from the Angel of Death's grasp. The Babylonian Talmud expands on Elijah's zeal for , particularly in his encounter at Horeb. In Berakhot 54a, the "still small voice" of the vision (I Kings 19:12) is invoked to illustrate divine communication, portraying Elijah's despair after as a moment of profound before 's gentle amid wind, earthquake, and fire. Talmudic narratives also detail angelic ministrations sustaining him en route to Horeb, such as providing food and water, reinforcing his unyielding devotion despite isolation and threat. These elaborations in Berakhot emphasize Elijah's role as a model of fervent , where his experience transforms personal zeal into a blueprint for prophetic . In extra-canonical texts of the Second Temple period, Elijah emerges as a restorer of and miracle-worker. The (chapter 48) lauds him as "a prophet like fire" whose words burned like a , who imposed through zeal to purify , raised the dead, and toppled kings from thrones, crediting him with reconciling parents and reviving tribes. This hymnic praise, composed around 180 BCE, shaped Jewish eschatological expectations, portraying Elijah as a harbinger of divine order and influencer of piety during Hellenistic challenges. Allusions to Elijah in further evoke his legacy of prophetic revival. In 2:58, he is cited as the exemplar whose "great zeal for the law" led to his into heaven, inspiring and his sons during the Maccabean uprising against Seleucid oppression. This reference frames Elijah's biblical confrontations as a for resisting , fueling a resurgence of observance and temple rededication in the second century BCE.

Liturgical and Ritual Roles

In Jewish tradition, Elijah the Prophet holds a prominent symbolic role in various liturgical and practices, serving as the anticipated herald of and the , as foretold in the eschatological prophecy of . His presence is invoked to affirm divine , covenantal , and for future , manifesting in specific that integrate him into lifecycle events and observances. A key ritual featuring Elijah occurs during the , the circumcision ceremony for newborn Jewish boys on the eighth day after birth, where a special chair is reserved for him. This "Chair of Elijah," often ornately carved and positioned to the right of the sandek (the person holding the infant), remains unoccupied to signify the prophet's spiritual attendance as the "Angel of the ." The custom underscores Elijah's protective role, rooted in midrashic accounts of his zeal for the Abrahamic , and includes a welcoming him with " haba" (blessed is the one who comes). In modern practice, the chair may be used briefly by the kvatter (a parental messenger carrying the baby) before the procedure, symbolizing Elijah's guardianship against malevolent forces and his endorsement of the covenant's endurance. During the Passover Seder, Elijah is honored with a dedicated cup of wine placed on the table, known as the Cup of Elijah, which remains untouched to symbolize the future messianic banquet and ultimate redemption. This fifth cup, poured alongside the traditional four cups representing stages of liberation from , reflects unresolved rabbinic debates on the Seder's structure and invites Elijah to resolve them upon his arrival. Participants also open the door midway through the Seder to welcome him, a tying his immortal journey to themes of freedom and hope. At the conclusion of Shabbat, the Havdalah ceremony—marking the separation between the holy day and the weekday—concludes with the recitation or singing of the hymn "Eliyahu HaNavi," invoking Elijah's swift return to herald the Messiah. The hymn, often performed in a lively melody, expresses longing for redemption and connects the weekly cycle to eternal peace, as Elijah is believed to appear on motzaei Shabbat to record merits or announce salvation. This practice emphasizes Elijah's role in bridging sacred and profane time, fostering anticipation for a world of perpetual holiness. These rituals trace their origins to medieval Jewish communities, evolving from 11th-century Ashkenazi customs where Elijah's cup first appeared amid debates on Seder cups and demon-warding practices, to codified traditions in 15th-18th century works like the Shulhan Arukh and Chok Ya'akov. By the , Elijah's chair became a fixture in rites across Sephardi and Ashkenazi groups, while the hymn gained prominence in and home settings. In contemporary , these elements persist unchanged, reinforced by artistic depictions and communal prayers that highlight Elijah's enduring symbolism of resilience and divine promise.

Folklore and Legendary Encounters

In , Elijah often appears as a mysterious wanderer who tests human character and reveals divine wisdom through enigmatic actions. One prominent tale involves Rabbi Joshua ben Levi, a third-century sage, who encounters Elijah and accompanies him on a journey to witness hidden heavenly secrets. Elijah warns the rabbi not to question his deeds, but as they travel, Elijah performs seemingly inexplicable acts: he causes the only cow of a poor, hospitable couple to die; repairs a crumbling wall for a wealthy but inhospitable miser; prays that every member of a contentious become a leader; and wishes for a harmonious community to have just one leader. When Rabbi Joshua finally inquires, Elijah explains that these interventions balance divine justice and mercy—the cow's death averts greater tragedy for the couple, the wall conceals buried treasure that would corrupt the miser, multiple leaders would exacerbate discord in the synagogue, and a single leader preserves unity in the kind town. This Midrashic narrative, emphasizing that "man judges by the sight of his eyes, but God looks into the heart," underscores themes of apparent injustice yielding ultimate good. Medieval Jewish folklore extends Elijah's protective interventions to supernatural threats, particularly against , the demoness believed to endanger infants and mothers. In a tale preserved on protective amulets and incantations, Elijah encounters and her demonic entourage en route to harm a woman in childbirth by inducing fatal sleep and stealing her child. Elijah adjures her by the "Living God" and the "great name" to swear an forswearing the attack, which she does, allowing the birth of a healthy son. The then instructs the mother to have her grown son invoke this —by the God of Elijah and the binding promise—when facing , ensuring the demon's retreat. This narrative portrays Elijah as a guardian against evil forces, with the serving as a folkloric to safeguard children. Eastern European Jewish tales further develop Elijah as a disguised benefactor promoting and ethical conduct among ordinary folk. Often appearing as a ragged beggar or traveler, he rewards acts of with while punishing , embedding moral lessons in everyday scenarios. For instance, in one story, a pious but frustrated witnesses Elijah (in ) orchestrate events that reveal divine fairness: aiding a poor whose contrasts with a rich man's greed, ultimately affirming that invites blessing. These narratives, circulated in collections, highlight as Elijah's tool to encourage () and empathy, transforming potential despair into faith in hidden providence.

Christian Traditions

New Testament Allusions

In the New Testament, Elijah serves as a prominent typological figure, particularly in relation to John the Baptist as the prophesied forerunner of the Messiah. Jesus explicitly identifies John as the Elijah who was to come, fulfilling Malachi 4:5-6, stating in Matthew 11:14, "If you are willing to accept it, he is Elijah who is to come," in response to John's ministry of repentance and preparation for the kingdom of heaven. This identification is reinforced in Matthew 17:10–13, where Jesus explains to his disciples after the Transfiguration that Elijah has already come in the person of John, who suffered as the prophets did. Similarly, Luke 1:17 describes the angel Gabriel announcing to Zechariah that John will go before the Lord "in the spirit and power of Elijah," turning the hearts of parents to their children and preparing a people for the Lord, directly echoing Malachi's prophecy. Scholarly analysis underscores this as Luke's portrayal of John fulfilling the Elijah-like role of eschatological herald, though adapted to emphasize preparation rather than literal restoration. A point of debate arises from John's denial in John 1:21, where he responds to interrogators, "I am not [Elijah]," seemingly contradicting the Synoptic identifications. This tension is reconciled in scholarship by viewing John's response as rejecting a literal reincarnation or redivivus of Elijah, while the Synoptics emphasize a typological fulfillment in John's prophetic mission and spirit. Early Jewish expectations of Elijah as the Messiah's precursor, rooted in Malachi and amplified in intertestamental literature like Sirach 48:10, informed this Christian interpretation, positioning John as the bridge between Old Testament prophecy and Jesus' arrival. Elijah's appearance at the Transfiguration further typifies his role as representative of the prophets, appearing alongside (symbolizing the ) in conversation with on the mountain. In Matthew 17:1-8, :2-8, and Luke 9:28-36, Elijah and flank the transfigured , whose glory surpasses theirs, with the divine voice declaring, "This is my beloved ; listen to him." This scene symbolizes the fulfillment and transcendence of the and Prophets in , as Elijah and ' theophanies ( 34; 1 19) parallel the mountaintop , but emerges as the divine presence himself. The disciples' subsequent question about Elijah's coming (:11-13) ties back to , affirming the event's messianic validation. Beyond the Gospels, Elijah appears in other texts to illustrate themes of and God's faithfulness in salvation history. In James 5:17–18, the author cites Elijah as an exemplar of effective righteous : "Elijah was a human being like us, and he prayed fervently that it might not rain, and for three years and six months it did not rain on the . Then he prayed again, and the gave rain." This reference to 1 Kings 17-18 underscores the power of persistent amid eschatological trial, evoking Elijah's role in calling for and linking to the community's expectation of the Lord's parousia. In Romans 11:2-4, invokes Elijah's complaint to (1 Kings 19:10, 14) to argue that God has not rejected , revealing a remnant of 7,000 who had not bowed to , paralleling the faithful Jewish believers in Paul's time. This usage positions Elijah within God's ongoing election, emphasizing a remnant preserved through in salvation history. Early Christian consistently tied Elijah to messianic expectations, interpreting his return as heralding rather than a separate figure. Patristic writers and the authors drew on Jewish apocalyptic hopes, such as those in 4 and the , to portray as the culmination of Elijah's prophetic legacy, with embodying the forerunner motif to authenticate the . This typological framework reinforced Elijah's enduring significance in Christian , bridging prophecy with the .

Veneration and Liturgical Commemoration

In , Elijah is venerated as a prophet-saint, particularly in the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Churches, where his feast day is observed on July 20. This commemoration honors his life, miracles, and into heaven, as described in the biblical accounts. Icons depicting Elijah's often portray him being taken up in a fiery , surrounded by flames and angels, symbolizing divine transport and his unique status among figures. These icons are prominent in Eastern Orthodox , serving as focal points for devotion and liturgical veneration. Elijah holds a foundational role in the Carmelite Order, regarded as its spiritual founder due to his contemplative encounters on . The order traces its origins to hermits on in the , who emulated Elijah's zealous defense of and his life of and amid the mountain's rugged terrain. This tradition shapes Carmelite spirituality, emphasizing interior silence, prophetic zeal, and union with God, as exemplified by Elijah's experience of the "still small voice" on the mountain. The celebrate Elijah's feast with particular solemnity, integrating his legacy into their rule and charism. Liturgical commemorations of Elijah's feast incorporate readings from the Books of , highlighting key episodes such as his confrontation with the prophets of on and his ascent in the whirlwind. In the Eastern Orthodox tradition, and include selections like 3 Kings 19:3-9, 11-13, 15-16, underscoring themes of divine presence on mountaintops and Elijah's role as a defender against . These readings reinforce Elijah's symbolism as a figure of anti-pagan resistance, evoking his triumph over worship through fire from heaven and his calls for exclusive devotion to the . In Catholic liturgies, particularly among , the feast features similar scriptural passages, fostering reflection on prophetic fidelity and spiritual ascent. During the medieval period, some Christian folk traditions in regions syncretized Elijah with pre-Christian thunder gods like , attributing storms, lightning, and rain to his rides across the sky, a motif drawn from his biblical . This association persisted in apocryphal texts and popular piety, where Elijah assumed Perun's weather-controlling attributes amid the transition to . Hagiographic works, however, critiqued such views by emphasizing Elijah's subordination to and his role as a mere instrument of divine power, distinguishing from pagan survivals.

In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

In the theology of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), the prophet Elijah holds a pivotal role as the restorer of essential priesthood keys related to ordinances, particularly those concerning family unity across generations. On April 3, 1836, Elijah appeared in a vision to and in the newly dedicated in , committing unto them "the keys of the power of turning the hearts of the fathers to the children, and the children to the fathers" as prophesied in 4:5–6. This event, recorded in 110:13–16, marked the fulfillment of ancient scripture and initiated the restoration of sealing authority in the . These sealing keys, bestowed by Elijah, empower vicarious ordinances performed in temples, including , which allows deceased individuals to accept the gospel posthumously, and eternal family sealings that bind husbands, wives, and children together for . The of this enables the "spirit of Elijah," a doctrinal concept emphasizing the redemptive work of connecting living generations with their ancestors through service, ensuring that families can be sealed and exalted in the presence of God. Without these keys, taught, the earth would be "utterly wasted" at the Second Coming, as the linking of generations would remain incomplete. In contemporary teachings, Elijah symbolizes the full of priesthood authority, particularly the authority to perform binding ordinances that extend salvation to and secure familial bonds. This role is commemorated during temple dedications, where leaders invoke the Kirtland vision to affirm the ongoing authority for sacred work, reinforcing Elijah's legacy as a forerunner to the dispensation of the fulness of times.

Islamic Perspectives

Quranic Mentions

In the , Elijah is referred to as and is recognized as one of the prophets sent by to guide humanity toward . He is first mentioned in Al-An'am (6:85–86), where he is listed among a series of righteous prophets descended from the lineage of earlier figures such as Abraham and . The verses state: "And and and and —each one of them was of the righteous. And and and and Lot—We preferred them over the worlds" ( translation). This passage emphasizes Ilyas's status as a pious messenger upholding , the oneness of , without providing further narrative details about his mission or life. A more detailed account appears in Surah As-Saffat (37:123–132), which portrays Ilyas as a messenger dispatched to his people to combat idolatry. The text describes him warning his community: "When he said to his people, 'Will you not fear Allah? Do you call upon Baal and leave the Best of Creators—Allah, your Lord and the Lord of your first forefathers?'" (37:124–126). His people rejected his call to abandon the worship of Baal, the chief idol, and affirm God's sovereignty, leading to their condemnation. God then vindicated Ilyas by saving him and his family from calamity, preserving his legacy among the righteous: "But they denied him, so they were to be seized [as a consequence]. And We saved him and his family from the great affliction... And peace be upon Ilyas. Indeed, this is Our way of preserving those We love. He was of Our believing servants" (37:127–132). This narrative underscores Ilyas's role in promoting tawhid against polytheistic practices, highlighting divine protection for faithful prophets amid rejection. These Quranic references present as an exemplary figure of prophetic steadfastness, though the account is concise compared to biblical descriptions, focusing on his monotheistic exhortation and ultimate rather than specific .

In Hadith, , and Folklore

In Islamic literature, references to the prophet (Elijah) are sparse and primarily emphasize his status among prophets who did not experience ordinary death, aligning with traditions of to . For instance, narrations in collections like those compiled by describe as one of four enduring prophets—alongside al-Khidr on earth, , and —who were raised alive by divine command, reflecting a in his and ongoing existence in the heavens. This motif underscores Ilyas's exceptional role, though authentic such as those in focus more broadly on prophets encountered during the Mi'raj without naming Ilyas specifically. Tafsir exegeses expand on Ilyas's mission as detailed in Surah As-Saffat, portraying him as a messenger sent to the Children of to combat the worship of , an idol promoted by King and his court. Ibn Kathir's commentary recounts how Ilyas challenged 450 Baal priests on , where his sacrificial offering was consumed by fire from heaven, validating and leading many to , while the idolaters' attempts failed disastrously. Scholars in also debate Ilyas's identity, with a minority view—held by figures like Ibn Mas'ud—equating him with () due to shared themes of elevation to heaven, though mainstream interpreters like reject this, affirming them as distinct prophets based on chronological and narrative differences in prophetic lineages. Islamic folklore, particularly in and Sufi traditions, enriches 's portrayal as an immortal wanderer who aids the destitute, often in disguise alongside al-Khidr. Tales depict him fleeing persecution to mountains, sustaining himself through prayer for years before returning to guide new rulers toward justice, with his longevity enabling eternal service to the faithful. In these narratives, drawn from (stories of the prophets), appears as a disguised traveler or beggar, testing and assisting the poor—such as providing miraculous relief to orphans or intervening in trials of —mirroring motifs of divine hidden aid in broader Islamic lore. These stories emphasize themes of and , influencing Sufi reflections on spiritual endurance.

Views in Other Religions

In the Druze Faith

In the Druze faith, Elijah holds an elevated status in esotericism as the prophet al-Khidr (the Green One), an immortal sage symbolizing divine wisdom, guidance, and renewal. theology identifies al-Khidr with Elijah due to shared attributes of , miraculous interventions, and prophetic authority, viewing him as a cosmic figure whose undergoes taqāmus, or transmigration, among enlightened beings to perpetuate spiritual truth. This concept positions Elijah as a recurring of eternal , distinct from yet complementary to other revered prophets. The Epistles of Wisdom, the foundational sacred corpus primarily authored by Hamza ibn Ali—the chief missionary (dāʿī) who established Druze doctrine in the 11th century—integrate Elijah's archetype into the faith's cosmology as an embodiment of the universal intellect (ʿaql) and divine harmony. Hamza's teachings portray such prophetic figures as links in a chain of cosmic emanations, where Elijah/al-Khidr exemplifies the soul's journey toward unity with the divine, influencing Druze understandings of creation, ethics, and eschatology. The Epistles also affirm identifications like that of the biblical Jethro with the prophet Shu'ayb, elevating him as a propagator of true monotheism (tawḥīd) in pre-Druze eras, thereby illustrating the faith's syncretic reverence for biblical and Quranic prophets through esoteric lenses. Druze veneration of Elijah manifests prominently at holy sites associated with al-Khidr, including shrines (maqāmāt) in locations such as Yāsif, , and Buqʿāthā, where annual gatherings occur on to honor his legacy through prayers, rituals, and communal feasts. holds particular significance, linked to Elijah's biblical confrontations and seen as a site of spiritual potency, with historical Druze assemblies and pilgrimages reinforcing its role in fostering communal identity and esoteric reflection. These practices underscore Elijah's enduring presence as a protector and enlightener in Druze spiritual life.

In the Baháʼí Faith

In the , Elijah is regarded as a significant within the Adamic Cycle, a prophetic era spanning approximately six thousand years from to , during which successive divine messengers progressively God's will to humanity. As one of these messengers, Elijah's mission is seen as preparing the way for future revelations, embodying the recurring pattern of divine guidance that culminates in the fulfillment of all prior prophecies through . Baháʼu'lláh's writings affirm Elijah's spiritual allegiance to the new dispensation. In The World Order of Bahá’u’lláh, Shoghi Effendi quotes Bahá’u'lláh: "By the one true God, Elijah hath hastened unto My court and hath circumambulated in the day-time and in the night-season My throne of glory," portraying Elijah as among the ancient prophets who recognize and affirm the station of the latest Manifestation of God. This recognition underscores the unity of all prophets in the Baháʼí doctrine of progressive revelation, where Elijah's era contributes to the unfolding chain leading to Baháʼu'lláh. The biblical prophecy of the "voice crying in the wilderness" (Isaiah 40:3), associated with Elijah, is interpreted in Baháʼí texts as symbolizing the heralds who announce the advent of greater revelations. In the , elucidates this as referring to figures like , who prepared humanity for , paralleling the 's role as the herald of —thus positioning Elijah's legacy as a precursor to the Báb's announcement of the promised day. 'Abdu'l-Bahá further clarifies in Some Answered Questions that Elijah's "return" in signifies the re-manifestation of Elijah's perfections and attributes, not a literal , extending this symbolic continuity to the as the forerunner whose mission echoes Elijah's call to spiritual awakening. Baháʼí interpretations view Elijah's , such as raising the dead and calling down fire from , not as literal proofs of but as symbolic representations of profound spiritual truths: the revival of souls through and the purifying of against . These acts illustrate the transformative force of , aligning with the Faith's emphasis on inner renewal over displays.

Controversies and Debates

Interpretation of Miracles

The miracles attributed to Elijah in the Books of Kings have sparked extensive debate among theologians, historians, and skeptics regarding their nature, plausibility, and purpose. Theological interpretations emphasize divine intervention as demonstrations of Yahweh's sovereignty, while skeptical and historical-critical approaches explore natural, symbolic, or cultural explanations, often highlighting narrative functions in ancient Israelite religion. The miracle of the ravens feeding Elijah at the brook Cherith (1 Kings 17:4-6) is traditionally understood literally as God's provision through unclean birds, underscoring reliance on divine care despite ritual impurity concerns. Midrashic traditions, however, offer symbolic alternatives, interpreting "ravens" ('orevim) as referring to Arabs (based on phonetic similarity to 'arabim) or inhabitants of a place called Oreb, portraying human merchants or traders as the providers rather than birds, to resolve perceived inconsistencies with kosher laws. Elijah's invocation of fire from heaven on (1 Kings 18:38) is viewed theologically as a direct affirming Yahweh's supremacy over , the storm god associated with and fire. Skeptical explanations propose pyrotechnic manipulation, such as Elijah using naturally occurring or other flammable substances poured on the altar under the guise of , to simulate divine fire without means. Some suggest geological factors like vents could have ignited spontaneously. The revival of the widow of Zarephath's son (1 Kings 17:17-24) holds profound theological significance as an early biblical account of , symbolizing God's power over and validating Elijah's prophetic through a to a non-Israelite. Medieval commentators like affirm it as a true , drawing on Talmudic imagery of Elijah receiving the "key of ." In contrast, some scholars argue it describes a miraculous cure from a severe medical anomaly, such as due to or , with biblical language like "no breath" serving as hyperbolic description of illness rather than . Scholarly consensus positions Elijah's miracles within the broader Elijah-Baal rivalry as polemical narratives borrowing from mythology to assert Yahweh's dominance. The fire from heaven and control over rain echo Baal's attributes as storm and fertility god in , repurposed to depict Yahweh's superior efficacy and critique syncretistic worship under King Ahab. These stories, likely compiled during the 9th-8th centuries BCE, function as theological propaganda rather than historical reportage, adapting mythic motifs to promote .

Ascension and Eschatological Return

The account of Elijah's in 2 Kings 2:11 describes him being taken up to in a accompanied by a and horses of fire, an event interpreted in traditional Jewish and Christian as a literal bodily without , signifying divine favor and . However, scholarly analyses propose a symbolic reading, arguing that "" (shamayim) refers to the or atmosphere rather than God's realm, with the serving as a natural or divinely orchestrated transport mechanism relocating Elijah to a distant earthly location, consistent with his prior relocations by the spirit (1 18:12). This interpretation gains support from 2 Chronicles 21:12, where Elijah sends a to King Jehoram years after the purported (ca. 848–843 BCE), implying he remained alive and active on earth rather than in . Debates over Elijah's eschatological return center on Malachi 4:5–6, prophesying his appearance before the "great and dreadful day of the Lord" to reconcile families and restore hearts. In Judaism, this return remains unfulfilled and literal, serving as the herald of the Messiah to resolve halakhic disputes and usher in redemption, a view upheld by Maimonides (Rambam) in his Mishneh Torah, where Elijah is explicitly positioned as the precursor announcing the messianic king from David's line, though Rambam's rationalist framework emphasizes ethical and prophetic preparation over supernatural spectacle. Christian theology diverges, with early traditions identifying John the Baptist as Elijah's fulfillment (Matthew 11:14; Luke 1:17), embodying his spirit and restorative mission before Jesus as Messiah, while later patristic shifts, notably Augustine's, spiritualize the prophecy as the Church's ongoing proclamation of God's kingdom, diminishing expectations of a literal reappearance. Some eschatological interpretations, however, anticipate Elijah's future role alongside Enoch as witnesses during the tribulation (Revelation 11:3–12), ascending after prophetic testimony. In Islamic tradition, Elijah (known as ) is affirmed as a prophet who ascended without death ( 37:123–132), granting him immortality alongside figures like and . While mainstream tradition does not assign him a primary eschatological role as a messianic forerunner, with end-times roles reserved for () and the , some and anticipate his return during eschatological events. Modern pseudoscientific controversies reinterpret the ascension through extraterrestrial lenses, positing the fiery as a UFO or advanced abducting Elijah, as popularized in ancient astronaut theories, though biblical scholars critique these as anachronistic projections ignoring the text's theological context of divine . Alternative naturalistic claims suggest a or atmospheric phenomenon, but these lack evidentiary support and are dismissed in hermeneutical studies as reductive to ancient Near Eastern visionary motifs.

Cultural Representations

In Literature and Arts

Elijah's portrayal in literature and arts from the medieval to the 19th century often emphasizes his role as a fiery prophet confronting idolatry and performing miracles, drawing on biblical narratives for dramatic and symbolic effect. In 19th-century music, Felix Mendelssohn's oratorio Elijah (Op. 70), composed in German as Elias and premiered on August 26, 1846, at the Birmingham Triennial Music Festival, presents a comprehensive dramatization of the prophet's life, including the drought prophecy, the Mount Carmel contest with Baal's prophets, the widow's son revival, and the ascension in a fiery chariot. The work features powerful choruses like "Yet doth the Lord see it not" and arias highlighting Elijah's zeal, reflecting Mendelssohn's admiration for the prophet's dramatic biblical story and his own Jewish background despite his conversion to Lutheranism. Scholars interpret the oratorio as a subtle affirmation of Mendelssohn's residual Jewish identity, with its Old Testament focus contrasting his earlier St. Paul. Lord Byron's (1815), a collection of lyrics set to traditional Jewish tunes by composer Isaac Nathan, evokes the pathos of biblical prophets through poems lamenting , , and Israel's trials, themes resonant with Elijah's confrontations against in the Books of Kings. Poems such as "" and "On the Day of the Destruction of by " capture prophetic warnings of doom akin to Elijah's, blending melancholy with Hebrew scriptural motifs to romanticize ancient Israelite figures. In , John Milton's (1667) positions Elijah as a prophetic of divine and , referencing him in (lines 460–462) as one of the saints—alongside and —bodily assumed to without death, residing on the moon's shadowed side in Milton's cosmological vision. This depiction underscores Elijah's eschatological significance, prefiguring themes of redemption and the defeat of through faithful in the epic's narrative of and divine . Visual arts from the Renaissance onward frequently illustrated Elijah's miracles to convey theological messages of God's power. In Italian Renaissance works, scenes of the fire descending on during Elijah's contest with Baal's prophets symbolized Yahweh's supremacy over false gods, as seen in bronze reliefs like the Master of the Barbarigo Reliefs' Elijah in the Fiery Chariot (ca. 1520), which captures the prophet's miraculous ascent amid flames, blending stylistic elegance with biblical drama. In the Eastern Orthodox tradition, icons depict Elijah as an ascetic elder in a simple brown tunic and green cloak, often enthroned or ascending in a flaming chariot drawn by fiery horses, emphasizing his intercessory role and the "still small voice" epiphany, with examples from 12th-century manuscripts portraying him as a sojourner fed by ravens. Jewish arts preserved Elijah's imagery in medieval illuminated Haggadot, where he appears linked to the cup (kos shel Eliyahu), poured in anticipation of his messianic arrival. Fifteenth-century Ashkenazi manuscripts from and , such as the Erna Michael , illustrate Elijah approaching the Seder table or heralding redemption, with the cup centrally placed amid family scenes to symbolize hope and , a custom emerging around the in these ritual texts. These depictions, often in vibrant marginal illuminations, integrated Elijah into communal , reinforcing his role as protector against peril during the holiday.

In Modern Media and Symbolism

In the 2013 miniseries The Bible, Elijah is prominently depicted as a fiery prophet challenging King Ahab and the prophets of Baal on Mount Carmel, where his invocation of fire from heaven and subsequent miracles are portrayed as unambiguous divine acts to affirm monotheism. This representation emphasizes Elijah's role as a solitary voice against corruption, resonating with themes of moral confrontation in contemporary storytelling. Similarly, Elijah's legacy has symbolized prophetic boldness in the U.S. civil rights movement, where figures like Martin Luther King Jr. were likened to the prophet for their defiance of systemic injustice, paralleling Elijah's stand against idolatry with the fight for racial equality. In 20th-century literature, Elijah appears in parabolic forms that explore themes of isolation and divine mystery. Franz Kafka's unfinished fragment, as analyzed in literary critiques, portrays Elijah as a folkloric "" who unexpectedly resolves human dilemmas, underscoring Kafka's interest in the absurdity of waiting for redemption. Chaim Potok's The Chosen (1967) invokes Elijah more playfully, with a character joking that "Elijah the prophet comes in to pitch for them in tight spots" during a game, symbolizing sudden aid amid personal and communal tensions within Jewish . Elijah's influence extends to music, particularly in genres blending spiritual and social critique. Bob Dylan's "" (1966) alludes to a "sad-eyed " who warns of spiritual desolation, evoking Elijah's ascetic vigilance and prophetic laments in a tapestry of biblical imagery. In Rastafarian , Elijah is honored as a pivotal in the lineage leading to as divine manifestation, with artists like Elijah Prophet channeling these themes in tracks that promote redemption and resistance to oppression. Symbolically, Elijah embodies anti- in modern pop culture, as seen in the 2010 film , where the protagonist —named after the —journeys through a post-apocalyptic to safeguard the , confronting a tyrannical leader and representing the triumph of scriptural truth over barbaric worship of power. His rain miracle, following a prolonged , has also inspired environmental motifs, illustrating faith's role in restoring natural order and critiquing human-induced ecological disruption through prophetic intercession. In 2025, the animated film Elijah: The Prophet of Fire dramatizes the 's life, miracles, and ascension, highlighting his confrontations with and divine encounters for contemporary audiences.