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Fort Sumner

Fort Sumner was a United States Army fort in De Baca County, New Mexico Territory, established on October 31, 1862, to protect and administer the Bosque Redondo Indian Reservation, a million-acre site intended for the internment and assimilation of Navajo and Mescalero Apache populations.^[1]^[2] From 1863 to 1868, following forced marches known as the Long Walk, over 10,000 Navajo and several hundred Mescalero Apache were confined there under military oversight led by General James Carleton, who aimed to end their raiding through sedentary farming, though the alkaline soil, contaminated water, and inadequate supplies led to crop failures and widespread hardship.^[3]^[4] At its peak in 1864, the reservation held more than 8,500 Navajo and nearly 500 Mescalero Apache, with mortality rates exacerbated by dysentery, pneumonia, smallpox, exposure, and starvation; estimates indicate around 2,000 Navajo—one in four internees—perished, many buried in unmarked graves, highlighting the experiment's catastrophic failure due to environmental unsuitability and logistical shortcomings rather than intentional extermination.^[4]^[5]^[6] The 1868 Treaty of Bosque Redondo ended the internment, allowing survivors to return to a reduced reservation in their ancestral lands, after which the fort was decommissioned and sold to rancher Lucien Maxwell in 1870.^[7]^[8] Subsequently, the site's old cemetery became the burial place for Billy the Kid (Henry McCarty), the notorious outlaw shot by Sheriff Pat Garrett on July 14, 1881, alongside two associates, drawing later notoriety to the location.^[9]^[8] Today, the Fort Sumner Historic Site, designated as the Bosque Redondo Memorial, preserves ruins and interprets the reservation's history, emphasizing empirical lessons on failed coercive policies and Native resilience amid institutional overreach.^[2]

Establishment and Early Operations

Founding and Naming

Fort Sumner was established as a U.S. Army military post in the New Mexico Territory on November 30, 1862, under the orders of General James H. Carleton following congressional authorization on October 31, 1862.^[10]^[11] Located on the east bank of the Pecos River at Bosque Redondo, the fort was initially constructed to provide a base for operations against Confederate forces from Texas and to secure the frontier against Native American raids.^[1] Construction involved adobe structures and was carried out by troops amid the ongoing Civil War context in the Southwest.^[12] The fort was named in honor of General Edwin Vose Sumner, who served as the military governor of New Mexico Territory and commander of the Department of New Mexico until his death on June 21, 1863, while the post was under development.^[1]^[13] Sumner, a career officer known for his leadership in frontier campaigns, had advocated for strengthened defenses in the region prior to his recall East.^[10] The naming reflected the Army's tradition of commemorating prominent officers, though the fort's primary role soon shifted to administering the Bosque Redondo reservation for interned Navajo and Mescalero Apache peoples.^[12]

Initial Military Objectives

Fort Sumner was authorized by the United States Congress on October 31, 1862, as a military post at Bosque Redondo along the Pecos River in eastern New Mexico Territory, under the command of General James H. Carleton.^[14]^[15] The primary objective was to provide protection for settlers in the Pecos River valley against raids by the Mescalero Apache, Kiowa, and Comanche tribes, which had persistently targeted frontier communities and disrupted regional stability.^[14]^[15] Carleton positioned the fort strategically to serve as a forward base for both defensive fortifications and offensive campaigns aimed at subduing these groups, thereby securing supply lines and enabling the U.S. Army to conduct scorched-earth operations that would diminish the tribes' capacity for further incursions.^[15] This included directives to Colonel Kit Carson to relocate the Mescalero Apache by the end of 1862, reflecting an intent to neutralize immediate threats through military dominance rather than negotiation.^[15] The establishment addressed broader territorial defense needs following Carleton's arrival in New Mexico earlier that year to counter Confederate advances, while prioritizing the suppression of Native American resistance that impeded settlement expansion.^[15]

Bosque Redondo Internment Period

Forced Relocations and the Long Walk

In 1863, Union General James H. Carleton ordered the relocation of Navajo people from their homelands in present-day Arizona and New Mexico to the Bosque Redondo reservation near Fort Sumner, approximately 300 miles southeast, as part of a strategy to end Navajo resistance to U.S. expansion and settlement.^[2] Kit Carson, leading a regiment of New Mexico volunteers, implemented a scorched-earth campaign beginning in July 1863, destroying crops, livestock, and villages to compel surrender without large-scale battles; this forced Navajo bands to submit piecemeal from late 1863 onward.^[3] ^[16] The relocations, known as the Long Walk, occurred in multiple groups over 1864, with the largest departing Fort Canby (near modern Window Rock, Arizona) in January 1864; an estimated 8,000 to 10,000 Navajo endured marches of 250 to 450 miles under military escort, facing winter conditions, inadequate supplies, and guard enforcement at gunpoint.^[17] ^[18] Hundreds died en route from exposure, starvation, and disease during these 18- to 30-day treks, though exact figures vary due to incomplete records; survivors arrived at Bosque Redondo by mid-1864, joining earlier small contingents.^[17] By 1866, roughly 9,000 Navajo had been interned there, representing over 50 distinct groups relocated in phases rather than a single event.^[2] Mescalero Apache relocations preceded and paralleled those of the Navajo, with U.S. forces capturing several hundred in 1862–1863 during campaigns in the Sacramento Mountains and forcing them to Bosque Redondo by early 1864; approximately 400 Mescalero were held there upon the main Navajo arrivals.^[17] ^[2] Inter-tribal tensions arose immediately, as the Mescalero viewed the arid Pecos River site as unsuitable for their traditional lifeways; on November 3, 1865, nearly 350 Mescalero escaped en masse during a nighttime exodus, returning to their homeland despite pursuit.^[2] Nearly 1,000 Navajo also fled the reservation in subsequent years, though over 7,000 remained under guard until the program's end in 1868.^[2] These forced movements reflected broader U.S. policy to concentrate indigenous groups on reservations for control and assimilation, but logistical failures amplified hardships from the outset.^[18]

Administration of the Reservation

The Bosque Redondo reservation, encompassing approximately one million acres centered at Fort Sumner, was placed under direct military administration by the United States Army upon its establishment in early 1864, following the arrival of the first Navajo groups interned there in January of that year. Brigadier General James H. Carleton, as commander of the Department of New Mexico, exercised overarching authority, issuing orders for the confinement, provisioning, and agricultural reorganization of the interned Navajo and Mescalero Apache populations, with the stated aim of transforming them into sedentary farmers under army supervision.^[14]^[19] Commanding officers at the fort, supported by a garrison that varied from several hundred to over 1,000 soldiers at peak, managed daily operations, including the distribution of rations (primarily cornmeal, wheat, and beef), enforcement of labor on irrigated fields for corn, wheat, and vegetable crops, construction of adobe housing and corrals, and policing of internal order and escape attempts.^[20] Civilian oversight from the Office of Indian Affairs clashed with military control, as Superintendent Michael Steck repeatedly protested Carleton's policies in reports to Washington, arguing that the army's rigid confinement exacerbated suffering and mortality, and advocating for transfer to Interior Department agents who could implement more humane farming and self-governance models.^[21] Despite such criticisms, military dominance persisted, with post sutlers handling supply contracts and Indian agents like Lorenzo Labadie initially barred from assuming administrative roles over the internees, who were classified as military prisoners rather than wards of the Indian Bureau.^[22] In November 1867, under orders from General Ulysses S. Grant, authority shifted to the Department of the Interior, enabling limited Indian Bureau involvement in the lead-up to the reservation's closure.^[19] By early 1868, agent Theodore H. Dodd facilitated negotiations with Navajo leaders, culminating in the Treaty of Bosque Redondo signed on June 1, which authorized the release and relocation of survivors.^[23]

Demographic Composition and Tensions

The Bosque Redondo Indian Reservation at Fort Sumner interned primarily Navajo (Diné) people, with a much smaller number of Mescalero Apache (Ndé) individuals, reflecting the U.S. Army's targeted campaigns against these groups in the early 1860s.^[4] By late 1864, the population reached approximately 8,570, predominantly Navajos who had been forcibly relocated via the Long Walk, alongside nearly 500 Mescalero Apaches captured earlier that year.^[5] Historical estimates place the total Navajo internees at around 8,000 to 9,000, compared to 400 to 500 Apaches, creating a demographic imbalance where Navajos constituted over 95% of the captive population at peak confinement.^[4] A government census in May 1868 recorded 7,304 survivors prior to the reservation's closure, underscoring significant attrition from death and escape among both groups.^[24] Intergroup tensions arose from longstanding tribal hostilities predating internment, as Navajos and Mescalero Apaches had frequently raided each other in pre-contact and colonial eras, fostering mutual distrust.^[17] Upon arrival, the Apaches—already present in smaller numbers—faced ongoing disputes with the incoming Navajo majority, exacerbated by competition for scarce resources like food and water amid supply shortages.^[17] These conflicts manifested in arguments and violence within the camp, contributing to the Apaches' high rate of desertion; in 1865, approximately 350 Mescalero Apaches escaped en masse, citing intolerable conditions and intertribal friction as key factors.^[2] The numerical disparity amplified Apache vulnerabilities, with reports indicating heightened tensions beyond environmental hardships, as the outnumbered group struggled to maintain cohesion against the dominant Navajo presence.^[25] Such dynamics highlighted the impracticality of co-locating historically adversarial tribes, a policy flaw acknowledged in later military assessments.^[4]

Operational Challenges and Failures

Environmental and Agricultural Issues

The Bosque Redondo reservation encompassed arid, semi-desert terrain along the Pecos River in eastern New Mexico, characterized by alkaline and saline soils that inhibited effective agriculture. Sandy and infertile ground, combined with high evaporation rates and frequent dust storms, further degraded potential farmland, while the local flora, such as saltbush, thrived only in these harsh, mineral-rich conditions.^[26]^[5] Irrigation efforts relied on the Pecos River, but its brackish water, laden with salts and minerals, proved detrimental to crops and livestock, causing alkali poisoning in animals and poor yields in plants like corn, wheat, and beans. Military administrators constructed extensive ditches to divert water for up to several thousand acres under cultivation by 1865, yet the untreated saline content stunted growth and contributed to repeated failures.^[27]^[28] Droughts and insect infestations exacerbated these issues, rendering the site incapable of supporting self-sufficiency as envisioned by General James Carleton's policy of transforming Navajo and Mescalero Apache internees into farmers.^[28] Despite optimistic official reports claiming some production—such as limited harvests documented in 1865—the overall agricultural output fell far short of needs for the roughly 9,000 Navajo and 500 Mescalero Apache present by late 1864, forcing reliance on inadequate government rations and contributing to widespread starvation. Investigations, including those by commissioners Samuel F. Tappan and William T. Sherman in 1866–1867, confirmed the land's fundamental unsuitability, with saline conditions and water quality cited as primary barriers to viable farming.^[29]^[5]^[30]

Supply, Health, and Mortality Rates

The provision of supplies at Bosque Redondo was chronically inadequate, with government rations consisting primarily of cornmeal, flour, and occasional beef, but failing to meet the needs of the approximately 9,000 Navajo and 500 Mescalero Apache internees by late 1864.^[5]^[30] Logistical challenges, including long supply lines from Fort Union and frequent raids by Comanche warriors on wagon trains, exacerbated shortages, leading internees to resort to counterfeiting ration tokens to obtain additional food.^[31]^[32] Agricultural efforts yielded poor results due to alkaline soil and insufficient irrigation from the Pecos River, forcing reliance on federal commissary distributions that were often delayed or spoiled.^[18] Health conditions deteriorated rapidly due to contaminated water from the saline Pecos River, which caused widespread dysentery and other intestinal ailments, compounded by poor sanitation in the crowded camp lacking proper latrines or waste disposal.^[2] Nutritional deficiencies from monotonous rations low in fresh produce led to scurvy and weakened immunity, while outbreaks of smallpox and pneumonia further ravaged the population, particularly children and the elderly.^[33] Military medical care was minimal, with government doctors overwhelmed and supplies like vaccines or antiseptics scarce, resulting in untreated infections and high susceptibility to exposure during harsh winters.^[18] Mortality rates were exceptionally high, with estimates indicating that approximately 2,000 Navajo—one in four internees—died at Bosque Redondo from starvation, dysentery, exposure, and disease between 1864 and 1868, buried in unmarked graves near the site.^[5] Overall, nearly one-third of the total interned population succumbed during the four-year period, with additional losses among Mescalero Apaches, though exact figures for the latter are lower due to escapes and smaller numbers.^[6] These rates reflected the experiment's failure, as documented in military reports, with deaths peaking in the first two years amid acute supply disruptions and epidemics.^[34]

Internal Conflicts and Escapes

The confinement of Navajo (Diné) and Mescalero Apache (Ndé) peoples at Bosque Redondo exacerbated pre-existing inter-tribal animosities, as the two groups—historically distinct in culture, language, and territorial rivalries—were forcibly co-located on the reservation without adequate separation or resources to mitigate friction.^[2] Ongoing feuds and bickering arose from competition over scarce food supplies, water, and living space amid the camp's overcrowding and environmental hardships, with military administrators sometimes exploiting these divisions to maintain control.^[35] Such tensions contributed to the reservation's instability, as disparate traditions and mutual distrust hindered any cooperative adaptation to the imposed agrarian lifestyle.^[2] Escape attempts represented a primary form of resistance to internment, beginning with the Mescalero Apache. On November 3, 1865, approximately 350–400 Mescalero Apache men, women, and children executed a mass escape, creeping silently from the camp at night while leaving nine individuals to tend fires as a diversionary ruse.^[36]^[2] The escapees scattered into nearby mountains, toward Mexico, or to join allied groups, reflecting both irreconcilable tensions with the Navajo and rejection of the reservation's conditions; the remaining nine fled shortly thereafter.^[35] In response, General James H. Carleton ordered aggressive pursuits, directing troops to kill all Mescalero men encountered, which resulted in the deaths of escapees including women and children, as corroborated by Apache oral histories.^[36] Navajo escapes were more dispersed and individually driven, with nearly 1,000 fleeing the reservation over its duration, often under cover of night or during periods of lax guard due to supply shortages and disease outbreaks among soldiers.^[2] These attempts faced severe risks from patrols, harsh terrain, and the 300–450-mile distance to traditional homelands, leading to high recapture or mortality rates; successful escapees typically sought refuge with sympathetic Pueblo communities or remote kin groups.^[35] By 1868, cumulative escapes, combined with high death tolls, had reduced the interned Navajo population from a peak of around 9,000 to approximately 7,000 survivors eligible for release under the Treaty of Bosque Redondo.^[2]

Policy Controversies

Strategic Rationale and Military Justifications

General James H. Carleton, upon assuming command of the Department of New Mexico on September 18, 1862, amid threats from Confederate forces and ongoing tribal raids, formulated a policy to concentrate nomadic Navajo and Mescalero Apache populations onto reservations as a means to secure the territory for Union control and settler expansion.^[37] The raids, which intensified during the Confederate invasion earlier that year, had impoverished inhabitants and disrupted supply lines, prompting Carleton to view relocation as essential for pacification and to eliminate rear-guard threats to military operations.^[35] Bosque Redondo, a 40-square-mile area centered on the newly established Fort Sumner (built in 1862), was selected for its access to the Pecos River, intended to support irrigation and agriculture, thereby transforming the tribes into sedentary farmers dependent on the government rather than raiding.^[37] Carleton justified the reservation system through the lens of failed prior treaties, arguing that the decentralized structure of Navajo society rendered diplomatic agreements ineffective without military enforcement, necessitating a campaign of subjugation to compel surrender and relocation.^[37] In orders dated September 6, 1863, he directed subordinates to apply unrelenting force, including scorched-earth tactics under Kit Carson starting July 1863, to destroy crops, livestock, and strongholds like Canyon de Chelly, forcing approximately 8,000 Navajo on the Long Walk by early 1864 and integrating them with about 500 Mescalero Apache already interned.^[35] This concentration under fort surveillance aimed to isolate warriors from traditional raiding grounds, secure vital mining routes in Arizona, and facilitate safe overland travel, while military oversight would prevent escapes and internal unrest.^[37] The broader military rationale emphasized assimilation as a permanent solution to perpetual warfare, with Carleton envisioning the reservation as a site to instill "the arts of peace," Christianity, and farming, potentially yielding surplus crops and obviating future U.S. expenditures on defense or annuities.^[35] He proposed initial government provisions transitioning to self-sufficiency, including schools for children and strict controls like passports to enforce compliance, positing that once civilized, the tribes would pose no threat and contribute to regional stability.^[37] This policy, articulated in reports to the War Department, framed Bosque Redondo not merely as internment but as a transformative experiment to end the "Indian problem" through controlled dependency and cultural overhaul.^[35]

Criticisms from Within Government and Military

Military officers under General James H. Carleton's command warned against selecting Bosque Redondo as the internment site, highlighting its semiarid climate, alkaline soil, limited fuel sources, and prevalence of insects, which rendered it unsuitable for supporting thousands of Navajo and Mescalero Apache people.^[38] These pre-establishment assessments, drawn from reconnaissance reports, predicted agricultural failures and health crises due to poor water quality and environmental hostility, yet Carleton overrode them to enforce concentration policy.^[39] Ongoing dissent emerged from figures like Brigadier General George Crook, who cautioned against expanding the reservation to include additional Apache groups, foreseeing dire humanitarian and logistical consequences from overcrowding disparate tribes in an already strained location.^[40] Crook and other experienced officers argued that forced cohabitation exacerbated intertribal conflicts and resource scarcity, undermining military objectives of pacification while incurring unsustainable supply costs for the Army.^[41] Within the federal government, Superintendent of Indian Affairs Michael Steck vehemently opposed the Bosque Redondo experiment from its inception in 1863 until his resignation in March 1865, contending that military oversight stifled effective civilian administration and failed to address chronic shortages of food, tools, and medical care.^[21] Steck's inspections revealed rampant disease, malnutrition, and crop losses—such as the 1864 wheat failure affecting over 200 acres—attributing them to unsuitable farming conditions and inadequate irrigation along the Pecos River, which he deemed viable only for a limited Indian population rather than the 9,000-plus interned by 1865.^[42] His reports to the Indian Bureau emphasized that the policy's coercive nature perpetuated resistance and dependency, prompting broader federal reassessment of costs exceeding $1 million annually by 1867.^[43]

Native American Resistance and Perspectives

The Mescalero Apache internees, numbering around 400 upon arrival in early 1863, mounted significant resistance through mass escapes, with approximately 350 fleeing the reservation in 1865 and returning to the Sacramento Mountains, effectively ending their confinement there ahead of the Navajos.^[2] This exodus was driven by crop failures from drought, hail, frost, and insect plagues, compounded by inadequate supplies and cultural incompatibility with the site's farming mandate.^[2] Navajo resistance at Bosque Redondo manifested in both physical escapes—nearly 1,000 individuals fled the site amid high mortality—and subtler forms, such as secretly performing ceremonies, prayers, and songs despite prohibitions, as well as practical subversion like stealing food or forging extra ration coupons to mitigate starvation.^[2] ^[44] Leaders including Barboncito and Manuelito advocated for return to ancestral lands, citing the loss of nearly all livestock ("hardly any sheep or horses") and the deaths of roughly 2,000 out of 8,570 internees from disease, exposure, and dysentery.^[5] Women played a key role in negotiations, succeeding where initial male-led efforts failed, per oral accounts emphasizing pleas rooted in familial suffering.^[5] From Navajo perspectives preserved in oral histories, Bosque Redondo—termed Hweeldi ("place of suffering")—evokes the "fearing times," marked by intergenerational trauma from forced assimilation, sexual violence, and existential threats, yet underscored by resilience through cultural continuity like weaving traditions and medicine bundle rituals that sustained hope for repatriation.^[44] Descendants recount ancestors enduring "everything that could be suffered and endured on this earth," with storytelling serving as both catharsis and warning: "We take our tragic story with us, but we can’t talk about it" without risking mental unraveling, as expressed by elder Gus Bighorse.^[44] Mescalero Apache views align in rejecting the site's alien environment, viewing escape as reclamation of mobility and autonomy central to their nomadic heritage.^[2] These narratives prioritize survival amid imposed sedentism, rejecting U.S. efforts to eradicate traditional practices as futile against enduring kinship ties and spiritual resolve.^[5] ^[44]

Closure and Immediate Aftermath

Investigations Leading to Termination

In June 1865, the Joint Special Committee on the Condition of the Indian Tribes, known as the Doolittle Committee, conducted an on-site investigation at Bosque Redondo as part of a broader congressional inquiry into Native American reservations. The committee documented severe hardships, including inadequate food supplies, rampant disease, high mortality rates exceeding 2,000 deaths by that point, and the unsuitability of the arid land for sustaining the interned Navajo and Mescalero Apache populations through agriculture. Their findings criticized the concentration policy's implementation under General James H. Carleton, highlighting excessive costs to the federal government—estimated at over $1 million annually—and recommending reforms, though immediate closure did not follow due to ongoing military commitments.^[14]^[34] Subsequent military inspections reinforced these concerns, particularly regarding agricultural viability. A November 1867 report from Fort Sumner detailed failed crop yields from 2,367 acres planted, attributing zero significant harvests to alkaline soil, insufficient rainfall under 10 inches per year, and unreliable Pecos River water prone to flooding and scarcity. Lieutenant R. McDonald's assessment, enclosed in the report, confirmed the absence of timber for fuel and construction, exacerbating health issues like scurvy among the internees. These evaluations, forwarded to the Secretary of War, underscored the reservation's fundamental incompatibility with Navajo pastoral traditions and self-sufficiency.^[29] The decisive probe occurred in May 1868, when Indian Peace Commissioners Lieutenant General William Tecumseh Sherman and Samuel F. Tappan visited Fort Sumner amid negotiations for what became the Treaty of Bosque Redondo. Shocked by the prevailing squalor—marked by ongoing starvation, disease outbreaks, and an estimated total of 2,000–3,000 deaths since 1864—they prepared status reports confirming the site's collapse as a viable internment and assimilation experiment. Sherman's observations, informed by prior data, emphasized the policy's causal failures: environmental hostility, logistical breakdowns, and interned resistance, prompting his advocacy for relocation to ancestral lands as the only humane and practical resolution. This assessment directly precipitated the treaty's provisions for termination, ratified on August 12, 1868, ending federal operations at Bosque Redondo.^[23]^[5]^[45]

Treaty of Bosque Redondo (1868)

The Treaty of Bosque Redondo, formally the Treaty with the Navaho of 1868, was concluded on June 1, 1868, at Fort Sumner, New Mexico Territory, between United States Peace Commissioners Lieutenant General William T. Sherman and Samuel F. Tappan and a delegation of Navajo headmen including Barboncito, Manuelito, Largo, and Narbono.^[46]^[47] The agreement ended four years of Navajo confinement at the Bosque Redondo reservation, which had resulted from the U.S. military's scorched-earth campaign and forced relocation known as the Long Walk of 1864, amid mounting evidence of the site's agricultural inviability, high mortality, and supply failures.^[46] Navajo leaders, facing starvation and disease, negotiated for release to ancestral lands, while U.S. officials sought to avert further conflict and fiscal burden after congressional inquiries deemed the experiment a humanitarian and strategic failure.^[23] Article 1 pledged perpetual peace, with the Navajo ceasing hostilities against the United States and delivering offenders for trial, while the U.S. committed to punishing its own violators and reimbursing verified Navajo losses from annuities if necessary.^[46]^[47] Article 2 defined a new reservation of approximately 3.4 million acres in northeastern Arizona and northwestern New Mexico, bounded northward by 37° N latitude, southward by the east-west line through former Fort Defiance, eastward by the longitude of former Fort Lyon, and westward by 109°30' W longitude, encompassing Cañon de Chelly.^[46]^[48] The Navajo relinquished claims to lands outside this territory (Article 9) and agreed not to interfere with U.S. railroads, settlers, or military installations.^[46] In exchange, the U.S. promised infrastructure including an agency house, warehouse, shops, and schoolhouse (Article 3); compulsory education for children aged 6-16 with teachers provided for every 30 pupils over 10 years (Article 6); farming allotments up to 160 acres per family head (Article 5); seeds and implements valued at $100 initially and $25 annually thereafter (Article 7); and annual goods worth $5 per person plus $10 for agricultural or mechanical pursuits (Article 8).^[46]^[47] Article 12 allocated $150,000 for relocation and startup: $50,000 for transportation from Bosque Redondo, 15,000 sheep and goats, 500 beef cattle, and 1 million pounds of corn, with the balance for maintenance.^[46]^[47] Witnesses included military officers such as George W. Getty and B.S. Roberts.^[46] The Senate ratified the treaty on July 25, 1868, and President Andrew Johnson proclaimed it on August 12, 1868, enabling the phased release of about 7,000-9,000 surviving Navajo beginning in June 1868.^[46]^[49] This document stands as the only instance in U.S.-Native American treaty history where a tribe negotiated return from forced removal to a portion of its aboriginal territory, though subsequent U.S. policies eroded reservation integrity through allotments and reductions.^[50]

Release and Return Marches

Following the ratification of the Treaty of Bosque Redondo on June 1, 1868, between U.S. Peace Commissioners and Navajo leaders at Fort Sumner, approximately 7,300 Navajo internees were authorized to depart for a designated reservation encompassing 3.5 million acres in their ancestral territories of northeastern Arizona and northwestern New Mexico.^[34]^[23] The treaty stipulated U.S. provision of transportation aids, including wagons, horses, and sheep, plus subsistence rations of corn, flour, and beef to support the relocation, though implementation relied on limited Army logistics amid fiscal constraints.^[19] The return, termed the "Long Walk Home" by the Navajo (Diné), proceeded in organized groups starting in mid-June 1868, traversing roughly 450 miles northwest via routes paralleling the initial forced marches but in reverse, toward areas near Fort Defiance and the Chuska Mountains.^[51] Travel conditions, while arduous in summer heat, benefited from family-led pacing, some vehicular transport for the infirm, and reduced coercion compared to the 1864 relocation; groups averaged 10-20 miles daily, completing the journey in about 20 to 30 days depending on health and weather.^[3] Mortality during the return was markedly lower than the inbound Long Walk or internment period, with estimates of deaths numbering in the low dozens rather than hundreds or thousands, attributable to provisions, shorter effective distances for some subgroups, and absence of active combat; surviving accounts emphasize resilience amid ongoing hardships like alkali water and sparse forage.^[2] Upon arrival by late summer, Navajo resettled by rebuilding hogans, planting crops, and herding under treaty-allotted resources, marking the reversal of the prior removal policy.^[52]

Post-Military Use and Transition

Conversion to Private Ranch

Following the U.S. Army's abandonment of Fort Sumner on August 30, 1869, all government property was either removed or auctioned off, marking the end of its military and reservation functions.^[34] The following year, in 1870, Lucien Bonaparte Maxwell, principal proprietor of the expansive Maxwell Land Grant encompassing roughly 1.7 million acres in northern New Mexico Territory, purchased the fort's adobe buildings and grounds for $5,000.^[53]^[54] This acquisition facilitated the site's repurposing from a site of internment and fortification to the headquarters of a private cattle and horse ranching operation.^[55] Maxwell renovated key structures, converting officers' quarters into a family residence and adapting barracks and other facilities for ranch support, including storage and worker housing; he relocated his household from Cimarron to the site in 1871.^[56]^[57] The surrounding former Bosque Redondo reservation lands, previously allocated for Native American confinement but now reverting to civilian control amid the grant's boundaries, were integrated into Maxwell's agricultural endeavors, shifting the area's primary economic activity to livestock grazing and breeding.^[58] This transition exemplified the rapid privatization of federal military holdings in the post-Civil War American Southwest, where large land grants enabled concentrated ranching empires.^[59] Under Maxwell's stewardship until his death in 1875, the ranch emphasized cattle herds and thoroughbred horse raising, leveraging the Pecos River valley's water resources for irrigation and pasture.^[60] His son, Peter "Pete" Maxwell, inherited and expanded these operations, further entrenching the site's role in regional beef production amid the growing demand for cattle drives to eastern markets.^[56] By the 1880s, the former fort had evolved into a self-sustaining ranch community, with added civilian structures supporting a population of ranch hands and settlers.^[61]

20th-Century Recognition

In 1968, coinciding with the centennial of the Treaty of Bosque Redondo signed on June 1, 1868, the Village of Fort Sumner acquired a small parcel of the original reservation lands and transferred ownership to the State of New Mexico to establish a commemorative site.^[19] This initiative facilitated a large gathering of approximately 3,000 Navajo (Diné) individuals at the location, then an open field, to reflect on the internment period and the treaty's significance in allowing their ancestors' return to traditional homelands.^[62] The event marked an early formal acknowledgment of the site's historical role in the forced relocation and confinement of Navajo and Mescalero Apache peoples from 1863 to 1868, shifting public and governmental focus toward preservation amid the site's prior private ranch use.^[19] Subsequent recognition built on this foundation, with the New Mexico State Monuments division initiating planning for a dedicated memorial in 1991, supported by tribal leaders from the Navajo Nation and Mescalero Apache Tribe.^[63] These efforts emphasized interpretive exhibits and archaeological assessment of the fort ruins and reservation remnants, addressing the humanitarian failures documented in 19th-century U.S. Army reports, such as high mortality rates from disease, malnutrition, and inadequate conditions affecting up to 9,000 internees.^[63] By the late 1990s, state investments included site stabilization and preliminary visitor facilities, reflecting growing consensus on the need to document the episode's causal factors— including failed agricultural experiments and supply mismanagement—without romanticizing the military's strategic intentions.^[19] This period also saw ancillary recognitions, such as the listing of related structures like the Fort Sumner Cemetery Wall on the National Register of Historic Places, underscoring the site's tangible archaeological value despite extensive deterioration from post-1871 civilian occupation.^[64] Overall, 20th-century efforts transitioned the location from obscurity as a former ranch to a locus for empirical historical reckoning, prioritizing primary accounts from survivors and military records over narrative sanitization.^[62]

Modern Historic Site

Establishment as Memorial

In 1968, the former Fort Sumner site was designated as Fort Sumner State Monument by the state of New Mexico, following the conveyance of land from private ownership to state management.^[34] The monument opened to the public on August 16, 1970, with initial interpretive materials emphasizing the military history of the fort and its later associations, such as the burial of Billy the Kid, rather than the Bosque Redondo internment period.^[65] By the early 1990s, the site's presentation faced criticism for inadequately addressing the experiences of the interned Navajo and Mescalero Apache populations, including a 1990 letter from Navajo visitors highlighting the lack of focus on their ancestors' suffering and resilience.^[25] In response, New Mexico State Monuments, in collaboration with the Museum of New Mexico and supported by leaders from the Navajo Nation and Mescalero Apache Tribe, initiated plans in 1991 to develop a dedicated memorial commemorating the Bosque Redondo events.^[63] The Bosque Redondo Memorial opened on June 4, 2005, featuring a new museum building designed by Navajo architect David N. Sloan, which shifted the narrative toward the internment's hardships and the 1868 treaty's significance.^[66] This establishment marked the site's formal recognition as a place of remembrance for the forced relocation and confinement of approximately 9,000 to 10,000 Navajo and Apache individuals between 1863 and 1868, where thousands perished due to disease, starvation, and exposure.^[2] Further enhancements occurred in the 21st century, including a nation-to-nation consultation process starting in 2017 with tribal input to refine exhibits.^[25] The permanent exhibition "Bosque Redondo: A Place of Suffering…A Place of Survival" debuted in 2021, with its grand opening on May 28, 2022, incorporating Indigenous perspectives on survival and cultural continuity amid the tragedy.^[67] The site, now managed by New Mexico Historic Sites under the Department of Cultural Affairs, includes interpretive trails and artifacts underscoring the failed reservation experiment's human cost.^[2]

Preservation Efforts and Archaeological Findings

The Bosque Redondo Memorial at Fort Sumner Historic Site, established in 2005 by the New Mexico Department of Cultural Affairs' Historic Sites division in collaboration with the Museum of New Mexico Foundation and supported by Diné and Ndé communities, focuses on preserving the physical remnants of the fort and reservation.^[2] Preservation includes maintenance of the site's interpretive trail, museum facilities designed by Navajo architect David Sloan, and structures like a reconstructed soldiers' barrack.^[2] The Friends of Bosque Redondo volunteer group aids in site upkeep and educational programming.^[2] In 2022, the New Mexico Historic Sites, Historic Preservation Division, and Sunmount Consulting completed a cultural landscape report to guide future preservation strategies for the fort's structures and surrounding landscape.^[68] Earlier, the Historic Preservation Division issued a comprehensive 955-page site report recommending specific measures for fort preservation and improved interpretive approaches.^[69] Archaeological investigations, conducted by the Office of Archaeological Studies in September 2012 ahead of ground-disturbing activities for irrigation improvements, involved a surface survey that identified nearly 900 artifacts and the excavation of four test trenches.^[28] Discoveries included Native American ceramics, hand-forged horseshoes, harness hardware, U.S. military buttons, lead bullets, and packed-earth foundations of the fort's stables built using puddled adobe techniques with Indian labor.^[28] Faunal remains from beef, lamb, and buffalo indicated dietary practices and possible foraging.^[28] These artifacts, curated at the Museum of Indian Arts and Culture, provide evidence of daily life and construction methods during the reservation period; a formal report was published in 2015.^[70] Additional monitoring for subsurface deposits has supported ongoing site protection.^[71]

Educational Role and Visitor Experience

The Bosque Redondo Memorial at Fort Sumner Historic Site serves as an educational hub focused on the forced relocation and internment of approximately 9,000 Navajo (Diné) and 500 Mescalero Apache people between 1863 and 1868, emphasizing themes of suffering, survival, and resilience through exhibits, interpretive programs, and school outreach.^[2] The museum, designed by Navajo architect David Sloan in the form of a traditional hogan and tepee, houses artifacts, photographs, and interactive displays detailing the Long Walk, harsh reservation conditions including crop failures and disease outbreaks that caused thousands of deaths, and the 1868 Treaty of Bosque Redondo that enabled releases.^[2] ^[72] An interpretive trail guides visitors through the site, while virtual classroom resources, such as printable board games simulating reservation life, maps, acequias (irrigation systems), and agricultural challenges, support K-12 curricula on Native American history and cultural heritage.^[73] ^[14] Educational programming extends to on-site school visits and field trips, including hands-on activities like the "Glimpse of Life on the Reservation" for middle school students, which incorporate Apache and Navajo language, traditions, and historical simulations to foster understanding of indigenous perspectives.^[74] ^[75] Volunteer-led tours and partnerships with groups like the Friends of Bosque Redondo Memorial provide opportunities for high school students to engage in history preservation, while recent additions like the tile mural "Reactions to Hweeldi" (Place of Suffering), featuring designs from over 1,200 youth visitors, encourages reflective responses to the site's events.^[76] ^[77] Visitors typically report a poignant and immersive experience, with the museum's 2023 exhibition "Bosque Redondo: A Place of Suffering, A Place of Survival" praised for its emotional depth and clarity in illustrating personal stories of endurance amid tragedy, earning a 4.7 out of 5 rating from over 69 reviews.^[78] ^[72] An outdoor audio tour enhances accessibility, allowing self-guided exploration of remnants like officer barracks and mass graves, prompting reflection on U.S. government policies and Native resilience without overt politicization.^[79] Many describe the visit as "heartbreaking yet vital" for historical awareness, often combining it with nearby Billy the Kid Museum tours, though the site's remote location in rural New Mexico requires advance planning for hours (typically 9 a.m. to 5 p.m., with expanded seasonal access).^[80] ^[81] The memorial's focus on primary accounts and archaeological context avoids unsubstantiated narratives, prioritizing empirical evidence of the internment's scale and impacts.^[2]

References

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