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Forage

Forage refers to the edible parts of plants, other than separated grain, that provide feed for grazing animals including livestock such as cattle, sheep, and horses, as well as wildlife like deer and rabbits.^[1] Primarily consisting of grasses, legumes, and other herbaceous vegetation, forage is consumed directly as pasture or harvested and preserved as hay or silage to meet nutritional needs year-round. In agriculture, forages serve as the primary source of fiber essential for ruminant health, while legumes among them supply high levels of protein to support growth and milk production in livestock. Common types include grasses such as ryegrass and fescue, which form the bulk of pastures for their durability and yield; legumes like alfalfa and clover, valued for nitrogen fixation that enhances soil fertility; and browse comprising leaves and twigs from woody plants, often utilized by browsing animals in diverse ecosystems.^[1] Forage crops are cultivated worldwide, particularly in temperate and tropical regions, to sustain ruminant-based industries that produce meat, dairy, and wool.^[2] The economic and environmental significance of forage cannot be overstated, as it underpins sustainable livestock production by reducing reliance on grain feeds, improving soil health through root systems that prevent erosion, and providing habitat for biodiversity in agricultural landscapes.^[3] In developing countries, forages constitute the main nutrition for the majority of ruminants, contributing substantially to food security and rural economies.^[2] Effective management of forage growth stages—vegetative, reproductive, and mature—is crucial for optimizing nutritional quality and grazing efficiency, ensuring long-term productivity without depleting resources.^[4]

Overview

Definition

Forage refers to the edible parts of plants, other than separated grain, that can provide feed for grazing animals or be harvested for feeding to livestock, primarily herbivores such as ruminants like cattle and sheep.^[5] It consists mainly of herbaceous vegetation that supplies essential fiber for animal digestion and health, distinguishing it from non-fibrous components like seeds or roots in some contexts.^[6] Forage is classified into three primary categories based on form and consumption method: standing forage, harvested forage, and browse. Standing forage, often termed pasture, involves plants grazed directly in situ by animals without prior harvesting.^[6] Harvested forage includes preserved forms such as hay, which is dried plant material, and silage, which undergoes anaerobic fermentation to retain moisture and nutrients.^[6] Browse encompasses the leaves, twigs, and stems of woody or shrubby plants, typically consumed by browsing animals in natural or semi-natural settings.^[7] Key terms in forage usage include pasture for ungrazed standing vegetation, hay for sun-dried or artificially dehydrated herbage, and silage for ensiled, fermented material, often derived from botanical families like Poaceae (grasses) for fibrous stems and leaves or Fabaceae (legumes) for nitrogen-fixing plants.^[8] While forage and fodder are frequently synonymous, fodder more specifically implies harvested or processed plant material fed to animals, whereas forage emphasizes the broader category of grazable or collectible vegetation.^[9] In contrast, forage differs from concentrates, which are low-fiber, high-energy feeds like grains that supplement rather than form the bulk of herbivore diets.^[10]

Historical Development

The use of forage in early human societies traces back to the Neolithic period, when pastoralism emerged alongside the domestication of plants and animals in the Fertile Crescent around 10,000 BCE.^[11] Early herders domesticated grasses such as wild barley and emmer wheat, which served as natural grazing resources for newly domesticated sheep and goats, marking the transition from pure foraging to managed animal husbandry.^[12] This integration of wild and semi-domesticated grasses into pastoral systems supported mobile herding communities across the Near East, enabling population growth and the establishment of permanent settlements.^[13] During the medieval and pre-industrial eras, forage played a central role in sustaining livestock within Europe's manorial systems, where lords allocated common lands and meadows for communal grazing of cattle, sheep, and oxen essential to plowing and transport.^[14] In these self-sufficient estates, peasants rotated crops with fallow periods dedicated to grass regrowth, ensuring fodder availability amid limited arable land.^[15] Concurrently, Native American societies in North America relied on managed prairies and wild forages, using controlled burns to promote nutrient-rich grasses for grazing bison and other game, a practice that maintained ecosystem balance for millennia.^[16] Legumes like alfalfa, originating in Central Asia, were introduced to Europe around 490 BCE via Persian influences during the Greco-Persian conflicts, gradually spreading as a high-protein fodder crop through trade routes akin to the Silk Road.^[17] Advancements in the 19th and 20th centuries transformed forage production, beginning with the development of hybrid grasses like timothy (Phleum pratense) in 18th-century North America, where farmer Timothy Hanson promoted its cultivation around 1720 for superior hay yields in northern climates.^[18] By the 1870s, French farmer Auguste Goffart pioneered silage preservation techniques, publishing methods in 1877 to ferment chopped green forage in silos, which conserved nutrients and extended winter feeding options for livestock.^[19] Post-World War II, the widespread adoption of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers significantly increased forage yields in temperate regions due to enhanced soil nutrient availability.^[20] In the modern era, genetic improvements accelerated forage quality and resilience, with the development of genetically modified varieties such as herbicide-tolerant alfalfa beginning in the 1990s through gene-splicing techniques aimed at reducing weed competition.^[21] Colonial expansions from the 16th century onward facilitated the global spread of African savanna grasses like Brachiaria species to the Americas, introduced as pasture forages by European settlers and now covering millions of hectares in tropical regions.^[22] These introductions, while boosting cattle ranching, have led to widespread naturalization and ecological shifts in neotropical landscapes.^[23] In the 21st century, ongoing research has focused on developing climate-resilient forage varieties, including drought-tolerant Brachiaria hybrids and low-lignin alfalfa, to enhance productivity amid changing environmental conditions as of 2025.^[24]

Types of Forage

Grasses

Grasses, belonging to the family Poaceae, form the backbone of forage production worldwide due to their adaptability and productivity in various climates.^[8] These monocotyledonous plants are broadly classified into cool-season and warm-season types based on their photosynthetic pathways and optimal growth temperatures. Cool-season grasses primarily utilize C3 photosynthesis, thriving in temperate regions with cooler temperatures (optimal range of 18-22°C) and producing most of their biomass in spring and fall.^[8] In contrast, warm-season grasses employ the more efficient C4 photosynthetic pathway, which enhances carbon fixation under high light and temperature conditions, enabling peak growth during summer months in subtropical or tropical areas.^[25] Key forage grass species exemplify these classifications and exhibit distinct growth habits. Among cool-season varieties, orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata) is a bunch-forming perennial that produces hay yields of 4 to 6 tons per acre under proper fertilization and favorable conditions, making it suitable for hay and pasture mixtures.^[26] Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), a sod-forming grass that spreads via rhizomes, is highly adapted to grazed pastures, tolerating close and frequent defoliation while maintaining persistence in less intensively managed systems.^[27] For warm-season options, bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon) is a vigorous sod-former known for its rapid spread and high productivity, often yielding 5 to 7 tons per acre in the southeastern U.S. with irrigation and fertilization.^[28] Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), a native bunch grass, offers similar yield potential (up to 8 tons per acre in fertile soils) and is valued for its upright growth and resilience in marginal lands. Forage grasses provide several agronomic advantages, including generally high digestibility—particularly in cool-season species like perennial ryegrass due to elevated soluble sugar content—which supports efficient rumen fermentation in livestock.^[29] Warm-season grasses, such as bermudagrass, exhibit superior drought tolerance through their C4 mechanism, allowing sustained production in arid conditions where cool-season counterparts falter.^[8] Additionally, the extensive fibrous root systems of grasses enhance soil stabilization, reducing erosion on slopes and improving soil structure in pasture systems.^[30] Despite these benefits, forage grasses face notable challenges in management. They are susceptible to insect pests, including armyworms (Spodoptera frugiperda), which can cause significant defoliation in outbreaks, necessitating scouting and timely interventions in pastures and hayfields.^[31] Furthermore, as non-leguminous plants, grasses require substantial nitrogen fertilization—often 100-200 pounds per acre annually—to achieve optimal yields, as they lack the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen.^[32]

Legumes

Legumes, belonging to the family Fabaceae (also known as Leguminosae), encompass a diverse group of plants valued in forage systems for their ability to form symbiotic relationships with rhizobia bacteria. These plants include both herbaceous forms, such as alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and various clovers (Trifolium spp.), which are typically grown as perennial or short-lived perennials in temperate regions, and woody tree species like leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) and acacia (Acacia spp.), which provide browse in tropical or semi-arid environments.^[33] The family's characteristic compound leaves and pod fruits support their role in sustainable agriculture, particularly through biological nitrogen fixation facilitated by root nodules hosting Rhizobium bacteria.^[34] Prominent forage legumes include alfalfa, a deep-rooted perennial capable of yielding 8-10 tons of dry matter per acre annually under optimal management, with crude protein content ranging from 20-25%.^[35] Red clover (Trifolium pratense), often grown as a biennial or short-lived perennial, offers similar benefits but with moderate yields and a noted risk of bloat in grazing animals due to its high digestibility.^[36] Both species exemplify the rhizobial symbiosis, where legumes can fix up to 200 pounds of nitrogen per acre per year, reducing reliance on synthetic fertilizers.^[37] The primary advantages of legumes in forage production stem from their enhancement of soil fertility through nitrogen fixation, which can improve subsequent crop yields in rotations by 20-50%.^[38] They also provide higher protein levels compared to grasses, typically 15-25% crude protein versus 8-12% in cool-season grasses, supporting better livestock nutrition and growth efficiency.^[39] This makes legumes integral to mixed rotations, where they break pest cycles and boost overall system productivity.^[40] Despite these benefits, legumes present challenges such as frothy bloat in ruminants, induced by saponins that stabilize rumen foam and trap gases, particularly in lush stands of alfalfa or clover.^[41] Additionally, their persistence under continuous grazing is lower than that of grasses, often declining after 2-3 years due to poor regrowth and competition, necessitating rotational management to maintain stands.^[42]

Crop Residues and Silage

Crop residues, the post-harvest remains of cereal and row crops, serve as important sources of roughage in livestock diets, particularly for ruminants requiring high-fiber feeds. Wheat and oat straw, for instance, typically contain 3-5% crude protein and exhibit low digestibility, often around 30-40% in vitro dry matter digestibility, making them suitable primarily as fillers in balanced rations rather than sole energy sources.^[43] In contrast, corn stover—the stalks, leaves, husks, and cobs left after grain harvest—provides higher energy value, especially from the cobs and upper stalks, which can yield up to 35% better energy utilization in growing cattle compared to conventional baling methods.^[44] These residues are commonly incorporated into roughage diets for beef cattle, where they help maintain rumen function but require supplementation with higher-quality feeds to meet nutritional needs.^[45] Silage production transforms fresh forage crops, often grasses or grass-legume mixtures, into a preserved feed through anaerobic fermentation, enabling extended storage. The process begins with chopping the crop to a particle length of about 3/8 to 3/4 inch to facilitate packing and fermentation, followed by tight compaction in storage structures to exclude air, and immediate sealing to initiate the anaerobic environment.^[46] During ensiling, naturally occurring lactic acid bacteria convert plant sugars into lactic acid, lowering the pH to 3.8-4.2 in well-preserved silage, which inhibits undesirable microbial growth.^[47] Corn silage, a prevalent type, is typically harvested at 60-70% moisture to optimize fermentation, while grass-legume mixes may vary slightly but follow similar principles for effective preservation.^[48] The advantages of silage include year-round feed availability, unaffected by seasonal growth cycles, and high nutrient retention, with dry matter recovery often reaching 85-90% under optimal conditions due to minimal losses during fermentation.^[49] However, challenges arise from spoilage risks, particularly clostridial fermentation in overly wet silage (above 70% moisture), which produces butyric acid and results in rancid odors, elevated pH above 5, and reduced palatability.^[47] Effective management demands specialized equipment, such as upright silos, bunker silos, or plastic bags, to ensure airtight conditions and minimize aerobic deterioration at the feed face.^[50] While grasses often form the base for silage production, residues like corn stover can also be ensiled to enhance overall forage systems.^[51]

Other Forages

Other forages encompass a variety of non-grass and non-legume plants that contribute to livestock nutrition, including herbaceous forbs, woody browse, aquatic species, and specialized crops adapted to challenging environments. Forbs, defined as herbaceous broadleaf plants excluding legumes, serve as valuable forage due to their palatability and nutritional profile. Species such as chicory (Cichorium intybus) and English plantain (Plantago lanceolata) are commonly used, offering higher concentrations of minerals like phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, manganese, copper, boron, and zinc compared to many grasses.^[52]^[53] These forbs generally exhibit richer macro-element content than grasses, enhancing overall mineral intake for grazing animals.^[54] Browse refers to woody shrubs and trees that livestock, particularly goats and sheep, selectively consume, providing dietary diversity in wooded or shrub-dominated landscapes. Examples include willow (Salix spp.) and gorse (Ulex europaeus), which contain condensed tannins that exhibit antiparasitic effects by reducing gastrointestinal nematode burdens in ruminants.^[55]^[56] These tannins can improve animal health by interfering with parasite life cycles without requiring chemical interventions, though their efficacy depends on plant species and concentration levels.^[57] Aquatic forages, grown in ponds or wetlands, offer high-yield options for integrated aquaculture and livestock systems. Duckweed (Lemna spp.) stands out for its rapid growth rate—doubling biomass in 1-2 days under optimal conditions—and protein content reaching up to 40% on a dry matter basis, making it suitable for poultry, fish, and ruminant feeds.^[58]^[59] Similarly, water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is utilized as a supplementary feed for fish, poultry, and other livestock, with its nutrient-rich biomass supporting growth after processing to reduce fiber content.^[60]^[61] Miscellaneous forages include brassicas, cacti, and halophytes, each adapted to specific seasonal or environmental niches. Brassicas like kale (Brassica oleracea var. acephala) provide reliable winter grazing, with crude protein levels of 15-17% and dry matter yields up to 6 tons per acre over 150 days, allowing grazing as early as 60 days post-planting.^[62]^[63] In arid regions, cacti such as Opuntia spp. thrive in drought-prone soils with erratic rainfall, offering cladodes high in water and carbohydrates as a resilient fodder source.^[64]^[65] Halophytes, salt-tolerant plants like certain shrubs and grasses, enable forage production in saline coastal or degraded soils, where they accumulate salts without compromising yield.^[66]^[67] Incorporating these other forages promotes dietary diversity, enabling animals to achieve balanced nutrition through complementary nutrient profiles that address deficiencies in primary feeds.^[68] They also fill niche environments, such as saline, aquatic, or arid areas, expanding productive land use.^[69] However, challenges include potential toxicity risks; for instance, some forbs can accumulate nitrates to levels exceeding 0.35-0.45% of dry matter, leading to poisoning in ruminants if consumed in excess, particularly under stress conditions like drought or high fertilization.^[70]^[71] Management practices, such as testing and dilution with low-nitrate feeds, are essential to mitigate these hazards.^[72]

Production and Management

Cultivation Practices

Site selection is crucial for successful forage cultivation, beginning with soil testing to assess pH, nutrient levels, and texture. Ideal soil pH ranges from 6.0 to 7.0 for most legumes like alfalfa, while grasses tolerate 5.5 to 7.0; adjustments via lime application, ideally 6 months prior to planting, enhance nutrient availability and root development.^[73]^[74]^[75] Well-drained soils are preferred for alfalfa to prevent root rot, whereas species like red clover and reed canarygrass can adapt to poorer drainage.^[73] Climate matching ensures species suitability, such as cool-season grasses in temperate zones with fall seeding to leverage moist conditions.^[76] Recent advances in precision agriculture, including genomic selection for developing drought- and pest-resistant varieties, and the use of drones and sensors for targeted seeding and fertilizer application, are enhancing efficiency and sustainability in forage cultivation as of 2025.^[77]^[78] Seeding techniques prioritize precise placement for optimal germination and stand density. Drilling into a firm seedbed at depths of 1/4 to 1/2 inch provides good seed-to-soil contact, while broadcasting followed by rolling or light harrowing suits no-till systems; maximum depth should not exceed 3/8 inch to avoid poor emergence.^[74]^[76] Seeding rates vary by species, such as 15-20 pounds per acre for alfalfa or 8-20 pounds per acre for tall fescue, often using pure live seed calculations for mixtures.^[79] Companion planting of grasses and legumes, with legume inoculation using strain-specific rhizobia, promotes balanced stands and nitrogen fixation; nurse crops like oats at reduced rates (1 bushel per acre) can suppress weeds without competing excessively if nitrogen is withheld.^[76]^[73] Fertilization and inputs are guided by soil tests to meet N-P-K requirements tailored to crop type. Legumes require minimal nitrogen due to symbiotic fixation (e.g., alfalfa fixes up to 200–300 pounds per acre annually), focusing instead on phosphorus and potassium at rates like 40 pounds P₂O₅ and 20 pounds K₂O per acre for low soil indices.^[75]^[80] Grasses demand higher nitrogen, approximately 50-60 pounds per ton of expected yield (e.g., 150 pounds per acre for bermudagrass targeting 3 tons), with P and K applied based on deficiencies.^[75] Lime incorporation raises pH effectively, and in dryland areas, irrigation during establishment ensures moisture for nutrient uptake and seedling vigor, potentially boosting yields from 2-4 tons to 10-15 tons per acre for irrigated bermudagrass.^[73]^[75] Starter fertilizers at planting, such as 30 pounds nitrogen per acre plus half the recommended P and K, support early growth.^[74] Establishment timelines depend on species and conditions, with germination typically occurring in 7-21 days under adequate moisture and temperature.^[81] Perennials like alfalfa require 60-90 days to reach sufficient maturity for first harvest, allowing root reserves to develop; full stands may take over a year, with productive longevity of 5-10 years or more.^[82]^[76] Late summer seeding (e.g., August in temperate regions) often yields better results than spring due to reduced weed pressure and cooler fall temperatures, provided 8 weeks remain before frost for seedling establishment.^[73]^[81]

Harvesting and Preservation

Harvesting forage involves several methods to collect plant material while minimizing damage and preserving nutritional value. Mowing is the primary mechanical technique, typically performed at a height of 3-4 inches for grasses to avoid removing the growing point and causing plant stress.^[83]^[84] Baling follows drying or partial fermentation, with small square bales suited for easier handling and storage in smaller operations, while large round bales are more efficient for extensive fields due to reduced labor; for dry hay, baling occurs at 15-20% moisture to prevent mold and spoilage.^[85]^[86] Direct grazing serves as a non-mechanical harvest approach where livestock consume forage in situ, though it requires careful management to avoid overgrazing and support regrowth.^[27] Timing of harvest is critical to balance yield and quality. For grasses, the boot stage—when the seedhead is enclosed in the flag leaf—offers high nutrient density and good dry matter yield before lignification reduces digestibility.^[87]^[88] Legumes like alfalfa are harvested based on regrowth cycles, typically allowing 3-5 cuts per year depending on climate and variety, with intervals of 25-35 days to ensure sufficient recovery and maintain stand longevity.^[89]^[90] Preservation techniques extend forage usability by reducing moisture and inhibiting spoilage. For hay, field drying to 15-20% moisture involves tedding or fluffing shortly after cutting to accelerate evaporation through increased surface exposure and air circulation, often completed within 2-4 days under optimal weather.^[91]^[92] Silage preservation relies on ensiling in anaerobic conditions, where forage at 30-70% moisture undergoes lactic acid fermentation; additives such as lactic acid bacteria inoculants enhance the process by speeding pH drop and reducing dry matter losses by 2-3%.^[93]^[94] Haylage, a form of wrapped bale silage, involves partial fermentation at 40-60% moisture, preserving higher nutrients than dry hay while avoiding full ensiling risks.^[95]^[96] Essential equipment includes sickle-bar or disc mowers for cutting, rotary or wheel rakes for forming windrows, and round or square balers for compaction.^[97]^[98] For silage storage, upright tower silos facilitate vertical packing and unloading from the bottom, ideal for uniform fermentation, whereas bunker silos allow horizontal filling with tractors for larger volumes but require careful sealing to minimize oxygen exposure.^[99]^[100] Post-preservation quality, such as fermentation stability in silage, can be briefly assessed through pH and temperature monitoring.^[101]

Grazing Systems

Grazing systems in forage management refer to structured approaches for allowing livestock to access pastures, aiming to optimize forage utilization, animal health, and land productivity. These systems vary in intensity and control, balancing the needs of plants for recovery with the dietary requirements of grazing animals. Common types include continuous grazing, where livestock have unrestricted access to the entire pasture area, often leading to uneven utilization and risks of overgrazing in preferred spots.^[102] In contrast, rotational grazing divides the pasture into multiple paddocks, with animals moved between them to allow regrowth periods, typically 20-30 days of rest per paddock, promoting more uniform forage consumption.^[103] Mob grazing, a more intensive variant, involves high animal densities in small areas for very short durations—often one day or less—followed by extended recovery, which enhances soil disturbance and nutrient cycling.^[104] Stocking rates, the number of animals per unit area, are calculated based on available forage mass to prevent overgrazing and ensure sustainable use. For temperate pastures, rates often range from 1 to 2 animal units (AU, equivalent to a 1,000-pound cow) per acre, depending on forage yield, which can vary from 2,000 to 12,000 pounds of dry matter per acre annually.^[105] Tools like the grazing stick assist in estimation by measuring sward height and converting it to forage biomass; for instance, in cool-season grasses, every inch of height above 3-4 inches of residual stubble approximates 300-400 pounds of dry matter per acre, guiding adjustments to stocking density.^[106] These calculations account for factors such as pasture size, animal weight, and grazing duration to maintain 50-70% forage utilization.^[107] Managed grazing systems offer several benefits over continuous access, including enhanced forage regrowth through rest periods, which can increase productivity by 20-50% in rotational setups.^[108] Animal movement in rotational and mob systems also aids parasite control by breaking life cycles, as larvae are less likely to be ingested when pastures recover.^[102] A notable example is holistic planned grazing, developed by Allan Savory in the 1980s, which integrates rotational principles with detailed planning for livestock placement, timing, and behavior to mimic natural herd dynamics and improve overall ecosystem function.^[109] Despite these advantages, challenges persist, including the need for substantial fencing infrastructure to create paddocks, reliable water distribution across areas, and seasonal adjustments to stocking rates amid varying rainfall or growth rates.^[110] Mob grazing, in particular, demands intensive labor for frequent moves, though it can boost soil health via trampling that incorporates organic matter.^[104]

Nutritional Aspects

Composition and Quality

The nutritional composition of forage is typically evaluated on a dry matter (DM) basis to standardize comparisons across varying moisture levels in feeds. Macronutrients in forage include crude protein (CP), which ranges from 8% to 25% of DM, with grasses generally containing 8% to 20% and legumes 15% to 25%. Neutral detergent fiber (NDF), a measure of cell wall components affecting digestibility, typically comprises 30% to 60% of DM in quality forages, where lower levels (below 40% in legumes and 50% in grasses) indicate higher intake potential and digestibility. Energy content is often expressed as total digestible nutrients (TDN), ranging from 50% to 70% of DM, with high-quality forages like early-cut alfalfa reaching 50% to 60% and mature grasses falling to 40% to 50%.^[111]^[112]^[113]^[114]^[115] Micronutrients in forage encompass essential minerals, vitamins, and potential anti-nutritional factors that influence overall feed value. The calcium (Ca) to phosphorus (P) ratio is ideally around 2:1 in ruminant diets to support bone health and metabolism, though natural forage levels can vary based on soil type. Vitamins such as vitamin E are abundant in fresh green forages but degrade significantly in stored hay due to oxidation and exposure, potentially leading to deficiencies in confined livestock. Anti-nutritional factors, like prussic acid (hydrogen cyanide) in sorghum forages, can pose toxicity risks, particularly under stress conditions such as drought or frost, reducing safe intake levels.^[116]^[117]^[118] Forage quality is assessed through a combination of laboratory analyses and field evaluations to predict nutritional value and suitability for livestock. Laboratory tests, such as near-infrared reflectance (NIR) spectroscopy, provide rapid, non-destructive estimates of CP, NDF, and TDN by analyzing light absorption patterns in forage samples. Visual scoring methods evaluate traits like leaf-to-stem ratio, where higher leaf proportions (often >60% in legumes) correlate with improved protein and digestibility. Maturity stage is a key determinant, with vegetative growth stages offering superior quality compared to boot or heading stages in grasses, as advancing maturity increases fiber and reduces energy density.^[119]^[113]^[120] Variability in forage composition arises from multiple environmental and biological factors, impacting nutrient profiles across production systems. Plant species significantly influence macronutrient levels, with legumes inherently higher in CP than grasses due to nitrogen-fixing capabilities. Growth stage affects quality, as nutrients decline with maturity—e.g., CP drops and NDF rises post-boot stage. Soil conditions further modulate micronutrients; for instance, selenium deficiencies in forages are common in low-selenium soils of regions like the Pacific Northwest, necessitating supplementation to prevent livestock health issues.^[111]^[113]^[121]

Feeding Strategies

Forage plays a central role in animal nutrition, particularly for ruminants, where it typically constitutes 50-100% of the diet to support rumen health, microbial fermentation, and overall production efficiency. In ration design, high-fiber forages like grasses and legumes are balanced with energy-dense supplements such as grains or molasses when forage quality is low, ensuring adequate digestible energy and protein to meet requirements without compromising fiber intake, which is essential for preventing metabolic disorders. For example, in beef cattle finishing, forages provide the bulk of roughage, supplemented with concentrates to optimize growth rates while maintaining rumen pH stability. Feeding strategies vary by species to align with physiological needs and production goals. For dairy cows, high-quality alfalfa hay or silage is often prioritized, comprising up to 60% of the diet, to enhance milk yield and fat content through its rich protein and calcium profile. In beef production, grass-finishing systems rely on 100% forage diets from pastures or hay to produce leaner meat with favorable omega-3 profiles, contrasting with grain-fed approaches that reduce forage to 20-30% for faster weight gain. Non-ruminants, such as horses, receive limited forage—typically 1.5-2% of body weight in hay daily—as their hindgut fermentation capacity is lower, with concentrates added sparingly to avoid digestive upset. Practical feeding strategies emphasize controlled access and integration to maximize utilization. Ad libitum grazing allows ruminants unrestricted access to pastures, promoting natural intake patterns and welfare, though rotational systems prevent overgrazing. Total mixed rations (TMR) incorporating silage ensure uniform nutrient delivery, with forage particles sized to 1-2 inches for effective chewing and rumen mat formation, commonly used in confined dairy operations. Transition feeding, such as gradually introducing hay over 7-14 days when shifting from pasture, minimizes risks like rumen acidosis by allowing microbial adaptation. Monitoring feeding effectiveness is crucial for adjustments. Body condition scoring, a visual and tactile assessment on a 1-5 scale, evaluates fat reserves in cattle and horses to detect under- or over-nutrition, guiding ration tweaks quarterly. Intake is estimated at 2-3% of body weight on a dry matter basis for most livestock, tracked via bunk space observations or electronic feeders to ensure targets are met without waste.

Sustainability and Impacts

Environmental Considerations

Forage production plays a significant role in maintaining soil health through practices like cover cropping, which reduces erosion by protecting soil from rainfall impact and enhancing water infiltration. Cover crops, often integrated into forage systems, form soil aggregates and root channels that improve soil structure, thereby resisting erosion during intense precipitation events and building resilience to both wet and dry extremes.^[122] However, over-fertilization with nitrogen in forage fields can lead to nutrient runoff, contributing to eutrophication in nearby water bodies by delivering excess nitrates that promote harmful algal blooms and oxygen depletion.^[123] This runoff from agricultural soils, including those used for hay and pasture production, exacerbates water quality degradation when nitrogen application exceeds crop uptake capacity.^[124] Monoculture forage systems pose risks to biodiversity by reducing habitat diversity and increasing vulnerability to pests, which can diminish overall ecosystem stability compared to mixed-species pastures. In contrast, diverse forage pastures support greater populations of pollinators and wildlife by providing varied floral resources and structural complexity that enhance habitat suitability for insects, birds, and other species.^[125] Perennial grasses in these systems also contribute to carbon sequestration, with rates typically ranging from 0.3 to 1.7 tons of carbon per acre per year in prairie-like settings, helping mitigate climate change through soil carbon accumulation.^[126] Water management in forage production is critical, as high-irrigation crops like alfalfa require 30 to 40 inches of water annually to sustain yields, placing demands on regional water resources in arid areas. To adapt to drought, deep-rooted forage species such as alfalfa access subsoil moisture more effectively than shallow-rooted alternatives, maintaining productivity during water shortages.^[127]^[128] Contemporary challenges in forage systems include methane emissions from enteric fermentation in grazing livestock, which account for approximately 30% of agriculture's greenhouse gas emissions and are influenced by forage quality and digestibility.^[129] Additionally, pesticide use, particularly neonicotinoids, harms non-target pollinators essential to forage ecosystems, prompting post-2020 regulatory actions such as the U.S. EPA's halt on new outdoor approvals and state-level bans like California's 2025 retail prohibition to curb environmental exposure.^[130]^[131]

Economic Role

Forage constitutes a major component of livestock production economics, accounting for 60-70% of total feed costs globally due to its role as the primary roughage source for ruminants.^[132] In the United States, the hay trade exemplifies this market dynamic, with exports valued at over $1 billion annually in recent years, driven by demand from international livestock sectors.^[133] The cost-benefit analysis of forage production highlights its profitability potential despite variable inputs. Seed and fertilizer costs typically range from $100 to $200 per acre, depending on crop type and region, while pastures can generate returns of $300 to $500 per acre in beef production through efficient grazing systems.^[134]^[135] In developing economies, forage plays a critical role in sustaining low-cost livestock systems. In sub-Saharan Africa, natural forages and crop residues comprise 72-93% of ruminant feed, supporting the livelihoods of millions of smallholder farmers amid limited access to concentrates.^[136] The European Union's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) further underscores this global context by providing area-based subsidies for permanent grasslands, which incentivize maintenance of forage lands and contribute to income stability for grassland-dependent farms.^[137] Emerging trends are enhancing the economic viability of forage through technological and multifunctional innovations. Precision agriculture tools, such as drones for yield monitoring, enable optimized management and reduced input waste in forage fields.^[138] Additionally, dual-use crops like switchgrass offer revenue diversification by serving as both livestock forage and bioenergy feedstock, with harvest strategies allowing multiple yields per season to boost overall returns.^[139]

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[10]
Nutritive Value of Feeds - OSU Extension - Oklahoma State University
This relationship explains why some forages and feeds contain high NDF concentrations, but remain high in digestibility, while others may contain moderate or ...
[11]
The Development of Agriculture - National Geographic Education
May 29, 2025 · Agriculture began about 12,000 years ago, leading to permanent settlements, the growth of cities, and a population increase. It may have ...
[12]
The Origins of Agriculture in the Near East | Current Anthropology
The complex origins of domesticated crops in the Fertile Crescent. Trends in ... Ancient DNA, pig domestication, and the spread of the Neolithic into Europe.
[13]
Origins of agriculture - Domestication, Neolithic, Fertile Crescent
The first agriculture appears to have developed at the closing of the last Pleistocene glacial period, or Ice Age (about 11,700 years ago). At that time ...
[14]
Lecture 22: European Agrarian Society: Manorialism
Feb 28, 2006 · However, the medieval manor did serve as a balanced economic setting. Peasants grew their grain and raised cattle, sheep, hogs and goats. There ...
[15]
Manorial and Guild Systems: The Institutions and Economics of the ...
Nov 1, 2016 · Besides growing their own food, the manors raised livestock, milled their own grain for bread, spun thread to make their own clothing, and ...
[16]
How Native Americans created 'a vast food network' - New Jersey ...
Nov 22, 2022 · Indigenous peoples managed a vast food network via fire, plant introductions and other ecological management techniques.
[17]
Exchanges of economic plants along the land silk road
Dec 29, 2022 · Alfalfa originated from Media in ancient Persia (i.e., Central Asia, Caucasus, and Iran) [103], introduced into Greece about 490 BC, and later ...
[18]
Timothy, Phleum pratense L. - Friends of the Wildflower Garden
Timothy is named for Timothy Hanson, an 18th Century American farmer from Maryland who promoted the grass around 1720 for use as hay as the Northern ...
[19]
[PDF] 1 History of Silage - Sci-Hub
Then, in 1877, the French farmer Auguste Goffart published the results of his work on the ensiling of chopped forage com and other crops (Goffart, 1877).
[20]
Fertilizer Explodes - Wessels Living History Farm
Artificial fertilizers combined with new hybrid crops, new pesticides and developments in irrigation to produce an explosion in crop yields and production.<|separator|>
[21]
Genetically-Engineered Crops Past Experience and Future Prospects
Genetically Engineered Crops: Experiences and Prospects. Genetically engineered (GE) crops were first introduced commercially in the 1990s. After two decades of ...
[22]
The Invasive Legacy of Forage Grass Introductions into Florida
Apr 1, 2017 · Exotic African warm-season forage grasses were first introduced into the Americas in the 16th century, and have become invasive in many areas. ...
[23]
(PDF) African Grass Invasion in the Americas: Ecosystem ...
Aug 5, 2025 · African grasses have escaped from cultivated pastures and revegetated rangeland sites and invaded natural areas at alarming rates.
[24]
Grass Research - Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History
Those with only C3 photosynthesis predominate in cool to frigid climates with cool season precipitation, and few C3 grasses thrive in warm season climates, ...
[25]
Orchardgrass - Penn State Extension
Feb 10, 2025 · Hay yields of 4 to 6 tons can be expected when it is properly fertilized and favorable weather prevails. Yields are reduced during periods of ...
[26]
Forage grasses for pasture and hay | UMN Extension
Identifying forage grasses correctly is crucial for effective pasture and hay management, as well as for achieving maximum yields and profits.Missing: browse | Show results with:browse
[27]
A Guide to Warm-Season Forage Management in Missouri
Feb 25, 2025 · Warm-season grasses are important because they provide high-quality forage during the hot summer months when cool-season grasses are less productive.
[28]
Improving the Yield and Nutritional Quality of Forage Crops - PMC
Apr 24, 2018 · Of the major forage crops grown globally grasses, particularly Lolium perenne, have high digestibility due to high soluble sugar content ...Missing: stabilization | Show results with:stabilization
[29]
[PDF] Forages | Organic Risk Management
Grasses have fibrous root systems that remove nutrients and water mostly in the top foot of soil, while legumes typi- cally have a tap root system that can pen ...
[30]
Fall Armyworm Invasion - Penn State Extension
Jul 23, 2025 · Applying fall fertilizer that includes a slow-release form of nitrogen supports regrowth.Missing: challenges | Show results with:challenges
[31]
[PDF] FSA3154 - Orchardgrass for Forage
It has a clumpy growth habit, which makes it ideal for growing in mixtures with legumes or other grasses. Most of the annual growth is in spring, but it can.
[32]
Forage Crops - OER Commons
Lesson Objectives. Identify examples of forage crops. Select examples of common forage crops from the list provided. Identify common uses of forage crops.Missing: browse | Show results with:browse
[33]
Nitrogen Fixation by Legumes | New Mexico State University
However, nitrogen fixation by legumes can be in the range of 25–75 lb of nitrogen per acre per year in a natural ecosystem, and several hundred pounds in a ...Biological Nitrogen Fixation · Legume Nodules · Nitrogen Fixation Problems...
[34]
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) - Feedipedia
Yield. Alfalfa is one of the highest yielding forage legume (20 t/ha DM in the USA, about 16 t/ha DM in France) (Frame, 2005). · Grazing. Alfalfa should be ...Missing: acre | Show results with:acre<|separator|>
[35]
[PDF] RED CLOVER - Plant Fact Sheet
biennial or short-lived perennial that grows as one of two types: medium (double-cut) or mammoth (single- cut). Red clover plants grow from crowns. Plants.
[36]
Forage Legumes and Nitrogen Production | Oklahoma State University
Legumes fix nitrogen through bacteria, converting atmospheric nitrogen to plant-available forms, and can fix between 20 to over 300 lbs N/acre/year.
[37]
Benefits of Including Forages in Your Crop Rotation
Forages help with soil erosion, reduce fertilizer costs, increase soil fertility, improve water filtration, reduce disease, and increase yields in subsequent ...
[38]
Need for Legumes - Texas A&M AgriLife Research & Extension ...
They have higher nutritive value than grasses because they are more digestible and higher in protein, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium.<|separator|>
[39]
Legume-based rotation benefits crop productivity and agricultural ...
Legume inclusion increased annual crop yield and economic net income. · Legume inclusion enhanced the net energy ratio and energy use efficiency under low-input ...
[40]
Bloat | Forage Information System | Oregon State University
The saponins, which are capable of increasing surface tensions to levels that can withstand the gas pressures which develop in the rumen, were the first ...
[41]
(PDF) Forage Legumes for Grazing and Conserving in Ruminant ...
The main disadvantages of forage legumes are generally (i) lower persistence than grass under grazing, (ii) high risk of livestock bloat and (iii) difficulty ...
[42]
[PDF] Ammoniating Wheat Straw, A Potential Feed Source in Drought?
Wheat straw typically tests around 3.3% crude protein and 31% in-vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD).
[43]
How Much Can Selective Harvest Improve The Feed Value Of Baled ...
Nov 1, 2015 · In a feeding trial the stover baled with this system had 35% better energy value when fed to growing cattle than conventionally baled corn ...
[44]
Utilizing Corn Residue in Beef Cattle Diets | NDSU Agriculture
While grazed corn residue can serve as the sole source of forage for beef cows, harvested or baled corn stover should not be utilized as the sole source of ...
[45]
From Harvest to Feed: Understanding Silage Management
Mar 8, 2023 · Also, allowing 21 to 28 days between spreading manure and harvesting silage can help reduce the number of clostridia present on the forage at ...Missing: challenges | Show results with:challenges
[46]
Troubleshooting Silage Problems - Penn State Extension
Jul 28, 2023 · High ethanol content from yeast fermentation may impart an alcohol odor to silage. Clostridial fermentation results in a rancid butter smell.Missing: spoilage | Show results with:spoilage
[47]
Corn Silage Management Research in NYS - Cornell blogs
Jan 16, 2020 · Optimum moisture content for making silage is between 60 and 70%, although generally the ideal moisture content is in the upper 60's. It is ...
[48]
[PDF] ANALYZING SILAGE CROPS FOR QUALITY - Symposium
Dec 11, 2011 · Losses of dry matter from field to feed bunk run 10% to 15% under optimum conditions and can be 20% to 40% where management is poor (Table 1).Missing: round | Show results with:round
[49]
Managing Forage in Silo Bags - Extension
For hay silage the preferred moisture is 60-65%. Clostridial fermentation is more likely in hay silage if the forage moisture is greater than 65%. Clostridial ...Missing: challenges | Show results with:challenges
[50]
Corn Silage Harvest Techniques - Purdue Extension
Rapid filling, tight packing, and proper sealing are essential in order to exclude air from the silage mass. These three important tasks represent the last ...
[51]
Nutritive value of chicory and English plantain forage - Penn State
These species have been touted as having good summer production and relatively high nutritive value. ... minerals P, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Cu, B, and Zn ... chicory and ...
[52]
Nutritive value of chicory and English plantain - USDA ARS
Chicory was more digestible than plantain and generally had higher concentrations of most minerals.
[53]
[PDF] Effect of growth stage on the macro mineral concentrations of forbs ...
Forbs are richer in macro-elements compared with grasses. They provide a better option compared with grasses in terms of mineral content as well as protein and ...
[54]
Antiparasitic Tannin-Rich Plants from the South of Europe for ... - NIH
This review study presents different Mediterranean tannin-rich plants with anthelmintic effect, which can be used as fodder or voluntarily grazed by livestock.
[55]
Characteristics of browse plants for goats and sheep - ACSRPC
Condensed tannins in browse and forage plants can have positive or negative effects on livestock health and performance, depending on the type and ...
[56]
(PDF) Tannins in forage plants and their role in animal husbandry ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Tannins in forages have often been described as antinutritional factors, but this review aims to update information on beneficial effects on animals and the ...
[57]
Modeling Growth Dynamics of Lemna minor: Process Optimization ...
Jun 5, 2025 · Duckweed is the fastest-growing flowering plant in the world [5] and, depending on the species and cultivation can reach protein contents of 40 ...Missing: rapid | Show results with:rapid
[58]
[PDF] EDWARDS. PETER CORPORATE AUTHORS I
Although the total protein content of aquatic ... high content Duckweed, however, is higher in protein content than of good quality protein and a rapid growth ...<|separator|>
[59]
vii. aquatic plants for livestock food
The authors conclude that during the dry season water hyacinth could usefully be fed to cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats and poultry. Other forage such as Typha ...
[60]
Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms: Uses, Challenges, Threats, and ...
Jul 7, 2020 · Hence, water hyacinth can be used as a raw material in formulating fish feed. This may increase the crude protein level of the feed (due to the ...
[61]
Forage Brassicas for Winter Grazing Systems | Mississippi State ...
Kale's crude protein (CP) concentration ranges from 15 to 17 percent, and its dry matter yield can reach up to 6 tons per acre over 150 days, making it ideal ...
[62]
[PDF] brassicas for forage - Natural Resources Conservation Service
Grazing may begin as early as 60-70 days with turnips, 60 days with kale, 150-180 days with swedes for maximum production. Number of grazings depends upon ...
[63]
[PDF] Cactus (Opuntia spp.) as forage - FAO Knowledge Repository
Opuntias are well-adapted to arid zones characterized by droughty conditions, erratic rainfall and poor soils subject to erosion, having developed phenological, ...
[64]
Cactus (Opuntia spp.) as Forage
OPUNTIA SPP. - A STRATEGIC FODDER AND EFFICIENT TOOL TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION IN THE WANA REGION · INTRODUCTION · IMPORTANCE OF CACTI IN ARID ZONES · CACTI AS ...
[65]
Potential of Halophytes as Sustainable Fodder Production by Using ...
May 29, 2023 · Halophytes can tolerate high salinity and can be easily grown for fodder in coastal areas where fodder is a problem.
[66]
[PDF] Halophytes as a rangeland resource | California Agriculture
Desert saltbush is one of many salt-tolerant shrubs and grasses that provide forage for livestock and wildlife in rangelands such as the Owens Valley. Many ...
[67]
How Dietary Diversity Enhances Hedonic and Eudaimonic Well ...
Apr 15, 2020 · As dietary diversity allows animals to select more adequately balanced diets (improved nutrition), take advantage of PSC (natural antioxidants) ...
[68]
Improved feeding and forages at a crossroads: Farming systems ...
Diverse forages can occupy different niches and fulfill different objectives in a given farming system. Skillful spatial and temporal integration into ...Missing: advantages | Show results with:advantages
[69]
Nitrate Toxicity in Livestock | Oklahoma State University
5. Forages high in nitrate will exhibit lower nitrate levels after being ensiled due to the microbial activity in the fermentation process.Nitrate Poisoning · Livestock Factors Related to... · Nitrate Management...
[70]
Nitrate Poisening | Forage Information System
Nitrate poisoning occurs when animals eat forage material with a high nitrate content (in excess of 0.35% to 0.45% nitrate in the diet).Missing: challenges | Show results with:challenges
[71]
Nitrate Toxicity | CAES Field Report - UGA
When feeding animal forages containing toxic levels of nitrates, poor productivity or death may occur. This publication summarizes the effect that high nitrates ...Missing: challenges | Show results with:challenges
[72]
Successful Forage Crop Establishment - Penn State Extension
Apr 10, 2024 · Using a nurse crop with spring forage seedings is a common practice. Nurse crops can reduce the potential for soil erosion and weed infestations ...Missing: cultivation | Show results with:cultivation
[73]
Forage Planting and Establishment Methods on Prepared Seedbed
This publication provides practical information on forage planting on prepared seedbeds to producers or anyone interested in establishing pastures.
[74]
[PDF] Oklahoma Forage and Pasture Fertility Guide - OSU Extension
The OSU Soil, Wa- ter and Forage Analytical Laboratory recommends lime to bring soil pH to 6.5 ( Table 6.2). Figure 6.1. Effect of liming and nitrogen ...
[75]
Establishment and Renovation - Forage Information System
Successful pasture establishment has three essential building blocks: good soil conditions, a properly adapted species, and good weather.
[76]
None
### Summary of Seeding Guide for Forage Crops (PB 378, UTIA)
[77]
Summer Seeding of Forages - Penn State Extension
Feb 23, 2023 · For optimum crop establishment and to minimize winterkill approximately 8 weeks are needed for the seedlings to germinate and develop ...Missing: timeline | Show results with:timeline
[78]
Bulletin #2259, Maine Forage Facts: Red Clover
The first harvest is suggested at least 60–90 days after establishment (about 10 percent bloom), with subsequent cuttings at 30–35 day intervals. Harvest at ...
[79]
Cutting Height in Forages: How Low Can You Go?
May 22, 2023 · If you have grasses involved, you must keep cutting height higher than a pure stand of legume, if you want to keep the grass in the stand. Keep ...Missing: methods | Show results with:methods
[80]
Forage Conservation: Troubleshooting Hay and Silage Production
As a general rule, legumes should be clipped at early bloom and grasses (specially annuals) at boot to early head stages (Table 1). Clipping heights should ~2-4 ...
[81]
Making and Storing Quality Hay | MU Extension
Oct 1, 1993 · When hay is baled, it should not be higher than 18 to 22 percent moisture. At higher levels of moisture, bales lose large amounts of dry matter ...
[82]
Determining Forage Moisture Concentration - VCE Publications
Jul 2, 2020 · Ideally, hay should have a moisture concentration between 15 percent and 18 percent during baling. Forage baled at higher moisture levels is ...
[83]
Developmental Phases | Forage Information System
The boot stage is defined as the time when the seedhead is enclosed within the sheath of the flag leaf. It is one part of the reproductive phase.
[84]
First Cutting of Forages - Agronomic Crops Network
For high quality feed, such as for lactating dairy cows, pure grass stands should be harvested in the late boot stage just before the heads start to peek out.
[85]
[PDF] Alfalfa Management Guide FSA3158
In Arkansas, alfalfa can usually be harvested four to five times per year. ... It is best to cut alfalfa with a mower/conditioner to facilitate drying. The ...
[86]
Harvest Management of Alfalfa - Penn State Extension
Feb 23, 2023 · In addition, disease-resistant varieties of alfalfa can be maintained for four to five years, sometimes longer depending on cutting management.
[87]
Effectiveness of Equipment to Speed Hay Drying – Team Forage
Tedding can be used anytime during field curing, but it is best to do so before the crop is too dry (above 40% moisture content). The stirring or fluffing of ...
[88]
[PDF] Haymaking - UNH Extension
Once the hay starts to dry, it needs to be worked to promote curing. Tedding, the next step in haymaking, fluffs up the cut hay and allows the air and sun to ...Missing: fluffing | Show results with:fluffing
[89]
Microbial inoculants for silage - Crops and Soils
Silage microbial inoculants contain bacteria selected to dominate the fermentation of crops in the silo. Silage inoculants are divided in two categories ...
[90]
Silage inoculants: What the research tells us about when and how to ...
Inoculants are a tool to reduce dry matter losses, typically by 2-3 percentage units. So they have a role in reducing losses.
[91]
Field Drying Forage for Hay and Haylage - Dairy
When forage is cut, it has 75 to 80 percent moisture, which must be dried down to 60 to 65% moisture content for haylage and down to 14 to 18% moisture content ...
[92]
Forage Management: Making Haylage | UT Beef & Forage Center
Apr 2, 2021 · The proper moisture content for good fermentation is between 40 and 60 percent. Too little water and the fermentation process will be limited.
[93]
[PDF] Hay Making Equipment - Cornell blogs
Jun 12, 2006 · Hay making equipment includes mowers, conditioners, tedders/inverters, rakes, and balers. Mowers cut, conditioners speed drying, rakes gather, ...
[94]
Buyer's Guide to Hay Equipment
Their conditioning system fluffs and spreads the cut crop for faster drying time. Choosing the Right Hay Tedder. A tedder is a machine that spreads and turns ...
[95]
Silos | Forage Information System | Oregon State University
Bunker Silo: Bunker silos are trenches, usually with concrete walls, that are filled and packed with tractors and loaders. · Silo Bags: Bag silos are heavy ...Missing: upright | Show results with:upright
[96]
SS-AGR-177/AG180: Silage Harvesting, Storing, and Feeding
This publication discusses the advantages, disadvantages, and phases of silage fermentation and the factors affecting silage quality.
[97]
Silage and Haylage Production | NC State Extension Publications
May 6, 2024 · Three different moisture levels can be achieved: high-moisture silage (≤ 30% DM), medium-moisture silage (30% to 40% DM), and low-moisture ( ...
[98]
Grazing Methods: Which One Is for You? - Master Grazer
Many types of grazing systems exist, and the benefits are abundant over using a continuous grazing system. Rotational grazing can drastically increase pasture ...
[99]
Designing a Flexible and Efficient Rotational Grazing System
Aug 5, 2025 · Rotational grazing involves matching stocking rate, using high density, rotating before 4 inch grass, and resting pastures. A flexible system ...
[100]
Mob Grazing – Definition, Benefits, Drawbacks and Implementation
Apr 13, 2015 · The benefits they list include: Increased organic matter, Manure distribution, Decreased selectivity, more even grazing, Increased stocking capacity, Season ...
[101]
[PDF] Pasture, Rangeland and Grazing Management
Temperate pastures will on average yield anywhere from 2,000 pounds of dry matter per acre per year to more than 12,000 pounds per acre depending on the species ...
[102]
How to Use a Grazing Stick | CAES Field Report - UGA
Aug 20, 2024 · A grazing stick provides producers with a cost-effective and relatively accurate option to make critical grazing-management decisions for their ...
[103]
Stocking Rate: The Key to Successful Livestock Production
Stocking rate is generally expressed as animal units per unit of land area. Carrying capacity is the stocking rate that is sustainable over time per unit of ...Missing: temperate | Show results with:temperate
[104]
Rotational Grazing Systems Explained (Benefits & More)
Mar 4, 2024 · Rotational grazing involves rotating grazing animals through 2 or more pastures, which are then allowed to rest for any given period.
[105]
Holistic Planned Grazing: It's More than Rotational Grazing
Holistic Planned Grazing is a planning process for dealing with the great complexity livestock managers face daily in integrating livestock production.
[106]
Advantages and Disadvantages of Grazing Systems - MaiaGrazing
May 9, 2024 · Each grazing system presents unique advantages and challenges that will influence your soil health, plant diversity, and animal welfare.
[107]
Forage Quality | NC State Extension Publications
Aug 15, 2024 · Total crude protein is typically greater in legumes (15%–25%) than in grasses (10%–20%), and concentrations usually decrease as plants mature ...
[108]
Hay Testing and Understanding Forage Quality
Crude protein content in legumes ranges from 15 to 23 percent, while in grasses,. CP levels range from 8 to 18 percent. Other crop residues used in grazing ...
[109]
Determining Forage Quality: Understanding Feed Analysis
Jul 28, 2023 · For legume forages, NDF content below 40% would be considered good quality, while above 50% would be considered poor. For grass forages, NDF < ...Missing: typical | Show results with:typical
[110]
[PDF] Forage Analysis Interpretation - Agriculture
Typically, high quality forages like alfalfa range from 50 to 60% TDN while low quality forages like mature grasses range from 40 to 50% TDN.
[111]
Interpreting Forage and Feed Analysis Reports | Mississippi State ...
It is generally a value that expresses total fiber content. Values typically range from 50 to 80 percent in most forages. Legumes tend to have lower NDF and ADF ...
[112]
Vitamin and Mineral Nutrition of Grazing Cattle - OSU Extension
... calcium to phosphorus ratio of between 1.5:1 and 3:1. Most nutritionists formulate rations and mineral supplements to achieve a ratio of around 2:1. Calcium ...Missing: ideal | Show results with:ideal
[113]
Providing your horse vitamins and minerals | UMN Extension
The Ca to P ratio should be about 2:1, where there's twice as much Ca as P. If horses receive adequate P, this ratio can range from: 1.5:1 to 3:1 in young, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[114]
SS-AGR-93/AG161: Factors Affecting Forage Quality
Nitrate or prussic acid accumulation can occur in certain forages after stressful periods, such as drought, frost, hail, and herbicide or fertilizer injury.
[115]
Hay Quality, Sampling, and Testing | New Mexico State University
Forage Quality Analysis: Definitions. Laboratory evaluation of alfalfa and other hay quality may be performed by chemical analysis or by near infrared ...How And Where To Sample · Forage Quality Analysis... · Hay Grading And Quality...Missing: scoring | Show results with:scoring<|control11|><|separator|>
[116]
[PDF] Understanding forage quality - Alfalfa
Grass–legume mixtures generally have higher crude protein concentration and lower fiber concentration than pure grass stands. In Georgia, mixtures of seven ...
[117]
Impact of selenium biofortification on production characteristics of ...
Mar 31, 2023 · Low selenium (Se) concentrations in soils and plants pose a health risk for ruminants consuming locally-grown forages.
[118]
Cover Cropping to Improve Climate Resilience - USDA Climate Hubs
These aggregates and cover crop root channels help soils better absorb intense rain, resist erosion, and improve water holding capacity in drier conditions.
[119]
Plant, Soil and Nutrition Research - Publication : USDA ARS
Mar 11, 2025 · Nitrogen runoff from agricultural soils contributes to eutrophication in water bodies, while high nitrate accumulation in forage plants ...
[120]
Sources and Solutions: Agriculture | US EPA
Mar 20, 2025 · High levels of nitrogen and phosphorus can cause eutrophication of water bodies. Eutrophication can lead to hypoxia (“dead zones”), causing ...Missing: forage | Show results with:forage
[121]
Soil Health - Natural Resources Conservation Service - USDA
Biodiversity helps to prevent disease and pest problems associated with monocultures. Using cover crops and increasing diversity within crop rotations improves ...Soil Health Assessment · Soil Health Educators Guide · Learn More · Multimedia
[122]
Tallgrass Prairie and Carbon Sequestration
Various studies of the potential for tallgrass prairie carbon storage have shown that the storage rates vary between .30 and 1.7 metric tons per acre per year.Missing: C | Show results with:C
[123]
[PDF] MF2868 Irrigation Management for Alfalfa - KSRE Bookstore
Alfalfa is a deep-rooted, drought-tolerant perennial with an extended growing season. As a consequence, as much as 40 inches of seasonal water are necessary.
[124]
[PDF] Adaptation of Forage Species to Drought - UKnowledge
Among the most important plant responses to drought is continued root growth. ... deep root system. e.g. alfalfa and tall fescue superior survival in cocksfoot ...
[125]
Methane emissions from livestock and climate change
Methane emissions from enteric fermentation and manure storage account for more than half of animal agriculture's greenhouse gas emissions. This needs to be ...
[126]
EPA Actions to Protect Pollinators
Temporarily halted the approval of new outdoor neonicotinoid pesticide uses until new bee data are submitted and pollinator risk assessments are complete. Read ...
[127]
Neonicotinoid Pesticides No Longer Available | The Stanislaus Sprout
Jan 16, 2025 · As of January 1, 2025, pesticides containing neonicotinoids will not be available for sale in retail nurseries and garden centers in the state of California.
[128]
Sustainable livestock production by utilising forages, supplements ...
Sustainable livestock production must balance environmental, economic, and social priorities. Feed costs account for 60–70 % of production expenses ...
[129]
Hay | USDA Foreign Agricultural Service
U.S. Hay Exports in 2024 2025 trade data will be released in Spring of 2026 ; Total Export Value. $1.14 Billion ; Total Volume (Millions). 3.24 Metric Tons ; 3- ...Missing: pre- | Show results with:pre-
[130]
[PDF] Economics Economics of Grass-fed Beef Production - Extension
Economic Benefits of Holistic. Management. – Improve Soil Health. – Reduce ... Skilled grass finishers net $300 - $500+ per acre. – Build soil rather than ...
[131]
[PDF] Forage Seed, Lime and Fertilizer Rate Calculator for the Mid-South
Enter the quantity of acres being planting below the calculator. A summary of mix percentage, seeding rate (lbs/acre), and seed cost ($/acre) can be found below ...
[132]
Livestock sustainability research in Africa with a focus on the ...
Sep 6, 2021 · Most ruminant feeds in Africa are low-quality crop residues and natural pasture making up 72% to 93% of total feed consumed by livestock (FAO, ...
[133]
[PDF] Grasslands in the new CAP: bad news for biodiversity and climate
Jun 30, 2022 · CAP subsidies should be retargeted towards supporting extensive farming systems that take into account ecological requirements.
[134]
Monitoring Yield and Quality of Forages and Grassland in the View ...
This review offers a digital option for enhancing yield monitoring systems and implementing PA applications in forages and grassland management.3.3. Impact Sensors... · 3.5. Remote Sensing... · 5. Precision Forages And...
[135]
Switchgrass as forage and biofuel feedstock: Effect of nitrogen ...
Apr 1, 2019 · Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) is a perennial warm-season grass which has great potential as a forage or bioenergy crop in marginal land.