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Foundationalism

Foundationalism is a theory in epistemology concerning the structure of knowledge and justified belief, according to which there are basic beliefs that possess noninferential justification and serve as the ultimate foundations for all other justified beliefs, which derive their justification through proper inference from these basics.^[1] This view addresses the epistemic regress problem by positing that justification cannot depend entirely on inference from other beliefs, as that would lead to an infinite regress, a circle of justification, or arbitrary termination.^[2] The core principle holds that properly basic beliefs—those justified without reliance on further beliefs—provide the secure base upon which the edifice of knowledge is built.^[2] The historical development of foundationalism originates in ancient Greek philosophy, particularly with Aristotle's Posterior Analytics, where he argued for foundational premises to halt the regress of justification in scientific knowledge.^[3] Plato contributed early ideas by positing timeless forms as foundational rational truths beyond sensory perception.^[3] In the modern era, René Descartes advanced a strong rationalist version through his method of systematic doubt in Meditations on First Philosophy, identifying the self-evident "cogito ergo sum" as an indubitable foundation immune to skepticism.^[3] Empiricists like John Locke shifted the emphasis to sensory experience as the source of basic beliefs, viewing intuitive perceptions of ideas as noninferentially justified.^[3] Immanuel Kant later synthesized rationalist and empiricist elements, proposing a priori principles of sensibility and understanding as foundational for synthetic knowledge in areas like mathematics and physics.^[3] Foundationalism encompasses several variants, including classical or Cartesian forms that demand infallibility or indubitability for basic beliefs, and more modest contemporary versions that permit fallible, defeasible foundations such as perceptual experiences or reliable cognitive processes.^[2] Key figures in its modern defense include Roderick Chisholm, who outlined internalist foundationalism emphasizing the direct apprehension of facts, and Alvin Plantinga, who applied it in reformed epistemology to argue for the proper basicality of religious beliefs via a sensus divinitatis.^[3]^[2] William Alston further refined noninferential justification, distinguishing it from mere psychological immediacy.^[2] Despite its intuitive appeal in resolving regress issues, foundationalism has encountered significant challenges, including objections to the existence of self-justifying basic beliefs and criticisms from coherentism, which views justification as deriving from mutual support among beliefs rather than isolated foundations.^[3] This ongoing debate has spurred hybrid approaches like foundherentism, blending foundational and coherentist elements.^[3]

Core Concepts

Definition and Justification

Foundationalism is an epistemological theory asserting that knowledge and justified beliefs are structured hierarchically, resting ultimately on a set of basic beliefs that possess non-inferential justification. These basic beliefs are justified independently of any other beliefs, deriving their epistemic status from sources such as self-evidence, incorrigibility, or direct evidentness, without requiring further evidential support.^[4] In this framework, all other justified beliefs gain their warrant through inferential relations to these foundations, ensuring that epistemic justification is not arbitrary or unsupported.^[5] The structure of justification in foundationalism is often analogized to a pyramid or building, where the foundational beliefs form the stable base that supports the entire edifice of derived beliefs above it. Derived beliefs are justified either deductively or inductively from the basics, creating a linear chain of support that ascends from the foundation to more complex propositions.^[6] This hierarchical model addresses the epistemic regress problem by terminating justification at the basic level, thereby avoiding infinite regress (an endless chain of reasons), circularity (where beliefs justify each other in a loop), and skepticism (the conclusion that no beliefs can be justified).^[4] Examples of basic beliefs include perceptual experiences, such as the immediate seemings of "I see a red apple," which are taken to be non-inferentially justified by their direct phenomenal character. Similarly, self-evident truths like "I exist" serve as foundational, requiring no further proof due to their intrinsic indubitability.^[7] These basics provide the secure starting point from which broader knowledge claims can be reliably built.^[5]

The Regress Problem

The epistemic regress problem arises when attempting to justify a belief through inference from other beliefs, as each justifying belief itself requires further justification, potentially leading to an unending chain of reasons. This problem, central to epistemology, challenges the possibility of epistemic justification by questioning how any belief can be ultimately grounded without infinite deferral. As articulated in ancient skeptical arguments, the regress forces a trilemma in which justification must terminate in one of three problematic ways: an infinite regress, circularity, or arbitrary foundational termination.^[2] Agrippa's trilemma, named after the Pyrrhonian skeptic Agrippa and preserved in Sextus Empiricus's Outlines of Pyrrhonism (PH I 165–169), formalizes this challenge by presenting three modes that undermine dogmatic claims to knowledge. The first mode invokes infinite regress, where a belief's justification requires an endless, non-repeating chain of further beliefs, rendering justification practically unattainable since no belief in the chain receives ultimate support.^[8] The second mode involves circularity (or reciprocity), in which beliefs mutually justify one another, such as a set of propositions where each depends on the others, begging the question by presupposing the very justification sought.^[8] The third mode posits foundational termination through unproven hypotheses or arbitrary stopping points, where justification halts at basic beliefs accepted without further reason, risking dogmatism by lacking evidential backing.^[8] These options, as Sextus describes, apply universally to any attempt at inferential justification, highlighting the trilemma's inescapable nature.^[8] The skeptical implications of Agrippa's trilemma are profound, suggesting that without a viable escape from the regress, all knowledge claims face underdetermination and rational doubt, potentially leading to suspension of judgment (epoché) across epistemic domains.^[8] In epistemology, the problem underscores the need for non-inferential basic beliefs to halt the regress, as inferential chains alone cannot provide ultimate justification without falling into one of the trilemma's horns.^[2] Foundationalism addresses this by positing properly basic beliefs justified noninferentially, thereby avoiding the trilemma's pitfalls.^[2]

Historical Development

Ancient and Early Modern Origins

The roots of foundationalism in ancient philosophy can be traced to Aristotle, who in his Posterior Analytics emphasized the role of first principles (archai) as self-evident starting points for scientific demonstration and knowledge acquisition. Aristotle argued that true scientific understanding requires demonstrations derived from premises that are true, primary, and better known than the conclusions they support, with these first principles grasped through intuition (nous) rather than further proof.^[9] These principles serve as the unprovable foundations upon which all deductive reasoning builds, addressing the need for a secure epistemic base without infinite regress.^[9] In the medieval period, Thomas Aquinas drew upon Aristotelian principles to develop his epistemology within Christian theology. In his Summa Theologica, Aquinas presented the Five Ways as demonstrations of God's existence from effects to cause, viewing it as self-evident in itself but requiring proof for human understanding, thus synthesizing faith and reason to provide a basis for knowledge.^[10] This approach allowed Aquinas to view faith and reason as complementary, addressing epistemological regress by positing an ultimate cause. The early modern era marked a pivotal shift toward introspective and experiential foundations, exemplified by René Descartes' method of radical doubt in his Meditations on First Philosophy (1641), which culminated in the indubitable foundation of "cogito ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am"). Descartes systematically doubted all beliefs susceptible to error, including sensory perceptions, to arrive at the self-evident certainty of his own thinking existence as the bedrock for rebuilding knowledge, including proofs of God's existence and the reliability of clear and distinct ideas.^[11] This rationalist approach contrasted with the empiricist tradition initiated by John Locke in his An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), where basic knowledge derives from simple ideas imprinted by sensory experience on the mind, treated as a tabula rasa devoid of innate principles.^[12] This divide between rationalists and empiricists deepened in subsequent thinkers: rationalists like Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, in his New Essays on Human Understanding (written 1704, published 1765), defended a priori basic truths such as necessary propositions and innate dispositions that enable sensory knowledge, viewing them as foundational for certainty beyond empirical flux.^[13] Empiricists, including George Berkeley in his A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710), radicalized Locke's sensory basics by arguing that all knowledge consists solely of ideas perceived through the senses or reflection, with no material substance independent of perception, thus grounding epistemology in immediate sensory immediacy mediated by God.^[14] David Hume further advanced empiricist skepticism in A Treatise of Human Nature (1739–1740) and An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748), contending that all ideas derive from impressions but that beliefs in causation and induction rest on custom rather than rational foundations, thereby challenging the justificatory power of sensory experience and highlighting limitations in empirical basic beliefs.^[15]

Twentieth-Century Evolution

In the early twentieth century, logical positivism initially incorporated foundationalist elements, particularly through Moritz Schlick's advocacy for knowledge built upon indubitable protocol sentences derived from immediate sensory experience.^[16] Schlick envisioned epistemology as a pyramid structure, with basic empirical observations serving as the unassailable foundation for all higher-level scientific claims.^[17] However, this view faced internal challenges from fellow Vienna Circle member Otto Neurath, who rejected isolated foundations in favor of a holistic, coherentist approach. Neurath's famous boat metaphor illustrated knowledge as a ship rebuilt plank by plank at sea, without access to a stable dry dock, emphasizing that no belief is absolutely foundational and all are subject to ongoing revision within an interconnected system.^[17] By mid-century, foundationalism encountered significant critiques from analytic philosophers. Wilfrid Sellars' 1956 essay "Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind" targeted the "Myth of the Given," the notion that non-inferential sensory experiences could provide immediate, self-justifying foundations for empirical knowledge.^[18] Sellars argued that such "givens" are mythical because perception inherently involves conceptual content and participation in a "space of reasons," rendering pure sensory foundations incapable of justifying beliefs without further inferential support.^[18] Complementing this, W.V.O. Quine's 1951 paper "Two Dogmas of Empiricism" undermined the analytic-synthetic distinction central to positivist foundationalism, asserting that no statements are immune to empirical revision and that knowledge forms a holistic web tested collectively against experience.^[19] Despite these assaults, foundationalism revived in the late twentieth century through more modest formulations. Roderick Chisholm's 1966 book Theory of Knowledge advanced a version of modest foundationalism, positing that basic beliefs—such as those about one's own mental states—possess intrinsic justificatory force without requiring further evidence, though not to the degree of infallibility demanded by classical views.^[20] This approach allowed for defeasible foundations while avoiding the regress problem. Similarly, Alvin Plantinga's reformed epistemology, developed in works like his 1983 co-authored Faith and Rationality and elaborated in the 1990s, extended modest foundationalism to religious beliefs, arguing that theistic convictions can be "properly basic" when formed by reliable cognitive faculties in appropriate conditions, without needing evidential support.^[21] The rise of ordinary language philosophy also influenced foundationalism's evolution, with J.L. Austin and Ludwig Wittgenstein questioning rigid hierarchical structures. In Sense and Sensibilia (1962), Austin critiqued sense-datum theories underpinning sensory foundations, highlighting linguistic misuse in assuming direct access to non-physical "givens" rather than ordinary perceptual objects.^[22] Wittgenstein's On Certainty (1969), compiled from late notes, further eroded strict foundationalism by portraying certainty as embedded in a non-propositional framework of "hinge" beliefs that ground inquiry but defy traditional justification, thus challenging the need for indubitable starting points.

Varieties and Types

Classical Foundationalism

Classical foundationalism maintains that epistemic justification forms a linear structure, where a subset of basic beliefs serves as the infallible foundation for all other knowledge, and non-basic beliefs acquire their justification solely through deductive inference from these basics. These basic beliefs are characterized by their infallibility, incorrigibility, or absolute certainty, meaning they admit no possibility of error and require no further justification beyond their self-evident nature.^[2] Such beliefs typically arise from direct introspection, a priori intuition, or immediate sensory apprehension, ensuring they are indubitable and non-inferential.^[23] Prominent among its proponents is René Descartes, who in his foundational work emphasized basic beliefs grounded in "clear and distinct" ideas that guarantee truth due to their intuitive certainty.^[24] For Descartes, the cogito—"I think, therefore I am"—exemplifies such a belief, emerging as indubitable even amid radical doubt about the external world.^[24] Similarly, John Locke, in the early portions of his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, regarded simple ideas acquired through sensation—such as the perception of whiteness or hardness—as certain and uncompounded, forming the reliable atomic units from which all knowledge is constructed without risk of fabrication by the mind.^[12] Locke asserted that these ideas are "clear and distinct" by virtue of their direct origin in external objects, rendering them adequate representations incapable of falsehood in their immediate apprehension.^[12] The justification process in classical foundationalism proceeds deductively from these secure basics, with each subsequent belief inheriting certainty only if the inference is logically airtight and preserves indubitability.^[25] For instance, Descartes extends from the cogito to prove the existence of a non-deceiving God, thereby validating the reliability of clear and distinct perceptions for broader deductions about the external world.^[24] This strict deductive chain ensures that no belief enters the structure without tracing back to an infallible base, avoiding any circularity or infinite regress in justification.^[2] One primary strength of classical foundationalism lies in its provision of absolute epistemic certainty, which directly addresses skeptical doubts by anchoring all knowledge in beliefs immune to error or revision.^[25] By demanding infallibility at the base, it constructs an unassailable edifice of justification, offering a robust defense against challenges to the possibility of knowledge itself.^[23]

Modest and Reformed Foundationalism

Modest foundationalism represents a more flexible variant of foundationalist epistemology, allowing basic beliefs to possess prima facie justification that is defeasible rather than infallible or indubitable. In this view, beliefs such as those arising from perceptual experiences— for instance, the belief that one is seeing a red object— are initially justified directly by the self-presenting nature of the experience itself, without requiring inference from other beliefs, but they remain open to revision or defeat in the face of counterevidence.^[20] Roderick Chisholm, in his 1977 work Theory of Knowledge, articulates this approach by positing that such basic beliefs gain their initial epistemic status through a hierarchy of probabilities, where a belief is prima facie justified if it is more reasonable to accept it than to withhold judgment, unless overridden by broader evidence.^[20] This contrasts with stricter forms by permitting fallibility and context-sensitivity in foundational elements, emphasizing reliability over absolute certainty.^[26] For non-basic beliefs, modest foundationalism employs inductive or probabilistic methods of support, deriving justification from chains of inference that ultimately trace back to these defeasible basics. Chisholm explains that empirical generalizations, such as predictions about future events based on past observations, achieve warrant through enumerative induction, where the probability of a belief increases with the absence of defeaters and alignment with perceptual takings.^[20] This allows for a broader evidential base, incorporating experiences that respond appropriately to sensory inputs without demanding deductive certainty, thereby addressing the regress problem through a structure that is both hierarchical and adaptable to new information.^[26] Reformed epistemology, closely aligned with modest foundationalism, extends these principles to religious beliefs by arguing that warrant arises from the proper functioning of cognitive faculties rather than evidential support. Alvin Plantinga, in the 1983 edited volume Faith and Rationality, contends that theistic beliefs can serve as properly basic when produced by a reliably functioning sensus divinitatis— a natural cognitive mechanism designed to form true beliefs about God under appropriate conditions— without needing external evidence or arguments.^[27] This approach rejects classical evidentialism, permitting such beliefs to be prima facie justified and defeasible, much like perceptual ones, while emphasizing reliability in cognitive design over infallibility.^[28] Modest and reformed foundationalism find applications beyond general epistemology, notably in ethics where moral intuitions function as basic beliefs. For example, intuitive judgments that certain acts, such as promise-keeping, are inherently right can be non-inferentially justified as self-evident seemings, subject to defeat only by overriding considerations, thus providing a foundation for moral reasoning without requiring comprehensive coherence.^[29] In scientific contexts, observational data— such as direct reports of perceptual phenomena— serve as basic propositions that warrant derivative theoretical beliefs through nondeductive inference, allowing empirical knowledge to build on fallible but reliable sensory foundations while accommodating revisions from further inquiry.^[30]

Internalism versus Externalism

Internalism in epistemology maintains that epistemic justification is determined by factors internal to the subject's mental life, such as accessible evidence, reasons, or reflective awareness, which the subject can apprehend through introspection. Within foundationalism, this aligns with classical variants that treat basic beliefs—such as those about immediate sensory experiences or introspective states—as justified precisely because they are directly accessible to the mind without requiring further evidential support. For instance, a foundational belief in the occurrence of a visual sensation is justified by the subject's conscious acquaintance with that sensation itself.^[31] In contrast, externalism contends that justification can supervene on external relations, including the reliability of belief-forming processes or causal connections to the world, even if these are not accessible to the subject's reflection. This perspective is particularly compatible with modest foundationalism, which relaxes strict introspective requirements for basic beliefs by allowing justification through reliable mechanisms, as Alvin Goldman articulates in his process reliabilism, where a belief is justified if produced by a process with a high truth ratio in normal conditions. Modest foundationalism's flexibility thus accommodates externalist elements, permitting perceptual basics to be justified via external reliability rather than internal certainty. The implications for foundationalism diverge sharply along these lines: internalist versions demand conscious access to the justifying basis of basics, potentially requiring meta-justification through higher-order awareness to avoid regress, whereas externalist approaches endorse subconscious reliability for foundational warrant, such as in everyday perception where external causal fidelity grounds beliefs without reflective endorsement.^[32] A pivotal internalist distinction in this debate is between access internalism, which mandates reflective access to justifiers for any justified belief, and reasons internalism, which emphasizes the subject's possession of sufficient internal reasons without necessitating explicit awareness of their justificatory role. Reliabilism poses a core externalist challenge to both, asserting that process reliability provides justification independently of internal states, thereby undermining the necessity of mental accessibility for foundational beliefs.^[33]

Comparisons with Coherentism and Infinitism

Coherentism posits that epistemic justification arises from the mutual support among beliefs within a comprehensive web, rather than relying on a set of basic beliefs.^[34] In this view, no belief serves as foundational; instead, justification is holistic, with each belief gaining warrant through its coherence with others in the system, thereby avoiding the regress problem through interconnectedness rather than termination.^[34] This contrasts sharply with foundationalism's hierarchical structure, where justification flows unidirectionally from self-evident basics to derived beliefs, emphasizing linear dependence over mutual reinforcement. Laurence BonJour, in developing coherentism, illustrates the difference using metaphors: foundationalism resembles a pyramid, stable due to its firm base of indubitable beliefs, while coherentism is like a raft, held together by the interlocking ropes of mutual coherence without a foundational anchor.^[35] This raft-like model allows for flexibility in belief revision but raises concerns for foundationalists about potential circularity, as justification seems to loop indefinitely among beliefs without an external grounding.^[34] Infinitism, another alternative to foundationalism, maintains that justification requires an infinite, non-repeating chain of reasons for any belief, rejecting both foundational termination and coherentist holism.^[36] Proponents argue that this infinite regress is not vicious but provides ongoing epistemic progress, as each belief in the chain is supported by a further reason, ensuring no arbitrary stopping point.^[37] Peter Klein defends infinitism as the only approach that fully satisfies intuitions against circularity and dogmatism, though it diverges from foundationalism by denying any finite base or closure to the justificatory process.^[36] Foundationalism offers advantages over these rivals by providing a clear termination to justification chains, establishing a hierarchy that prevents both the alleged circularity of coherentism—where beliefs justify each other in loops—and the impracticality of infinitism, which demands infinite reasons inaccessible to finite minds.^[36] Critics of coherentism from a foundationalist perspective, such as Richard Fumerton, contend that mutual support fails to generate genuine warrant without independent foundations, risking an "anything goes" relativism. Similarly, foundationalists challenge infinitism's viability, arguing that infinite chains cannot be fully surveyed or utilized in practice, rendering justification merely theoretical.^[36] Hybrid views attempt to bridge these divides, particularly through weak or modest foundationalism, which posits defeasible basic beliefs while incorporating coherence to strengthen justification for non-basic beliefs. Susan Haack's foundherentism exemplifies this synthesis, likening justification to a crossword puzzle where experiential "clues" (foundational elements) intersect with coherent interconnections among beliefs, allowing mutual support to amplify but not supplant basic warrants. Such approaches retain foundationalism's structure for empirical inputs while leveraging coherentism's holistic strengths for theoretical elaboration.

Criticisms and Contemporary Perspectives

Major Objections

One of the most influential criticisms of foundationalism comes from Wilfrid Sellars' concept of the "myth of the given," articulated in his 1956 essay "Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind." Sellars argues that foundationalist appeals to non-doxastic sensory states or immediate experiences as justifications for beliefs fail because such states lack the conceptual content necessary to provide genuine epistemic warrant; justification requires mediation through conceptual frameworks that are themselves inferential and fallible, rendering purported basics incapable of serving as unassailable foundations.^[38] Another major objection stems from W.V.O. Quine's holistic critique in his 1951 paper "Two Dogmas of Empiricism," which challenges the foundationalist distinction between basic empirical beliefs and the broader web of theory. Quine rejects the analytic-synthetic divide, asserting that no belief is immune to revision; empirical confirmation applies to systems of beliefs holistically rather than to isolated foundational propositions, thereby undermining the idea of privileged, unrevisable basics that anchor all knowledge.^[39] Postmodern philosophers have further eroded foundationalism by denying the existence of neutral, absolute foundations for knowledge. Richard Rorty, in his 1979 book Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, portrays foundationalism as a misguided quest for a "mirror of nature" that reflects objective truth, instead viewing knowledge as a product of contingent linguistic and social practices without any bedrock certainty. Similarly, Jacques Derrida's deconstructive approach, as developed in works like Of Grammatology (1967), exposes the instability of foundational assumptions by revealing how binary oppositions (e.g., presence/absence) privilege unstable hierarchies, showing that all purported foundations are deferred and context-dependent rather than self-evident or neutral. A related concern is the potential for an internal regress within basic beliefs themselves, where even those propositions deemed foundational may require further justification, such as evidence for the reliability of perceptual mechanisms. Critics argue that without external validation, basics like sensory reports risk circularity or arbitrariness, as no belief can be truly non-inferential if its epistemic status depends on unproven assumptions about cognitive processes. This objection highlights how classical foundationalism's claim to infallible basics—such as self-evident truths or direct apprehensions—fails to escape justificatory demands, perpetuating a regress at the base level.^[40]

Modern Responses and Developments

In response to Wilfrid Sellars' critique of the "myth of the given," which challenged the justificatory role of immediate sensory experience in foundationalism, experiential foundationalists have argued that direct acquaintance with phenomenal facts provides noninferential justification for basic beliefs.^[4] Richard Fumerton, in his 1995 work Metaepistemology and Skepticism, defends this view by positing that one is noninferentially justified in believing a proposition through direct acquaintance with the relevant fact, such as phenomenal concepts derived from experience, thereby avoiding Sellars' charge that nonconceptual experience lacks assertive content. This approach maintains that experiential states justify beliefs about them without requiring further inference, preserving foundationalism's structure against coherentist alternatives.^[41] In 21st-century analytic epistemology, Bayesian approaches have integrated probabilistic reasoning with foundational principles, treating prior probabilities as basic credences that are updated via evidence through Bayes' theorem.^[42] This framework allows basic priors—such as uniform or empirical priors—to serve as the foundational layer for justification, with subsequent beliefs gaining support through reliable evidential updates, thus addressing issues of regress without infinite chains or circularity. Bayesian methods have gained traction in formal epistemology, emphasizing how foundational priors enable rational belief revision in scientific and everyday contexts. Contemporary integrations of non-Western traditions have expanded foundationalism beyond its Western analytic roots, incorporating elements from the Indian Nyāya school's pramāṇas, where perception (pratyakṣa) functions as a foundational source of valid knowledge since the 2nd century BCE.^[43] Modern comparative epistemologists, such as Stephen Phillips (2012), highlight how Nyāya's direct perception as an infallible pramāṇa parallels modest foundationalism, providing noninferential justification that influences current debates on perceptual reliability. Similarly, the ancient Chinese Mohist school's emphasis on reliable sources like direct observation and trustworthy testimony anticipates reliabilist foundationalism, as analyzed in Fraser (2016), who notes its role in modern externalist defenses of basic beliefs formed by veridical processes.^[44] Post-2000 debates have seen virtue epistemology incorporate foundational elements, with Ernest Sosa's 2007 framework positing "animal knowledge" as apt belief arising from reliable intellectual virtues, serving as a foundational base for reflective justification. In A Virtue Epistemology, Sosa argues that basic perceptual beliefs achieve foundational status through the exercise of faculties like vision, which reliably track truth, bridging internalist and externalist concerns. Concurrently, experimental philosophy has tested intuitions about basic beliefs, with studies like those by Alexander and Weinberg (2007) revealing cross-cultural variations in folk judgments on perceptual justification, prompting refinements to foundationalist claims about universal basic belief structures. More recent experimental work (as of 2023) continues to explore epistemic intuitions, including variations in judgments about basic beliefs across cultures and contexts, further informing modest foundationalism.^[45] These developments address historical gaps by incorporating global perspectives and empirical methods, enriching foundationalism's applicability in diverse epistemological contexts. Recent trends (2020–2025) include ongoing defenses of phenomenal conservatism as a form of modest foundationalism and integrations with social epistemology to address collective knowledge structures.^[4]

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In this paper, I will argue that only infinitism can satisfy two intuitively plausible constraints on good reasoning: the avoidance of circular reasoning and ...
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Epistemic foundationalism is a view about the proper structure of one's knowledge or justified beliefs. Some beliefs are known or justifiably believed only ...Knowledge and Justification · Arguments for Foundationalism · Arguments against...
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