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Gale warning

A gale warning is a marine weather alert issued by national meteorological services to indicate sustained surface winds or frequent gusts in the range of 34 to 47 knots (39 to 54 mph), either predicted or occurring, that are not associated with tropical cyclones.^[1] These warnings apply to coastal, nearshore, and offshore waters, alerting mariners to potentially hazardous conditions that could affect vessel safety, navigation, and operations.^[2] Gale warnings are standardized under the Beaufort wind force scale, where a gale corresponds to force 8 (34-40 knots) or force 9 (41-47 knots for severe gales), a system developed in the 19th century and widely adopted internationally by organizations like the World Meteorological Organization.^[3] In the United States, the National Weather Service (NWS) issues these warnings for areas where winds are expected in the near term (typically up to 48 hours), distinguishing them from a gale watch (possibility of gale conditions) and a storm warning (winds of 48 knots or higher).^[4] The criteria exclude tropical systems to avoid overlap with hurricane or tropical storm warnings, focusing instead on extratropical lows, fronts, or other non-tropical weather events.^[5] Internationally, similar alerts are used by agencies such as the UK Met Office, which defines a gale as winds of at least Beaufort force 8 or gusts of 43-51 knots, and issues gale warnings as part of shipping forecasts to protect maritime traffic in the North Sea and beyond.^[6] The purpose of gale warnings is to enable precautionary measures, such as seeking safe harbor, reducing speed, or altering course, thereby minimizing risks to life and property at sea.^[1]

Definition and Criteria

Core Definition

A gale warning is a marine weather warning issued by national meteorological services to notify of sustained winds expected to produce hazardous conditions for marine operations and coastal areas, typically associated with extratropical systems and not associated with tropical cyclones.^[4] This warning serves as an alert for potentially dangerous weather that requires preparation but does not indicate the most severe threats.^[1] The primary purpose of a gale warning is to enable mariners, coastal residents, and related stakeholders to take proactive steps to safeguard life and property, such as securing vessels, seeking shelter, or altering travel plans to mitigate risks from rough seas and wind-related disruptions.^[7] By providing timely information, these warnings support decision-making in marine activities, aviation near coastlines, and coastal infrastructure management, ultimately reducing potential damage and enhancing safety.^[1] Gale warnings differ from related advisories by addressing moderate-to-strong wind conditions that exceed those warranting small craft advisories—intended for lighter vessels in less intense weather—but fall short of the more extreme winds signaled by storm warnings.^[8] They thus act as an intermediate alert, emphasizing preparation for notable but manageable hazards. Gale warnings relate to specific force levels on the Beaufort wind scale, which categorizes wind effects on sea and land. These warnings are issued based on analyses of observed data, numerical weather models, and forecasts from national services, ensuring alerts are grounded in reliable meteorological evidence.^[5]

Wind Thresholds and Measurement

A gale warning is issued when sustained surface winds or frequent gusts are forecasted or observed to reach between 34 and 47 knots (63–87 km/h or 39–54 mph), according to the Beaufort wind force scale adopted by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).^[9] This international threshold applies to non-tropical systems and serves as the core criterion for alerting mariners to potentially hazardous conditions that can generate significant sea states and pose risks to navigation and safety.^[1] Wind speeds for gale warnings are measured as the 10-minute average of sustained winds at a standard height of 10 meters above the surface, whether over open water or land, using anemometers installed on buoys, ships, or coastal stations. The WMO recommends a 10-minute averaging period internationally, while some agencies like the NWS use a 1-minute average for sustained winds in marine contexts.^[1] In remote or data-sparse marine areas, satellite-derived estimates from altimeters or scatterometers supplement direct measurements to assess wind fields, particularly for gale-force conditions extending to hurricane strengths.^[10] This averaging period captures the persistent nature of the wind, distinguishing it from transient gusts, and aligns with WMO standards for consistent global reporting.^[3] The gale threshold corresponds directly to levels 8 and 9 on the Beaufort wind force scale, which the WMO adopts for describing wind effects on sea and land.^[3] Beaufort force 8 (34–40 knots) is termed a "gale," characterized by moderately high waves with breaking crests forming dense white streaks of foam along the wind direction, while force 9 (41–47 knots) is a "strong gale," featuring high waves where crests topple and roll over, often reducing visibility due to spray.^[3] These descriptions emphasize the escalating sea disturbance, from well-marked long-form waves in force 8 to sea heaps up with heavy rolling in force 9, underscoring the practical implications for maritime operations.^[3] While the 10-minute sustained wind average is the primary metric under WMO protocols, some national services incorporate variations, such as monitoring 1-minute averages or gusts exceeding the threshold to trigger warnings in specific contexts like tropical influences.^[11] However, sustained winds remain the foundational measure to ensure warnings reflect enduring hazardous conditions rather than brief fluctuations.^[12]

Historical Development

Origins of the Term

The term "gale" originates from Old Norse roots, possibly "gala" meaning to sing or howl, or "galinn" denoting something mad or frantic, reflecting the tumultuous nature of strong winds; it entered English in the 1540s as a descriptor for a strong wind at sea, intermediate between a breeze and a full storm.^[13] By the 16th century, the word had become established in English nautical vocabulary to signify sudden, forceful gusts capable of challenging sailing vessels. Early references to gales appear in 17th- and 18th-century sailing logs, where mariners documented these winds as hazardous conditions affecting navigation and ship handling, often without standardized measurement but based on observed effects like sail strain or sea state.^[15] The term gained formal meteorological significance in 1805 when Irish hydrographer and Royal Navy officer Sir Francis Beaufort devised his wind force scale while serving aboard HMS Woolwich; in this system, a "gale" corresponded to Force 8, characterized by winds of 34–40 knots (39–46 mph) that raised moderate to high waves with breaking crests.^[16] This scale provided a consistent framework for reporting wind intensity, moving beyond subjective descriptions in logs. In the 1830s, the British Admiralty officially adopted the Beaufort scale for naval use, mandating its application in 1838 for logging weather observations across the fleet, which helped standardize "gale" as a precise category in maritime reporting.^[17] Prior to the 20th century, weather warnings for gales were largely informal and localized, relying on visual signals such as flags hoisted at coastal stations or lighthouses to notify approaching ships of impending strong winds; these methods lacked national coordination and were not specifically termed "gale warnings" until the advent of the electric telegraph in the mid-19th century enabled broader dissemination.^[18] The first formal gale warnings were issued in the United Kingdom on February 6, 1861, by Vice-Admiral Robert FitzRoy, using the electric telegraph to alert ships following the devastating Royal Charter Gale of 1859 that claimed over 800 lives; regular issuance of gale warnings began in 1867.^[19] In the United States, the Weather Bureau started issuing storm signals, including for gales, from coastal stations in 1871.^[20]

Evolution of Warning Systems

The U.S. Weather Bureau, established in 1870 and reorganized in 1890 under the Department of Agriculture, expanded its issuance of gale signals through wireless radio communications in the early 20th century, particularly influenced by the 1912 sinking of the RMS Titanic. The disaster underscored the critical need for continuous maritime radio operations to relay urgent information, leading to the U.S. Radio Act of 1912, which required 24-hour wireless monitoring on ships and facilitated faster dissemination of weather alerts, including gales, to vessels at sea.^[21]^[22] This shift marked a transition from visual storm signals on shore to broader, technology-enabled protocols that enhanced maritime safety. Post-World War II advancements in the 1950s and 1960s revolutionized gale warning systems through the integration of radar and satellite technology. The Weather Bureau commissioned its first WSR-57 weather surveillance radars in the 1950s, allowing real-time detection of storm systems that could produce gales, while the launch of TIROS-1 in 1960 introduced satellite imagery for monitoring large-scale marine weather patterns. Concurrently, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), formalized as a United Nations specialized agency in 1951, established international standards for marine meteorological services, coordinating global forecast and warning dissemination to ensure consistency across oceans.^[23]^[24] From the 1970s to the 1990s, the adoption of computer-based numerical weather prediction models significantly improved the precision of gale forecasts. The National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), evolving from earlier efforts, implemented global forecast systems starting in the late 1970s, using atmospheric models to simulate wind patterns and predict gale occurrences with greater lead time and accuracy. In the 1980s, automation of forecasting processes, including automated data assimilation and alert generation, reduced issuance times for warnings from hours to minutes, enabling proactive responses to impending gales.^[25]^[26] Amendments to the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) under the International Maritime Organization (IMO) have progressively reinforced requirements for ships to receive and act on weather warnings, including gales, as essential elements of navigational safety, with significant updates in the 1974 SOLAS Convention and subsequent protocols. In the 21st century, digital tools have transformed dissemination, with mobile applications providing real-time gale alerts to mariners and coastal users since the 2000s, complemented by the Automatic Identification System (AIS) for automated weather data transmission from ships, as piloted by NOAA in 2019. Post-2010s, warning protocols have incorporated climate change considerations, adjusting thresholds and frequencies to account for observed increases in extreme wind events driven by warming oceans and altered storm tracks.^[27]^[28]

Issuance Procedures

Marine Issuance

Gale warnings for marine environments are triggered when numerical weather prediction models, such as the Global Forecast System (GFS) or the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) model, indicate sustained winds of 34 to 47 knots (gale-force) expected within 24 to 48 hours in open waters or coastal zones.^[29]^[30] These forecasts are corroborated by real-time observations from moored buoys, drifting buoys, or voluntary observing ships reporting wind speeds and sea state conditions to ensure the threat is imminent and accurately delineated.^[31] Forecasters analyze ensemble model outputs and satellite data to assess the probability and spatial extent of gale conditions, prioritizing areas where vessels may be exposed without adequate shelter options. The issuance process begins with meteorologists at national or regional marine forecast centers preparing a detailed advisory, specifying the affected marine zones, anticipated wind speeds, gusts, wave heights, and duration—typically valid for 24 hours but extendable.^[32] This draft undergoes review and approval by a designated watch office or duty officer to verify alignment with international standards set by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Once approved, the warning is disseminated through maritime communication channels, including VHF radio broadcasts on international distress frequencies, NAVTEX automated receivers for coastal and offshore reception, and satellite systems like Inmarsat for high-seas vessels, ensuring rapid alerts to ships at sea. These broadcasts include coordinates of impacted areas and precautionary advice for mariners, such as altering course or seeking port. Visual signaling complements electronic dissemination in coastal marine areas, where storm cones or flag systems are hoisted at prominent locations like lighthouses or harbors to indicate approaching gales.^[33] Under WMO guidelines and the U.S. Coastal Warning Display Program, two red pennants denote gale conditions (winds 34-47 knots), while integration with small craft advisories uses a single red pennant for lower-threshold conditions such as winds of 20-33 knots to provide graduated alerts for smaller vessels.^[34]^[33] These signals are standardized internationally to aid visual recognition by approaching ships during periods of limited radio contact. Cancellation of a gale warning occurs when observed winds fall below 34 knots, as confirmed by buoy or ship reports, or when updated model forecasts no longer predict gale-force conditions.^[35] A formal cancellation message is then broadcast via the same channels, often including a summary of actual conditions versus predictions. Post-issuance, forecast centers conduct debriefs to evaluate model accuracy and observational data integration, refining future procedures for enhanced maritime safety.^[36]

Usage in North America

United States

In the United States, gale warnings are issued by the National Weather Service (NWS), a component of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), through its network of local Weather Forecast Offices (WFOs) for nearshore coastal waters and the Great Lakes, and the Ocean Prediction Center (OPC) for offshore and high seas areas.^[37]^[38] The NWS Directive 10-3 establishes the framework for these marine and coastal weather services, ensuring consistent issuance based on observed or forecasted conditions.^[39] For maritime applications, gale warnings are disseminated for specified zones along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, as well as the Great Lakes, targeting sustained winds or frequent gusts of 34 to 47 knots (39 to 54 mph), excluding those associated with tropical cyclones.^[1]^[40] These warnings specify the affected marine zones, expected onset and duration in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), and wind details, such as ".GALE WARNING...IN EFFECT FROM 0600 UTC THROUGH 1800 UTC...SOUTHEAST WINDS 25 TO 35 KT."^[41] Local WFOs handle nearshore forecasts, while the OPC coordinates broader offshore predictions, integrating data from buoys, ships, and satellites to refine alerts.^[42] Gale warnings are rarely applied to inland or land-based areas, where the NWS typically issues High Wind Warnings instead for sustained winds of 40 mph or greater or gusts of 58 mph or higher in exposed locations, though coastal and mountainous regions may occasionally reference gale thresholds (34-47 knots) in hybrid marine-land contexts.^[1]^[8] A key feature of U.S. gale warnings is their integration with the NOAA Weather Radio (NWR) system, which broadcasts these alerts 24 hours a day across more than 1,000 transmitters to provide immediate notifications to mariners and coastal residents.^[43]

Canada

In Canada, gale warnings are issued by Environment and Climate Change Canada's (ECCC) Canadian Centre for Meteorological and Environmental Prediction (CCMEP), which serves as the operational arm of the Meteorological Service of Canada (MSC) and provides forecasts and warnings for marine areas including the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic waters.^[44] The CCMEP coordinates with regional forecast centers to monitor and predict wind conditions across these vast regions, ensuring timely alerts for mariners navigating Canadian waters. Gale warnings in Canadian marine contexts are specifically triggered for sustained wind speeds between 34 and 47 knots (63 to 87 km/h), excluding gusts, and are broadcast through the MSC's notices to mariners, including continuous weather watches via radio, online platforms, and the Navtex system.^[45] In northern and Arctic areas, these warnings often incorporate variants addressing ice conditions, such as combined gale and freezing spray alerts, where sea ice or supercooled water droplets pose additional hazards to vessels.^[46] This emphasis on marine safety reflects Canada's extensive coastline and the need to protect shipping routes in ice-prone regions like the Beaufort Sea and Hudson Bay. For land and coastal areas, gale warnings are applied to exposed regions such as the British Columbia coastline and Newfoundland's eastern shores, where marine gales can generate hazardous conditions including storm surges and high waves impacting shorelines.^[45] Thresholds here align with international standards at 34-47 knots but prominently feature metric equivalents in kilometers per hour to aid local responders and residents, differing from purely imperial-focused systems elsewhere. Distinct Canadian practices include issuing warnings in both English and French to accommodate the country's bilingual population, with parallel texts available on official platforms.^[47] These alerts integrate with Transport Canada advisories for enhanced marine safety, such as navigation restrictions during gales, ensuring coordinated responses for commercial and recreational boating. Recent enhancements, including those informed by 2025 assessments of offshore renewable energy developments, have incorporated risks to emerging wind farms in Atlantic and Pacific waters, prompting refined forecasting for gale impacts on infrastructure.^[48]

Usage in Europe

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, the Met Office serves as the primary authority for issuing gale warnings, defining gales as sustained winds of Beaufort force 8 to 9 (34–47 knots or 39–54 mph). These warnings are integral to the Met Office's maritime forecasting system, which traces its origins to the Meteorological Department established in 1854 by Vice-Admiral Robert FitzRoy. Following the Royal Charter gale disaster in 1859, FitzRoy developed a systematic storm warning service in 1861 (now the Met Office) to protect shipping.^[49] The iconic Shipping Forecast, first broadcast in 1924, continues this tradition by providing gale warnings for 31 sea areas around the British Isles, including the North Sea and English Channel, where phrases such as "gale force winds imminent" signal expected conditions in routine radio and online updates. For marine environments, the Met Office issues offshore gale warnings through the Shipping Forecast and inshore waters forecasts, targeting vessels in areas like the North Sea, where gales can generate very rough seas, and the English Channel, prone to sudden wind shifts. These warnings specify wind force, direction, sea state, and visibility, with gales announced at the forecast's outset if force 8 or higher is anticipated within 24 hours, helping mariners adjust routes or seek shelter. Broadcast twice daily on weekdays and three times on weekends via BBC Radio 4 (as of 2024), the system ensures timely alerts, emphasizing imminent threats to small craft and coastal shipping. On land and along coastal regions, the Met Office employs a color-coded warning system for strong winds and gales, with yellow warnings issued for gusts of 37–52 mph in coastal areas, potentially causing travel disruptions, minor structural damage, or risks to high-sided vehicles. Amber warnings indicate more severe impacts from gale-force winds, such as widespread power outages or coastal flooding, while red warnings are rare and reserved for extreme events with life-threatening gusts exceeding 60 mph. These land-based alerts complement marine forecasts, focusing on public safety in exposed regions like Scotland's highlands or England's south coast. Unique to the UK system is the Met Office's longstanding integration with the Royal National Lifeboat Institution (RNLI), a partnership dating back over a century, where gale warnings inform lifeboat launches and coastal rescues during deteriorating conditions.^[50] Post-Brexit, the Met Office aligned its forecasting efforts with EUMETNET in 2021, maintaining collaborative data sharing and standardized marine warnings across European national meteorological services to enhance cross-border safety without EU membership dependencies.^[51] This evolution underscores the UK's emphasis on a unified, history-informed approach to gale risk management.

Ireland

In Ireland, gale warnings are issued by Met Éireann, the national meteorological service, as Status Yellow alerts for Beaufort force 8 (34-40 knots) and strong gale warnings as Status Orange for force 9 (41-47 knots), typically associated with low-pressure systems or depressions originating in the Atlantic Ocean that track toward the island's western approaches.^[52]^[53] These warnings emphasize the risks to maritime and coastal activities, given Ireland's exposure to frequent Atlantic weather systems. For marine areas, Met Éireann issues gale warnings specifically for the Irish Sea and the west coast, covering waters up to 30 nautical miles offshore, with formats incorporating status yellow or orange alerts to highlight threats such as hazardous seas and impacts on fishing fleets and small vessels.^[53]^[52] These alerts are disseminated through marine forecasts and are calibrated to Beaufort force 8 or higher, often including details on wave heights exceeding 4 meters during associated swells.^[54] On land and along the coast, gale warnings target exposed regions such as the Cliffs of Moher in County Clare, where alerts account for gusts reaching up to 60 knots (approximately 111 km/h) that can render areas unsafe for travel and outdoor activities.^[55]^[56] These status yellow warnings, in particular, advise on potential disruptions like difficult driving conditions and localized coastal flooding, prioritizing public safety in high-risk topographies.^[52] Met Éireann collaborates with the UK Met Office on cross-border forecasting, including the joint naming of storms and the integration of warnings across the Irish border for seamless public alerts.^[57]^[58] Following Storm Ophelia in October 2017, which prompted extensive warnings, Met Éireann implemented updates in 2018 to enhance dissemination, including faster delivery through mobile apps that generated over 500,000 targeted alerts during the event.^[59]^[60]

Usage in Asia-Pacific

Philippines

In the Philippines, gale warnings are issued by the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA), the national meteorological agency responsible for monitoring severe weather events in the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR), which encompasses the South China Sea, Philippine Sea, and surrounding waters.^[61] These warnings are distinct from the Tropical Cyclone Wind Signal (TCWS) system, which is used for tropical cyclones, and instead focus on non-tropical events such as the northeast monsoon. Under TCWS No. 2, gale-force winds of 62–88 km/h (Beaufort Force 8–9, or 34–47 knots) may occur in association with tropical systems, while TCWS No. 1 covers strong winds of 39–61 km/h that may approach gale conditions in exposed areas.^[62]^[63]^[64] For marine operations, PAGASA issues gale warnings for seafarers in the South China Sea and Philippine Sea, alerting to strong to gale-force winds (41–88 km/h or 22–47 knots) that pose risks to small vessels and navigation, often due to monsoons.^[65]^[66] These warnings target seaboard regions, such as the eastern seaboards of Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, and are disseminated through coastal radio broadcasts, SMS alerts to registered users, television and radio announcements, and PAGASA's website and social media platforms to ensure timely reach to fishing communities and maritime operators.^[61] On land and along coastal areas, while TCWS No. 1 and No. 2 are used for tropical cyclone-related winds, PAGASA advises precautions for non-tropical gales, such as securing structures and avoiding outdoor activities in wind-prone islands and regions like Luzon.^[62] This approach allows for responses tailored to the Philippines' environment, where gales can accompany monsoons or fronts outside of typhoon season.^[67]

Australia and New Zealand

In Australia, the Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) issues gale warnings for coastal waters, defining gales as sustained winds of 34 to 47 knots (63 to 87 km/h), primarily through marine wind forecasts covering the Indian and Pacific Oceans.^[68]^[69] These warnings are disseminated via the BoM's coastal waters forecast service, which provides detailed predictions for regions like New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland, alerting mariners to potential hazards such as rough seas and hazardous surf associated with extratropical lows, fronts, or other non-tropical weather.^[70] Warmer-than-average ocean temperatures as of the 2024-25 season have increased the risk of intense events, potentially affecting gale conditions.^[71] In New Zealand, MetService issues gale warnings as part of its marine forecast system, escalating from strong wind warnings (25 to 33 knots) to gales (34 to 47 knots) for areas including the Tasman Sea and surrounding coastal zones.^[72]^[73] These alerts often include coastal surf warnings for heavy swell exceeding 3 meters, targeting boaters and coastal communities vulnerable to southerly or westerly gales from passing fronts.^[72] MetService emphasizes impacts on key ferry routes, such as the Interislander service across Cook Strait, where gale warnings frequently lead to sailings cancellations or delays to ensure passenger safety amid funneling winds.^[74]^[75] Australia and New Zealand share the use of metric units like km/h in public gale warnings, alongside nautical knots for precision in marine contexts, facilitating clear communication for both local and international users.^[69]^[76] Gale warnings in both countries integrate with aviation operations; for instance, BoM alerts have caused disruptions at Sydney Airport, including flight diversions and ground stops during crosswind gales exceeding 40 knots.^[77] Following major East Coast Low events, such as the 2022 New South Wales floods, BoM and MetService continue to monitor and forecast gale and swell conditions for subtropical-temperate systems.^[78]

Examples and Case Studies

Sample Warning Text

Gale warnings typically include several key components to ensure clarity and urgency for mariners and coastal residents: a prominent header identifying the type of warning, specification of the affected geographic area, details on expected wind speeds and directions, associated hazards such as sea states or gusts, and the valid time period of the forecast.^[79] These elements are standardized to facilitate rapid comprehension, with variations in phrasing depending on whether conditions are imminent or expected, such as "winds will increase to gale force" for anticipated events or "gale conditions are occurring" for immediate threats.^[80] Formatting standards emphasize all-capital letters for the header and critical details to convey urgency, as recommended in World Meteorological Organization (WMO) guidelines for marine meteorological services, which are adapted locally by national agencies.^[80] For example, a generic marine gale warning issued by the U.S. National Weather Service might read: GALE WARNING... WINDS 35 TO 45 KT... SEAS 8 TO 12 FT... VALID UNTIL 1200 UTC. This format highlights sustained winds in the gale range (34-47 knots), potential sea conditions, and the expiration time.^[81] A land or coastal variant, often used for near-shore areas, focuses on gust impacts and accessibility for non-marine audiences. Environment Canada issues gale warnings for winds of 34-47 knots, with examples emphasizing ongoing or expected gusts near shore.^[45]

Notable Gale Events

One of the most significant gale events in the United Kingdom occurred during the Great Storm of October 15-16, 1987, when the Met Office issued gale warnings for the English Channel and southern England, anticipating strong winds from an approaching depression.^[82] Gusts reached up to 115 mph at Shoreham-by-Sea, leading to widespread devastation including the felling of 15 million trees, damage to infrastructure, and 18 fatalities in the UK.^[83] The event exposed limitations in forecast accuracy, as computer models initially predicted the storm's track to pass south of England, resulting in underestimation of the threat and public skepticism toward warnings, exemplified by a infamous broadcast downplaying hurricane risks.^[83] In Australia, the East Coast Low of April 20-21, 2015, prompted the Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) to issue gale warnings for sustained winds of 34-47 knots along the New South Wales coast, including Sydney, with gusts exceeding 50 knots in exposed areas.^[84] The storm caused Sydney Harbour to close to small vessels due to hazardous seas up to 6 meters, while inland, fallen trees and debris led to power outages affecting over 200,000 homes and businesses across the greater Sydney region.^[85] Three deaths were reported, primarily from flooding, but the warnings enabled emergency preparations that mitigated broader structural damage.^[84] The United States faced severe impacts during Winter Storm Uri in February 13-17, 2021, where the National Weather Service (NWS) issued winter storm warnings for extreme cold and precipitation across Texas, with coastal areas experiencing winds up to 30-40 knots alongside freezing conditions.^[86] The event contributed to power line failures and saltwater intrusion along the coast, while the overall storm's extreme cold spread farther inland than some forecasts anticipated, overwhelming the Texas power grid and causing outages for 4.5 million customers at peak.^[87] The underestimation of the cold air's inland persistence highlighted gaps in long-range modeling for hybrid winter events, resulting in at least 246 deaths and economic losses exceeding $195 billion as of 2021, primarily from frozen energy infrastructure.^[87] In Canada, the remnants of Hurricane Debby transitioned to a post-tropical system on August 9-10, 2024, prompting Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC) to issue heavy rainfall and flood warnings for southern Quebec and eastern Ontario.^[88] The system brought intense rain leading to widespread flooding affecting over 55 communities, with one reported fatality in Quebec and insured damages exceeding $2.5 billion CAD.^[89] Timely evacuations in affected municipalities and adherence to alerts limited broader structural damage, with impacts including temporary road closures and power disruptions for thousands.^[88] These events underscore key lessons in gale warning efficacy, including the need for enhanced modeling to improve track and intensity predictions, as seen in the Met Office's post-1987 upgrades to ensemble forecasting systems that have since reduced forecast errors by over 50%.^[83] Similarly, Uri prompted U.S. legislative reforms for grid winterization, while BoM and ECCC refined coastal alert protocols for hybrid systems. Observations indicate an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme extratropical storms since 2000, linked to climate change, emphasizing the importance of adaptive warning strategies.^[90]

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[PDF] MARINE WEATHER INFORMATION GUIDE
Jul 1, 2017 · A warning is issued when wind conditions are expected to exceed 34 kts within a 24 ... warning criteria is used in the coastal areas within ...
[30]
Appendix G: Data Buoy Impacts on Warning and Forecast Operations
Buoy data accurately assesses storm strength, wind speeds, and sea conditions before storms make landfall and permit forecasters to compare NCEP model ...Missing: triggering factors
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[PDF] Guide to marine meteorological services - National Hurricane Center
May 2, 2018 · Manual on Marine Meteorological Services (WMO-No. 558), Volume I, Parts I and II, which forms part of the WMO Technical Regulations. The ...
[32]
Coastal Warning Display Program - National Weather Service
Gale Warning: A warning of sustained surface winds, or frequent gusts, in the range of 34 knots (39 mph) to 47 knots (54 mph) inclusive, either predicted or ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[33]
Weather Flags
Feb 22, 2014 · WMO Technical Regulations specifies that any Member establishing a new visual storm warning signal system should adopt the international system.
[34]
Marine Weather Safety Rules - National Weather Service
Special marine warnings are issued when short-lived frequent wind gusts of 34 knots (39 miles per hour) or greater are occurring or expected to occur over water ...
[35]
[PDF] Maritime Transportation Extreme Weather Task Force
NWS high seas forecasts are issued every six hours and include any marine warnings for gale, storm, hurricane-force wind, and tropical cyclone conditions.<|separator|>
[36]
Wind Warnings, Watches and Advisories - National Weather Service
The National Weather Service issues a number of Watches, Warnings and other products to alert the public about high wind events.
[37]
Warnings (issuance process) - National Weather Service
A “warning” is issued when hazardous weather poses an immediate threat to life or property. However, the process of issuing a warning varies depending on the ...
[38]
Warning Criteria - National Weather Service
Issue a High Wind Watch for high winds excluding those directly associated with severe local storms, hurricanes, and winter storms for a) sustained wind speeds ...
[39]
[PDF] National Weather Service Instruction 10-1801
Apr 18, 2018 · The objective of the Warning Coordination and Hazard Awareness (WCHA) program is to ensure that the overall warning system is effective. The ...
[40]
Warning Dissemination - National Weather Service
A sampling of the services that deliver NWS warnings either directly to you, or to those that relay the warnings to you via the web, television and radio ...
[41]
Operations & Services - National Weather Service
10-303 Marine and Coastal Services Standards and Guidelines, 10-310 Coastal Waters Forecast, 10-311 Offshore, NAVTEX, and High Seas Forecasts.Missing: gale | Show results with:gale
[42]
Ocean Prediction Center - Overview - National Weather Service
OPC originates and issues marine warnings and forecasts, continually monitors and analyzes maritime data, and provides guidance of marine atmospheric variables.
[43]
[PDF] Directive 10-3 March 8, 2023 Operations and Services MARINE ...
Mar 8, 2023 · This directive provides the framework for the NWS Marine Program, which includes marine and coastal weather services. 2. The NWS Marine ...
[44]
Great Lakes Forecast - National Weather Service
Great Lakes Forecast Issued by NWS. Home | Current Version | Previous ... ...GALE WARNING IN EFFECT FROM THIS AFTERNOON THROUGH LATE TONIGHT... .TODAY ...
[45]
https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/general-marine-weather-information/publications/canadian-warning-program/chapter-1.html
[46]
NOAA NWS Marine Weather Forecasts
The NWS provides forecasts and warning services for the coastal waters along the mainland of the continental US, the Great Lakes and the Offshore and High Seas ...NWS Eureka Marine Forecasts · Marine Forecasts · Marine Text Forecasts · MarineMissing: directive | Show results with:directive
[47]
NOAA Weather Radio
NWR broadcasts official Weather Service warnings, watches, forecasts and other hazard information 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Working with the Federal ...NWS Weather Forecast Offices · Weather Forecast Office and... · NWR OutagesMissing: gale | Show results with:gale
[48]
Climate - National Weather Service
For the latest climate forecasts see the Climate Prediction Center (CPC) web page. The map below is your portal to NWS Climate information.Local Climate Information · NWS Tampa Bay · Climate and Past Weather · LWX
[49]
Weather forecasts through high performance computing - Canada.ca
Jul 30, 2024 · The Canadian Centre for Meteorological and Environmental Prediction (CCMEP), part of Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC), is the ...
[50]
Canadian marine warning program: chapter 1 - Canada.ca
Environment Canada's Meteorological Service (MSC) is responsible for providing a warning service that ensures safety and security, and the protection of the ...Missing: body | Show results with:body
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Marine Forecasts and Warnings for Canada
Warning · Watch · Advisory. No warning or watch. Tropical Cyclone Statement. Strong wind warning program start and end dates may vary.Missing: speed | Show results with:speed
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Environment Canada: Weather Information
Weather alerts 24/7 from Environment and Climate Change Canada, your authoritative source. Track lightning and hurricanes using our maps. Hurricane · Marine.Canadian Weather · Weather Forecast · Weather warning · Analyses and Modelling
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[PDF] Regional Assessment of Offshore Wind Development in ... - Canada.ca
Jan 23, 2025 · • offshore wind project proponents should engage with ECCC and refer to current literature to consider any updated information on aerofauna ...
[54]
Our history - Met Office
May 20, 2025 · These observations were used to a new storm warning service that began in early 1861. Now known as the shipping forecast, it is thought to be ...
[55]
More than a century of working together: Met Office and RNLI
Jan 10, 2025 · Our forecasts provide the RNLI with the information they need to prepare for and take action in response to deteriorating weather conditions and ...Missing: integration | Show results with:integration
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Eumetnet: Homepage
Eumetnet is a network of 33 European National Meteorological & Hydrological Services (NMHSs).About Us · Post-Processing · 15th EUMETNET Data... · ObservationsMissing: alignment | Show results with:alignment
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Weather warnings explanation - The Irish Meteorological Service
Strong Gale Warnings are issued if winds of Beaufort Force 9 or frequent gusts of at least 52 knots are expected. Storm Force Warnings are issued if Beaufort ...
[58]
MET forecasts for Irish coastal waters
Jul 30, 2019 · Met Éireann issues Gale warnings for Irish coastal waters, which are regarded as extending 30 miles out from the coastline, and the Irish Sea or ...
[59]
Sea Area Forecast - Met Éireann - The Irish Meteorological Service
Its associated weather fronts track towards the west coast. Small Craft Warning: In effect. Heavy Swell (>4m) : yes. Wave Height Forecast. Forecast for Irish ...Sea Crossings · Coastal Reports · Waves · Marine Terminology
[60]
Weather and When to Visit - Cliffs of Moher
Rating 4.8 (2,115) Weather conditions are too hazardous to visit the Cliffs, eg. winds are gusting dangerously at the cliff areas and it is no longer safe for visitors to go to ...
[61]
Weather at the Cliffs of Moher | Ireland.com Community
Jun 13, 2019 · Yellow Warning: Average wind speeds of between 50 and 65 kmph with gusts between 90 to 110 kmph. · Orange Warning: Average wind speeds of between ...
[62]
FAQ - Met Éireann - The Irish Meteorological Service
Met Éireann issues warnings for Ireland (excluding Northern Ireland) ... UK Met Office have ongoing collaboration on the forecasting and naming of storms.
[63]
Cross-border weather alerts displayed together - BBC
Jun 17, 2020 · Weather warnings issued on either side of the Irish border are now being displayed together for the first time. The move, by the Irish national ...
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[PDF] An Analysis of Storm Ophelia which struck Ireland on the 16th ...
Oct 15, 2018 · Through Friday the 13th October, Ophelia started to accelerate a little east-north-eastwards, as forecasted, with little change in intensity.
[65]
Extreme-weather app generates 500,000 alerts during Ophelia
Oct 19, 2017 · Weather app MapAlerter generated 500000 emergency alerts over three days as Storm Ophelia ripped across Ireland.<|control11|><|separator|>
[66]
About Us - PAGASA - DOST
Disseminate forecast and warning bulletins through radio and tv broadcasts, dial-up voice server, electronic fax and email system. Techniques Application and ...
[67]
Tropical Cyclone Wind Signal - PAGASA
The current TCWS system uses five (5) levels of wind signals that are numbered from 1 to 5, with a higher signal number associated with higher general wind ...
[68]
Weather Terminologies - PAGASA
Moderate to Occasionally Strong ; Fresh Winds*, 30-39, 17-21 ; Strong Winds, 40-50, 22-27 ; Gale: 1 Near Gale* 2 Gale 3 Strong Gale*. 51-62 63-75 76-87. 28-33 34- ...
[69]
Gale Warning - PAGASA
Strong to typhoon-force winds are prevailing or expected to affect the following areas: ; THE EASTERN SEABOARDS OF CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN LUZON AND VISAYAS
[70]
Legend - PAGASA
GOVPH ; Gale-force winds. Beaufort 8-9. 62-88 km/h. (34-47 kt, 17.2-24.4 m/s). 24 hours ; Storm-force winds. Beaufort 10-11. 89-117 km/h. (48-63 kt, 24.5-32.6 m/s).
[71]
Typhoon "Uwan" - PAGASA
Tropical Cyclone Wind Signal no. A tropical cyclone will affect the locality. Winds of greater than 89 km/h up to 117 km/h may be expected in at least 18 hours.
[72]
About Tropical Cyclone - PAGASA
SEVERE TROPICAL STORM (STS) , a tropical cyclone with maximum wind speed of 87 to 117 kph or 48 - 63 knots. TYPHOON (TY) - a tropical cyclone with maximum wind ...
[73]
Coastal Wind Warnings Service Change - BoM
Coastal Wind Warnings Service Change ; Gale 34 to 47 knots. Probable wave heights around 5 to 8 metres*. force 8 ; Gale 34 to 47 knots. Probable wave heights
[74]
Weather | Marine Safety SA
Strong wind warning, 25 - 33 knots 45 - 60 km per hour. Gale warning, 34 - 47 knots 61 - 85 km per hour. Storm warning. 48 knots and more 86 km per hour or more.
[75]
Coasts and oceans | The Bureau of Meteorology - BoM
Warnings for marine and coastal areas View the latest marine wind, ocean wind, hazardous surf, coastal hazard, and tsunami warnings.Marine Wind Forecast · Tide Predictions for Australia · Sydney enclosed waters
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2024/25 tropical cyclone season outlook and names - Weatherzone
Oct 8, 2024 · But the BoM cautions that the likelihood of severe tropical cyclones of Category 3, 4, or 5 is higher than usual, due to warmer-than-average ...
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Understanding MetService's Coastal Marine Forecasts
Jan 28, 2015 · - Gale Warnings: When mean wind speeds are expected to be 34 knots to 47 knots. - Storm Warnings: When mean wind speeds are expected to be ...
[78]
Marine Warnings | MetService
On Tuesday, high pressure moves in from the Tasman Sea, while the front weakens and moves offshore east of New Zealand. A low quickly approaches far north ...
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Sailing Conditions - Cook Strait Ferries - Interislander
Service Alerts: we post weather advisories where sailings may be affected · Metservice · Windy.com - check the Wave option. Many people are worried about ...
[80]
Some Cook Strait ferries cancelled as wind funnels through - Stuff
Aug 19, 2025 · Some Cook Strait ferries cancelled as wind funnels through · At midday on Wednesday the Interislander hadn't cancelled or delayed any sailings.<|separator|>
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Wind explained: What are gales and how strong are strong winds?
Jul 5, 2023 · The Bureau of Meteorology will issue warnings for damaging winds for the following: Sustained wind speeds of gale force (63 km/h) or more ...
[82]
Gales and crosswinds cause disruptions at Sydney airport
Aug 28, 2024 · Gale force west to northwesterly winds are creating havoc at Sydney airport on Wednesday afternoon, with all six landing and takeoff options ...
[83]
[PDF] Review of Australian east coast low pressure systems and ...
East Coast Lows (ECLs) are cyclones near southeastern Australia, causing severe impacts like extreme winds, waves, and flooding. They are intense low-pressure ...
[84]
East Coast Low deepening near NSW coast disrupting aviation ...
Jul 1, 2025 · Explosive East Coast Low near NSW coast brings heavy rain, gale‑force winds & surf, disrupting aviation, transport & utilities.<|separator|>
[85]
Example of Proposed High Seas Individual Warning with Gale Force ...
Example of Proposed High Seas Individual Warning with Gale Force Winds ; Marine Text Forecasts · Coastal/Great Lakes Forecasts · Offshore Forecasts ; Radiofax ...Missing: sample | Show results with:sample
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[PDF] Manual on Marine Meteorological Services
This is the Manual on Marine Meteorological Services, Volume I, 2012 edition, WMO-No. 558, covering global aspects.
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hsfat1 - NOAA
GALE WARNING... .48 HOUR FORECAST NEW LOW 54N54W 972 MB. N OF 55N W OF 51W WINDS 25 TO 40 KT. SEAS 2.5 TO 6 M...HIGHEST NEAR LOW CENTER. .SYNOPSIS AND ...
[88]
wwcn20.cwvr..txt
WWCN20 CWVR 251007 GALE WARNING GALE WARNING ISSUED FOR THE COASTAL WATERS OF BRITISH COLUMBIA BY ENVIRONMENT CANADA AT 3:07 AM PDT WEDNESDAY 25 JUNE 2008. GALE ...
[89]
A Good Day to Hang out the Laundry, or a 10% Chance of Rain?
Official gale warnings for the English Channel were sent out early on 15 October, and all television and public radio broadcasts that day warned of strong winds ...Missing: issues | Show results with:issues
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Lessons and legacy of the Great Storm of 1987 - Met Office
The Great Storm of 1987 affected many parts of the UK on the night of 15-16 October. With wind gusts of up to 100mph, 18 people were killed, millions of trees ...Missing: gale | Show results with:gale
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East Coast Low, New South Wales, 2015 | Australian Disasters
In addition to widespread heavy rainfall, sustained gale force winds were experienced along the coastal fringe for a 30-hour period. Destructive wind gusts ...
[92]
Sydney storms: gale-force winds and heavy rain batter New South ...
Apr 21, 2015 · Three people are dead after high winds and extensive flooding hit Sydney and the Hunter Valley. More than 200000 homes and businesses were ...
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February 2021: Historic Winter Storm and Arctic Outbreak
Feb 11, 2021 · Many records were broken across our home state, and Winter Storm Warnings were issued across the entire State of Texas on February 14, 2021.Missing: coastal power failure inland spread
[94]
Winter Storm Uri 2021 - Texas Comptroller
The UT-Austin report found that Uri, although not the most severe Texas winter storm on record, caused the most loss of electricity.
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[PDF] Hurricane Debby - NHC
Jan 23, 2025 · According to the Insurance. Bureau of Canada7, the damage caused by Debby made it the costliest weather event in the history of Quebec. Hundreds ...Missing: ECCC evacuations<|control11|><|separator|>
[96]
Southern Quebec still struggles with remnants of tropical storm Debby
Aug 10, 2024 · Nearly 35 municipalities across Quebec were impacted by the rain, a total of 1,539 homes have been isolated, 344 people were evacuated from ...Missing: ECCC damage