Gittern

The gittern was a small, plucked string instrument popular in medieval Europe from the 13th to the 15th century, featuring a pear-shaped body with a rounded back, an integral neck carved from a single piece of wood, and typically four courses of gut strings played using a plectrum.^[1]^[2] Its name derives from the Old French guiterne, ultimately tracing back to the Latin cithara via the Greek kithara and Arabic qitara, reflecting influences from ancient and Islamic musical traditions.^[3]^[2] Introduced as a novelty in noble and royal courts around 1275, the gittern quickly gained prestige, appearing in literary works like Dante's Convivio (ca. 1304–1307) and records of events such as King Edward II's 1306 feast, where it symbolized refinement and entertainment.^[2] By the mid-14th century, its use expanded beyond elites to urban settings, taverns, and even among lower social strata, as evidenced in inventories like that of King Charles V of France (ca. 1380) and municipal accounts from cities like Orléans (1392).^[2] Musically, it served primarily for playing upper melodic lines in polyphonic ensembles due to its limited bass range, though it also accompanied solo performances and dances.^[1] Only one surviving example is known: a finely crafted 15th-century instrument from Nuremberg housed at the Wartburg Stiftung in Eisenach, Germany.^[1]^[4] The gittern's popularity peaked in the late 14th to early 15th century before declining amid shifts in musical styles favoring lute-like instruments with greater versatility and the rise of new genres requiring fingerstyle techniques over plectrum strumming.^[2] By the 16th century, it evolved into or was supplanted by the Renaissance guitar and cittern, retaining associations with both courtly nostalgia and more populist street music in England and France.^[3] Its legacy endures in modern reconstructions, informing early music performance practices and highlighting the instrument's role in bridging medieval and Renaissance string traditions.^[1]

History

Origins and early development

The gittern emerged as a distinct plucked string instrument in Western Europe during the late 13th century, likely evolving from earlier lute-like chordophones with significant Arabic influences transmitted through the Iberian Peninsula. Scholars identify the guitarra latina—a short-necked, flat-backed instrument—and the guitarra morisca—a pear-shaped, long-necked lute variant—as probable precursors, both documented in medieval Iberian sources and reflecting the cultural synthesis of Christian, Jewish, and Muslim musical traditions following the Reconquista.^[5]^[6]^[7] The earliest pictorial evidence appears in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, a 13th-century manuscript compilation (ca. 1257–1283) commissioned by Alfonso X of Castile, which depicts both guitarra latina and guitarra morisca instruments in courtly and devotional scenes across the Iberian Peninsula. Literary references soon followed in France, with the term guiterne (or variants like guisterne) first recorded in romances such as Blancheflour et Florence (ca. 1270) and additions to Roman de la Rose (1275–1280). Similar mentions appear in Italian texts like Dante's Convivio (1304–1307) and English records by 1306, indicating rapid dissemination from Iberia to Italy, France, and England.^[2]^[5]^[7] Initially favored among court musicians and nobility between ca. 1200 and 1300, the gittern served as a sophisticated accompaniment instrument in elite settings, as evidenced by a gitterner performing at the knighting feast of Prince Edward (later King Edward II) in London in 1306, organized by King Edward I. Key early depictions include frescoes at Pamplona Cathedral (ca. 1330) by Master Juan Oliver, showing a musician playing a gittern with a carved neck and pegbox, and illuminations in French and Iberian manuscripts portraying it in polyphonic ensembles. This foundational role paved the way for the gittern's broader adoption in the 14th century.^[2]^[7]^[8]

Popularity and regional variations

The gittern reached its peak popularity between approximately 1300 and 1500, becoming a versatile instrument adopted across social strata in Europe, from royal courts and noble households to urban taverns and amateur domestic settings.^[9] Professional minstrels employed it in courtly entertainments and public performances, while amateurs, including noblewomen, played it for personal recreation; records from England and France document its presence in royal inventories, such as the four gitterns owned by Charles V of France in the 1370s, and its association with festive events like the 1306 knighting feast under King Edward I.^[2] By the mid-14th century, its use extended to taverns, where it accompanied dancing and secular songs, sometimes linked to rowdy gatherings as noted in contemporary French literature, though evidence of its role in religious contexts remains limited primarily to pious lay performances rather than liturgical ones.^[9] Regional variations in the gittern's design and nomenclature reflected local musical traditions and linguistic differences, contributing to its widespread appeal. In Spain, known as the guiterna or guitarra, it appeared in Catalan courts and manuscripts like the Libro de buen amor (1330s), featuring a pear-shaped body and three to four strings suited for accompanying vocal music.^[2] The French guiterne or guisterne was prevalent in royal and urban environments, with depictions in Parisian art showing it in ensemble playing; Italian variants called chitarra were used in courtly settings, as referenced in Dante's Convivio (1304–1307), while the German quintern emphasized its plucked style in Bavarian households, such as those of Albert I (1384–1404).^[9] These adaptations maintained the instrument's core pear-shaped body and fretted neck but varied in sound hole shapes—D-shaped in Iberian examples versus single roses in northern Europe—and stringing, allowing for regional tuning preferences like fourths in France.^[2] Historical records provide concrete evidence of the gittern's integration into musical ensembles, particularly in duets with lutes, which highlighted its rhythmic and melodic capabilities in both secular and occasional religious music. Court accounts from the Duke of Burgundy's household in 1454 describe gittern-lute pairings for dance accompaniment, while English minstrel payments from the 1360s, such as those to Jehan Hautemer, indicate its use alongside lutes in love songs and festivities; Italian and German sources similarly note ensemble roles in urban celebrations.^[2] In secular contexts, it supported tavern minstrelsy and courtly dances, as evidenced by 47 performance records across Europe from 1275–1400, though its religious applications were more subdued, appearing in lay devotional music rather than formal services.^[9] Late medieval examples show adaptations that extended the gittern's range, including an increase to five courses of strings, likely to accommodate more complex polyphony as musical styles evolved. Johannes Tinctoris's treatise De inventione et usu musicae (ca. 1481–1483) describes the ghiterra as tuned in intervals similar to the lute, reflecting this shift in northern European instruments like the German quintern, which derived its name from the "five-fold" configuration.^[10] Surviving artifacts, such as the Hans Oth gittern (ca. 1432–1463) with five courses, confirm this development, allowing for richer harmonic textures in ensemble and solo playing by the 15th century.^[9]

Decline and legacy

By the late 15th century, the gittern's popularity had begun to wane, largely due to shifts in musical styles and preferences that favored instruments with richer tonal qualities. In the Low Countries around 1481–1483, music theorist Johannes Tinctoris observed that the gittern was "used most rarely" because of the "thinness of its sound," making it less suitable for the emerging polyphonic compositions and the development of lute tablature systems.^[11] This decline accelerated into the 16th century as the lute gained dominance in European courts, with its fuller resonance and adaptable fingertip playing technique supplanting the gittern's quill-based plectrum method, which players did not readily transition away from.^[4] Concurrently, the rise of the flat-backed guitarra in Spain and later in France and England marked a pivotal replacement; by the early 16th century, this four-course instrument, tuned similarly to the gittern but with a more versatile design, began to eclipse the round-backed medieval form, leading to the gittern's near disappearance from elite musical contexts by 1600.^[2] Despite its obsolescence, the gittern left a profound legacy as a progenitor of several later stringed instruments, influencing the evolution of the modern guitar through shared construction elements like the waisted body and fretted neck. Its design and tuning principles contributed to the development of the Renaissance guitar, mandore, bandurria, and even the 18th-century gallichon, with the mandore representing a direct hybrid of gittern features and lute traditions.^[12] The gittern's standard four-course tuning in fourths (such as a-d'-g'-c'') and occasional five-course variant with a major third (d-g-b'-e'-a') persisted in these descendants, providing a foundational framework for Renaissance plucked instruments and facilitating comparable chordal and melodic playing.^[4] Additionally, the gittern's plectrum techniques, involving quill or gut picks for articulate strumming and plucking, influenced early Renaissance practices on related instruments like the cittern, where hybrid plectrum-finger methods allowed for polyphonic expression before the full adoption of fingertip styles.^[13] Scholarship on the gittern underwent a significant transition in the 20th century, particularly with Laurence Wright's 1977 article, which clarified longstanding terminological confusion by distinguishing the gittern—a round-backed, gut-strung instrument played with a plectrum—from the flat-backed citole, thereby reestablishing the gittern's unique identity and historical role. This reclassification has enabled modern researchers to trace its legacy more accurately, emphasizing its contributions to the broader lute-guitar family without conflating it with contemporaneous instruments.^[2]

Terminology and identity

Etymology

The term gittern derives from the ancient Greek kithara, transmitted through Latin cithara and medieval Arabic qitara, entering European vernaculars in the late 13th century before appearing as Old French guiterne by the late 13th century.^[14]^[2] This linguistic path reflects the instrument's roots in classical stringed traditions, adapted via cultural exchanges in the Mediterranean. The English form gittern emerged as a direct borrowing from the French, often spelled giterne or gyterne in Middle English texts, emphasizing its wire-strung, guitar-like qualities in medieval contexts.^[14] Regional variations in nomenclature highlight the gittern's dissemination across Europe, with adaptations tied to local phonetic and cultural influences. In Spain, it was termed guiterna as early as the 13th century, documented in the Cantigas de Santa Maria under Alfonso X, distinguishing Moorish (guitarra morisca) and Latin (guitarra ladina) subtypes for dance accompaniment.^[2] French records favored guiterne or guisterne, while Italian sources used chitarra, and German texts employed quintern or quinterna—a Latinized form possibly evoking "five-fold" due to phonetic resemblance rather than string count.^[2] These terms, appearing from the 1270s onward, underscore the instrument's spread from Iberian origins to courts in France, England, and the Holy Roman Empire. The evolution of gittern terminology mirrors its social trajectory and occasional conflation with akin instruments, particularly the citole, due to overlapping names derived from cithara. Early noble associations (1275–1350) yielded precise usages like guiterne latine, evolving to broader, more colloquial forms by 1350–1400 as the instrument entered taverns and festivities, before becoming a nostalgic emblem post-1400.^[2] Scholarly distinctions, such as those by Wright, clarify that while citole and gittern were sometimes mistranslated interchangeably in manuscripts, primary records maintain separation based on construction and playing style.^[2] Historical inventories and literature from 1270–1500 provide concrete evidence of the term's usage, predominantly in elite settings before wider adoption. For instance, a 1306 English record notes "Le Gitarer" at Edward II's knighting feast in London, and 1315/16 accounts reference "Dominic, gitterner" in Queen Isabella's service.^[2] Literary examples include the Roman de la Rose (1275–1280), where Pygmalion plays a quitarre at a wedding, and Juan Ruiz's Libro de Buen Amor (1330s), mentioning guitarra morisca for rhythmic dances; by the late 14th century, Chaucer's Canterbury Tales depicts the gittern in tavern scenes, signaling its democratization.^[2] These records, spanning royal wardrobes like Charles V's 1373 inventory of five guiternes, illustrate the term's consistent application amid the instrument's peak popularity.^[2] The gittern has frequently been misidentified with the citole in early scholarship, largely due to overlapping terminology and visual similarities in medieval depictions, leading some sources to label round-backed instruments as citoles while identifying flat-backed or waisted ones as gitterns. This confusion extended to the mandore, a smaller plucked instrument that was sometimes conflated with the gittern in 19th- and early 20th-century classifications, such as those by Galpin, who grouped waisted chordophones under gittern. Laurence Wright's 1977 analysis resolved much of this ambiguity by re-examining literary and artistic evidence, establishing the gittern as distinct from the citole, which features a flat or waisted back rather than the gittern's characteristic rounded, carved form.^[7]^[4] A primary structural distinction lies in the gittern's construction as a carved, one-piece body with a rounded back and hitch pins securing the strings to the instrument's rim, contrasting with the lute's multi-ribbed, bent-back assembly where strings are tied to a glued bridge. Unlike the citole's often flat-backed, non-pear-shaped body with a pronounced neck and fixed frets, the gittern's smooth neck-to-body transition and sickle-shaped pegbox emphasize its lute-family affiliation while avoiding the lute's more complex ribbing. These features, evident in surviving artifacts like the Wartburg gittern, underscore the gittern's simpler, solid-wood build suited to plectrum playing.^[7]^[2]^[4] Iconographic evidence from sources like the Cantigas de Santa Maria (c. 1257–1283) and 14th-century Parisian manuscripts has been pivotal in post-1977 clarifications, showing the gittern's pear-shaped outline and hitch-pin system in contexts where citoles appear separately with thumbhole necks or lute-like instruments with ribbed backs. Such depictions, including duets between gittern and lute in works by Agnolo Gaddi (c. 1390), highlight the gittern's unique profile amid earlier scholarly debates.^[7]^[4]^[2] The gittern occupied a broader social spectrum than the lute, appearing in both noble courts—such as Edward III's inventories (1330s)—and popular settings like taverns and urban festivities, whereas the lute increasingly became associated with elite, fingertip-plucked performance by the late 15th century. This versatility distinguished the gittern from the more specialized citole, often linked to ceremonial or minstrel roles, and the mandore, which emerged later in less formal Renaissance contexts.^[4]^[2]^[6]

Physical characteristics

Construction and materials

The gittern featured a compact, round-backed body typically carved from a single block of timber, such as maple, fruitwood, or lime, allowing for a smooth, integral transition between the neck and body without joints.^[2]^[15] This monolithic construction contributed to its lightweight and resonant qualities, with the body often pear- or tortoise-shaped to facilitate a soft, intimate sound projection.^[2] The surviving 15th-century Wartburg gittern by Hans Oth of Nuremberg confirms this carved design.^[2]^[15] Luxury variants, as recorded in the 1373 inventory of Charles V of France, incorporated ivory and silver ornamentation for decorative enhancement.^[2] In terms of scale, the gittern was notably small, with vibrating string lengths ranging from 30 to 45 cm, as evidenced by the Wartburg gittern (445 mm).^[15]^[2] The sound hole was centrally positioned and typically adorned with a carved or inlaid rosette, providing both acoustic function and aesthetic appeal.^[2]^[15] The pegbox was characteristically sickle- or curved-shaped, extending rearward with tuning pegs inserted from the back, as seen in 14th-century iconography and the Wartburg instrument's design.^[16]^[2] String anchorage relied on hitch pins at the tail, without a traditional bridge in most cases, aligning with majority iconographic depictions; a minority featured glued bridges instead. Variations in construction emerged over time, particularly in course configuration, with 3–4 courses standard in earlier models and up to 5 courses in later 15th-century examples like the Wartburg gittern.^[2] Body outlines and pegbox curvatures also differed regionally, reflecting influences from Moorish designs in the guiterne moresque subtype, which emphasized the sickle pegbox as a symbolic element.^[16] These adaptations maintained the instrument's core carved, round-backed form while accommodating evolving musical demands.^[2]

Strings, neck, and tuning

The gittern typically featured gut strings arranged in 2 to 5 courses, with each course consisting of single, double, or triple strings, allowing for variations in volume and tonal balance.^[4] Iconographic evidence, such as Simone Martini's fresco The Journey of the Magi (c. 1312–1318), depicts four double courses with paired strings of lighter and darker red hues, suggesting octave stringing where one string in each pair is tuned an octave lower to enhance bass response.^[8] These gut strings were often dyed for visual distinction in artwork, though practical reconstructions confirm their use in undyed form for acoustic clarity.^[8] The neck of the gittern was fretted, typically with tied gut frets wrapped around the neck for adjustable intonation, though some iconographic examples show metal frets or double frets possibly intended for Pythagorean tuning or a buzzing effect.^[4] Strings were anchored at the base via hitch pins or directly to the tail of the instrument, passing over a low bridge to the nut before reaching tuning pegs in a rear- or side-mounted pegbox, as inferred from 14th- and 15th-century depictions.^[8] A surviving 15th-century gittern, crafted by Hans Oth in Nuremberg (c. 1432–1463), exemplifies this setup with a five-course configuration and a carved neck integral to the body, featuring remnants of a fretted fingerboard.^[4] Historical sources propose specific tuning systems for the gittern, adapting to its course count. For the four-course variant, the Berkeley Theory Manuscript (pre-1361) illustrates a tuning in fourths: from lowest to highest, a–d'–g'–c''.^[4] This re-entrant configuration facilitated chordal playing in medieval polyphony. The five-course gittern, more common by the late 15th century, incorporated a major third interval akin to contemporary lutes, as described by Johannes Tinctoris in De inventione et usu musicae (c. 1481–1483), with an example such as a–e'–b'–e''–a'' (fourths except the third-to-fourth course).^[4] Inferences from the Hans Oth instrument support this lute-like tuning, adjusted for its smaller scale length of approximately 30–35 cm.^[4]

Playing technique

Plectrum use and styles

The gittern was predominantly played using a plectrum, typically fashioned from a quill plucked from the flight feathers of birds such as geese, swans, or eagles, which provided a flexible yet precise tool for striking the strings.^[17] Alternative materials included bent gut strings, formed into a loop for grip, or rigid options like bone, antler, or ivory, the latter noted in 15th-century Italian sources for its durability in gittern performance.^[17] These plectrums were held in the right hand, often between the index and middle fingers with the thumb securing it, allowing for controlled downward strokes across the strings.^[13] Primary techniques involved strumming to produce rhythmic accompaniment for monophonic melodies or dances, as well as plucking individual or adjacent string courses for polyphonic textures, with dampening techniques employed to isolate non-adjacent notes.^[13] Strumming emphasized forceful, rhythmic patterns suitable for projecting sound in lively settings, while plucking facilitated melodic lines and added organum through open courses.^[2] Fingerpicking remained rare on the gittern, unlike the contemporaneous lute which increasingly favored fingertip plucking by the 15th century, preserving the gittern's distinct plectrum-based style.^[13] Iconographic evidence consistently depicts gittern players wielding a plectrum in the right hand, supporting its role as the instrument's standard playing method from the 13th to 15th centuries.^[17] This approach aligned well with the gittern's tuning, enabling efficient execution of late 14th-century rhythms through strumming and the incorporation of sustained drones on lower courses for harmonic support.^[2] The plectrum's versatility thus contributed to the gittern's adaptability in both monophonic and emerging polyphonic repertoires of the period.^[13]

Performance contexts

The gittern was employed across a variety of medieval performance settings, including royal courts, urban taverns, personal devotional settings, and domestic amateur play. In courtly environments, it featured prominently among professional musicians, such as during Edward III's English court in the 1330s and 1340s, where gittern players were recorded as entertainers at feasts and banquets.^[2] Taverns and public houses adopted the instrument for lively social gatherings, accompanying dances and revelry, as noted in 14th-century French texts like Renart le Contrefait and Juan Ruiz's Libro de Buen Amor.^[2] Religious contexts included its use in devotional music, such as by Charles de Blois in 1347 for pious expression, though evidence remains sparse.^[2] Amateur players, particularly women in urban households and nobles seeking virtuous leisure, incorporated the gittern into private music-making around 1300 in places like Paris.^[2] The instrument often participated in duets or small ensembles, pairing with lutes, voices, or other strings like the vielle to enhance harmonic texture in both soloistic and accompanying roles.^[4] Its repertoire, while undocumented in notation specific to the gittern—no surviving scores exist tailored to its tuning or range—encompassed inferred secular songs such as love ballads, dance tunes like those in the Roman de la Rose (c. 1230–1275), and occasional religious pieces suited to liturgical or devotional accompaniment.^[4] Socially, the gittern originated in elite royal milieus from 1270 to 1325, as seen in Iberian courts with Alfonso X's Cantigas de Santa Maria (1257–1283), before achieving broader adoption by 1350 across urban and middle strata in Europe, including England and France.^[4]^[2] Acoustically, its compact body and higher-pitched strings produced a thin sound, as described by Johannes Tinctoris in De inventione et usu musicae (1481–1483), which contributed to its rare use by the late 15th century.^[4]^[2]

Iconography and surviving examples

Artistic depictions

Artistic depictions of the gittern appear prominently in medieval European iconography from the 13th to 15th centuries, providing key insights into its physical form and social role. These representations, found in illuminated manuscripts, frescoes, and panel paintings, illustrate the instrument's pear-shaped body, rounded back, and integral neck, often carved from a single piece of wood. Early examples, such as those in the Cantigas de Santa Maria (c. 1257–1283, Spain), show a gittern with three single strings and D-shaped soundholes, highlighting its compact design suitable for portable performance.^[4] Frescoes and paintings further reveal variations in construction and stringing. In Simone Martini's fresco cycle depicting the life of Saint Martin of Tours, particularly the scene Saint Martin is Knighted (1312–1318, Cappella di San Martino, Assisi, Italy), a musician plays a four-course gittern with octave stringing, featuring double courses of gut strings in light and dark red hues, plucked with a quill plectrum held between the forefinger and thumb. Other Italian works, like Agnolo Gaddi's Coronation of the Virgin (c. 1390) and Pere Serra's Virgin of the Angels (c. 1385, Catalonia), portray gitterns in duet with lutes, emphasizing their role in ensemble settings with intricate soundboard roses and marquetry details. French manuscripts, such as the Roman de la Rose (c. 1230–1275) and the Ethics of Aristotle (1376), depict larger gitterns with elongated necks accompanying singers and dancers, often in courtly or narrative scenes.^[8]^[4] Visuals consistently show players in dynamic poses across social contexts, underscoring the gittern's versatility. Musicians are illustrated strumming or plucking in religious processions, royal feasts, and urban gatherings, with the instrument balanced without straps and held against the body. Plectrum use is emphasized, as in Martini's Assisi fresco, where the quill is sliced lengthwise for strumming, and hand positions avoid stylized conventions, suggesting realistic technique. Body shapes vary from slender, sickle-pegged models in Spanish and Italian art to broader forms in French depictions, with double gut frets sometimes visible for tuning or buzzing effects.^[8]^[4] Regional styles reflect cultural adaptations and instrument evolution. Italian iconography, as in Martini's work, favors octave-strung four-course gitterns in aristocratic environments, indicating refined courtly use. French art portrays oversized variants for accompaniment in illuminated texts, aligning with urban and noble patronage. English illustrations from the Chaucer era, such as those in late 14th-century manuscripts like the Canterbury Tales, show gitterns in revelry and tavern scenes at sites like Gloucester Cathedral (c. 1337–1350) and Great Malvern Priory (15th century), often with three to five courses. These depictions collectively suggest four courses as common by the 14th century, informing reconstructions alongside rare surviving artifacts.^[4]^[2]

Archaeological artifacts

The surviving archaeological artifacts related to the gittern are exceptionally rare, with scholarly assessments identifying two known medieval examples following discoveries and analyses after 2002—one confirmed as a gittern and the other a closely related koboz—providing crucial physical evidence for the instrument's construction and evolution without contradicting extensive iconographic representations. Classifications of these artifacts are debated in scholarship, with some sources (e.g., theses and encyclopedias) treating the Elbląg find as a gittern while others reclassify it as a koboz.^[4]^[2] A key example resides in the collections of Wartburg Castle in Eisenach, Germany, crafted by the Nuremberg luthier Hans Ott (active 1432–1463) around 1450. This gittern, carved from a single piece of maple for the body, neck, and pegbox, with a spruce or fir soundboard, has a vibrating string length of 44 cm and five double courses originally strung with gut, though no string remnants remain. The pegbox is curved and intact, featuring original hitch pins at the tail for string attachment, and the body exhibits a smooth, rounded back without ribs. Recent examinations, including a 2021 re-analysis, reveal undocumented 19th-century restorations but confirm its authenticity as a high-quality urban instrument, with implications for dating Nuremberg workshops and reconstructing the gittern's bright, plectrum-played tone in late medieval ensembles.^[18]^[4] The second artifact, discovered in 1986 during excavations in a latrine in Elbląg, Poland (formerly Elbing under Teutonic Order control), dates to the mid-15th century (ca. 1350–1450) and measures about 54.8 cm in length, carved from solid lime wood. Initially identified as a gittern but reclassified in some studies as a koboz (an eastern European short-necked lute related to the gittern family), it features wide string spacing, a fretless neck, and eight strings (in a 3+2+3 course arrangement: two triple courses and one double course) arranged via four hitch pins at the tail and an eight-pegged pegbox (with a carved woman's head volute). Gut string remnants were preserved intact upon discovery, along with the bridge and nut grooves, though the body shows splits from impact and lacks fine finishing compared to western examples. This find, analyzed in post-2002 studies, illuminates adaptations of plucked instruments in Hanseatic trade contexts and supports reconstructions of their role among urban lower classes, bridging western and eastern traditions.^[15]^[4]

Relationships to other instruments

Within the guitar family

The gittern served as a direct ancestor to the 16th-century guitarra and, through subsequent evolutions, to the modern guitar, particularly via the development of flat-backed designs in Renaissance instruments.^[2] Historical records indicate that the gittern's form and playing style transitioned into the four- and five-course guitars of the Renaissance period, with the guitarra emerging as a prominent plucked instrument in Spain and Italy around 1500.^[5] This lineage reflects a gradual shift from the medieval gittern's compact, pear-shaped body to larger, more resonant flat-backed guitars that became standardized by the 17th century. The gittern also exhibits links to other instruments within the guitar family, including the mandore, sharing similarities in construction and tuning systems.^[2] The mandore, a smaller Renaissance instrument, inherited the gittern's gut-stringing and compact morphology, often tuned in fourths similar to the gittern's re-entrant configurations.^[19] Key shared traits among these instruments include a fretted neck for precise intonation, plectrum-based playing for rhythmic strumming, and course stringing that allowed for both melody and accompaniment.^[5] The gittern typically featured three to four courses of gut strings, a setup mirrored in the guitarra and mandore, enabling techniques like thumb-assisted plucking alongside plectrum strokes.^[2] These elements underscored the gittern's role as a versatile folk and court instrument, influencing the ergonomic and sonic qualities of its descendants.^[19] The gittern contributed to the broader evolution of plucked instruments, sharing traits such as fretted necks and course strings with the early Renaissance vihuela, amid general shifts in musical aesthetics.^[5]

Comparison with lute and citole

The gittern differed from the lute primarily in its construction and size, featuring a solid, carved body from a single piece of wood rather than the lute's ribbed, multi-piece assembly, which allowed for a shallower, more compact form suited to the gittern's higher pitch and portability.^[9] Both instruments shared similar tuning systems based on fourths and a major third—such as the gittern's proposed four-course setup of c″–g′–d′–a and the lute's comparable relative intervals—but the gittern's smaller scale (e.g., string lengths around 44 cm in surviving examples) emphasized its role in rhythmic strumming and accompaniment over the lute's capacity for intricate polyphony.^[2]^[6] Iconographic evidence, such as 14th-century depictions in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, often shows the gittern paired with lutes in ensemble settings, highlighting their complementary functions, while the lute's bent-back pegbox contrasted with the gittern's sickle-shaped one.^[6] In contrast to the citole, the gittern exhibited a pear- or teardrop-shaped body with a smoother neck transition, as opposed to the citole's distinctive holly-leaf or vase-shaped outline and flat back.^[9]^[6] The gittern typically used hitch pins for string attachment at the tail, similar to some citole variants, but lacked the citole's elevated fingerboard and fixed frets, instead employing tied frets; tuning also diverged, with the gittern favoring fourths (e.g., A–d–g–c′) while the citole's proposed setup was c″–g′–d′–c′ or lower equivalents.^[2]^[9] Historical confusions between the two were resolved by Laurence Wright in 1977, who reclassified the British Museum citole (c. 1280–1330) as distinct from the gittern based on its flat-backed, monoxyle construction and iconographic matches, such as those in the Queen Mary's Psalter, rather than earlier misidentifications as a gittern variant.^[9] Functionally, the gittern supported strumming in secular and courtly contexts, like those documented in Edward III's records (1363), whereas the citole emphasized solo or vocal accompaniment in noble settings.^[2] Surviving artifacts, including the Ott gittern (c. 1450) and the British Museum citole, underscore these morphological distinctions, with debates over Eastern links (e.g., to the koboz) remaining unresolved but not altering the core Western European separations.^[6]^[9]

Cultural and literary significance

References in medieval literature

The gittern appears in medieval literature from the late 13th century onward, initially associated with noble and royal contexts that underscored its status as a refined instrument for entertainment and ceremony. In texts such as Blancheflour et Florence (ca. 1270), the "gitere" is depicted in a harmonious garden setting among nobility, while the Roman de la Rose (1275–1280) features the "quitarre" at a celebratory wedding scene involving high society. Similarly, in Cléomadès (ca. 1275), a minstrel named Pinchonnet plays the "kitaire" for aristocratic audiences, and Dante's Convivio (1304–1307) praises the "chitarra" as a symbol of elegant musicality. These early literary references, spanning French, Occitan, and Italian works, portray the gittern as an emblem of courtly sophistication, often linked to royal inventories and feasts, such as the employment of a "Le Gitarer" at Edward II's 1306 banquet and gittern players in royal service like Dominic in 1315/16.^[2]^[9] By the 14th century, literary mentions broadened to reflect the instrument's adoption across social strata, including urban and tavern settings, while maintaining ties to minstrelsy and courtly love. Works like Juan Ruiz's Libro de Buen Amor (1330s) describe the "guitarra morisca" and "ladina" accompanying dances in both noble and popular gatherings, and Renart le Contrefait (1328–ca. 1342) associates the "guisterne" with tavern songs and nocturnal revelry. In Le Dit des Rues de Paris (ca. 1300), women are noted playing gitterns in city streets, indicating everyday urban use. The instrument's role in minstrelsy is evident in depictions of professional performers at courts and festivals, such as Andrea Destrer serving as gitternarius to Queen Philippa in 1363, and its connection to courtly love appears in romantic narratives like L’intelligenza, where it evokes amorous themes. Eustache Deschamps' poetry implies the gittern in contexts of noble dancing and social commentary on music's pleasures, such as in his ballade describing ensembles with "rotes, gitterns, pipes, and flutes," reinforcing its place in secular entertainment. Predominantly secular in portrayal, the gittern occasionally appears in religious-adjacent texts, such as Konrad of Megenberg's Buch der Natur (ca. 1350), which links string instruments like it to pious reflection, though such instances are rare compared to its dominant role in profane minstrelsy and revels.^[2]^[9]^[20] Post-1400, references to the gittern in literature diminish sharply, paralleling its instrumental decline and shifting it toward nostalgic or relic-like symbolism. By the early 15th century, mentions are sparse, with the last notable noble associations around 1418, as seen in reduced court inventories under figures like Charles V of France. Late 15th-century writers like Johannes Tinctoris describe the "ghiterre" as an antiquated, tortoise-shaped instrument, evoking its faded prominence. This literary fade mirrors broader evidence of the gittern's replacement by the lute, transforming it from a vibrant social icon to a historical curiosity in texts.^[2]^[10]

Specific works and authors

The Cantigas de Santa Maria, a 13th-century collection of over 400 Galician-Portuguese devotional songs attributed to King Alfonso X of Castile and his court, prominently features the gittern—referred to as the guitarra latina—through numerous illuminated depictions accompanying the musical texts. These illustrations portray gittern players in ensemble performances, often alongside fiddles and rebecs, emphasizing the instrument's role in sacred and courtly music-making during the period. Such visual integrations within the literary-musical work underscore the gittern's cultural significance in Iberian traditions, where it symbolized both artistic expression and religious devotion.^[21]^[22] In the poetry of 14th-century French composer Guillaume de Machaut, the gittern (guiterne) appears in descriptions evoking courtly splendor and social entertainment. His narrative poem La Prise d'Alexandrie (c. 1370) references "moraches et guiternes" in scenes of royal banquets at a castle, where musicians perform for nobility, and later in tavern settings with riotous crowds. These passages illustrate the gittern's adaptability, bridging elite patronage—such as that of King John II, whose minstrels included guiterne specialists like Jehan Hautemer—and vernacular amusements. Machaut's allusions, drawn from contemporary royal records, reflect the instrument's prominence in French musical life amid the Hundred Years' War era.^[2] Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales (late 14th century) embeds the gittern (gyterne) in English vernacular literature, often tying it to everyday and ribald contexts that reveal its social ubiquity. In "The Miller's Tale," the squire Absolon plays the gittern outside a window to court Alison, portraying it as an intimate tool for amorous pursuits in bourgeois or tavern environments. "The Cook's Tale" similarly depicts the reveler Perkin dancing to his gittern or ribible, evoking youthful leisure, while "The Pardoner’s Tale" describes gitterns resounding with harps and lutes amid drunken debauchery. In "The Manciple’s Tale," the sun god Phoebus destroys his gittern in jealous rage, using the act to symbolize shattered harmony in mythic narrative. These examples, rooted in Chaucer's observations of London life, position the gittern as a versatile emblem of medieval English recreation and emotion.^[2] The theologian Jean Gerson (1363–1429) employs the gittern metaphorically in his early 15th-century writings to convey moral and spiritual concepts. In a French sermon composed around 1400, Gerson likens the four cardinal virtues—prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance—to "la guiterne de quatre cordes" (the gittern of four strings), suggesting that their balanced tuning produces harmonious Christian living. This analogy, amid Gerson's broader critiques of secular arts, draws on the instrument's presumed four-string configuration to advocate ethical discipline in a turbulent post-Schism era.^[23] Literary references to the gittern are complemented by documentary evidence from inventories spanning 1270–1500, which record its ownership among European elites and attest to its material culture. Charles V of France's 1373 inventory, for example, itemizes multiple luxurious guiternes, including one with a carved lion's head pegbox and another featuring an ivory angelot inlay, indicating royal investment in customized instruments. Similarly, the 1417–18 inventory of Arnold de Halle lists three gitterns among vielles and lutes, while René d'Anjou's 1471 catalog notes two plain wooden guiternes, reflecting the instrument's enduring presence from French courts to princely collections across the later Middle Ages. These records, preserved in archival accounts, provide tangible proof of the gittern's status as a valued possession beyond poetic imagination.^[2]