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Global Compact for Migration

The Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM) is a non-binding intergovernmental framework adopted by the United Nations in December 2018 to guide international cooperation on migration management across its economic, social, and developmental dimensions.^[1] The agreement, finalized after consultations initiated in 2017 following the New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants, outlines 23 objectives focused on minimizing the adverse drivers of migration, reducing vulnerabilities for migrants, sharing responsibility among states, and harnessing migration's potential contributions to sustainable development while respecting national sovereignty.^[1] It was endorsed by 152 UN member states in a General Assembly vote on 19 December 2018, with five countries—Czech Republic, Hungary, Israel, Poland, and Slovakia—voting against, amid abstentions and prior withdrawals by others including the United States, Australia, and Austria.^[2] Although explicitly non-legally binding and reaffirming states' sovereign rights over borders, the GCM has faced significant controversy, with critics arguing it establishes norms that could erode national control over immigration policies and incentivize irregular migration flows despite lacking enforcement mechanisms.^[1] The United States withdrew from negotiations in December 2017, stating that migration should be addressed through bilateral rather than multilateral UN frameworks to preserve sovereignty.^[3] Similarly, Hungary cited threats to its security interests in opposing the compact, reflecting broader concerns among withdrawing nations about potential indirect pressures on domestic migration enforcement.^[4] Proponents highlight its role in promoting data-driven policies and human rights protections, though empirical assessments of its implementation remain limited, with varying national commitments shaping outcomes.^[1]

Origins and Negotiation

Precursors and Motivations

In 2015, Europe experienced a surge in irregular migration, with over 1 million refugees and migrants arriving via sea and land routes, primarily from Syria, Afghanistan, and Iraq, overwhelming border systems and asylum processing capacities.^[5] This crisis exposed deficiencies in coordinated border management, as evidenced by the inability of frontline states like Greece and Italy to handle the influx, leading to makeshift camps and secondary movements across the Schengen Area.^[6] The high human cost included approximately 3,771 deaths or disappearances during Mediterranean crossings that year, largely due to overcrowded, unseaworthy vessels operated by smuggling networks.^[7] These events underscored the perils of unmanaged irregular flows, including exploitation by traffickers who profited from desperate departures amid conflicts and economic collapse in origin countries. The crisis catalyzed broader UN efforts to address migration governance, building on the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted in September 2015, which includes Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 10.7 calling for orderly, safe, regular, and responsible migration through planned policies.^[8] This target reflected a recognition of migration's cross-cutting role in development but emphasized facilitation over restriction, despite empirical evidence of irregular migration's fiscal burdens on receiving states, such as immediate strains on welfare systems exceeding billions in costs for housing and integration in countries like Germany and Sweden.^[9] Motivations centered on mitigating irregular migration's tangible harms—smuggling revenues estimated in the billions and persistent fatalities—while promoting structured pathways, though UN framing often highlighted potential demographic and economic benefits without robust cross-national data substantiating net gains for low-skilled inflows in aging societies. A pivotal precursor was the New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants, adopted unanimously by UN member states on September 19, 2016, which committed to launching intergovernmental negotiations for a global compact on migration to enhance cooperation on safe and orderly flows.^[10] The Declaration responded directly to the 2015-2016 pressures by pledging actions against smuggling and root causes like poverty and conflict, yet it embedded an aspirational view of migration as a driver of sustainable development, aligning with SDG imperatives despite critiques that such optimism overlooks causal links between open policies and incentivized irregular attempts.^[11] This set the stage for the Compact's negotiation, prioritizing multilateral frameworks amid unilateral border tightenings by European states.

Negotiation Timeline and Key Events

The negotiation process for the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration began with the adoption of the New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants by the United Nations General Assembly on September 19, 2016, which unanimously committed 193 member states to develop an intergovernmental framework addressing the root causes, challenges, and opportunities of international migration.^[10] This declaration initiated a structured process, including consultations with member states, international organizations, civil society, and migrants themselves, to inform the compact's drafting while prioritizing state-led outcomes over expansive non-state influences.^[12] Between April and November 2017, the United Nations facilitated six informal thematic consultation sessions in Geneva, New York City, and Vienna, focusing on elements such as labor mobility, border management, smuggling, and data collection to identify best practices and gaps in migration governance.^[13] These sessions incorporated inputs from over 300 stakeholders, including civil society representatives advocating for human rights-centered approaches, but were constrained by member states' insistence on sovereignty-preserving measures amid rising domestic pressures on migration control in Europe and elsewhere.^[14] A subsequent stocktaking phase from December 2017 to January 2018 synthesized these discussions into a "zero draft" of the compact, highlighting tensions between cooperative ideals and national policy autonomy.^[15] On December 3, 2017, the United States withdrew from the negotiations, arguing that continued participation would undermine national sovereignty and conflict with domestic immigration laws prioritizing strict enforcement over multilateral commitments.^[3] This exit, under the Trump administration, amplified skepticism among other states regarding potential encroachments on border control and amplified calls for explicit non-binding language to avert similar pullouts.^[16] Intergovernmental negotiations intensified from February to July 2018, involving multiple rounds where states debated and refined provisions, ultimately conceding to the compact's voluntary and non-legally binding status on July 13, 2018, as a direct response to sovereignty disputes and to secure broader participation despite civil society's push for stronger enforcement mechanisms.^[17] This finalization reflected causal pressures from major actors like the U.S. withdrawal, which shifted dynamics toward emphasizing cooperative flexibility over obligatory norms, ensuring the document's adoption without legal enforceability.^[18]

Core Provisions

Guiding Principles

The Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM) is grounded in ten cross-cutting and interdependent guiding principles, which frame its approach to international cooperation on migration.^[19] These principles include: people-centred (promoting migrant well-being and dignity); international cooperation (fostering multilateral partnerships); national sovereignty (affirming states' primary responsibility for migration policy); rule of law and due process (upholding legal frameworks for migration management); sustainable development (linking migration to broader development goals); human rights (reaffirming obligations under international law); gender-responsive (addressing gender-specific vulnerabilities); child-sensitive (protecting minors); whole-of-government and whole-of-society (involving all stakeholders); and non-discriminatory and leaving no one behind (combating racism and ensuring inclusion).^[20] The Compact explicitly states it is non-legally binding, serving as a framework that reaffirms existing international commitments without creating new obligations or infringing on state sovereignty.^[21] These principles emphasize safe, orderly, and regular migration pathways while distinguishing economic and other non-refugee movements from those protected under the 1951 Refugee Convention and its protocol, which are addressed separately in the Global Compact on Refugees.^[19] By design, the principles prioritize voluntary, managed flows over forced displacement, aiming to reduce irregular migration through cooperation rather than establishing uniform standards.^[14] Their abstract formulation—such as broad calls for "human rights" without specifying enforcement mechanisms—allows for subjective interpretation, enabling states to adapt them to domestic contexts without mandatory compliance.^[22] Critics have noted the principles' vagueness as both a strength for achieving consensus among 152 adopting states in 2018 and a limitation, as it permits inconsistent national applications without verifiable benchmarks or penalties for non-adherence.^[23] For instance, reaffirmations of sovereignty coexist with aspirational human rights language, potentially leading to selective implementation where states prioritize border control over expansive interpretations of migrant protections.^[24] This flexibility reflects causal realities of divergent national interests, where enforceable standards might have derailed negotiations, but it also risks diluting the Compact's effectiveness absent robust monitoring.^[22]

Objectives and Actionable Commitments

The Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration outlines 23 objectives intended to guide state actions in managing international migration through cooperative, non-legally binding measures. These objectives emphasize practical steps such as improving data collection for evidence-based policies, combating smuggling networks, facilitating integration via labor market access, and establishing return and reintegration mechanisms, while addressing root causes like economic drivers of displacement. Adopted on December 10, 2018, the framework requires states to develop voluntary national action plans, but lacks enforcement mechanisms or penalties for non-compliance, relying instead on periodic reviews and international partnerships to track progress.^[21]^[19] Objective 1 prioritizes collecting and utilizing disaggregated data on migration flows, demographics, and impacts to inform policies, with commitments to enhance national capacities for standardized data systems and global comparability, enabling empirical assessment of migration trends and outcomes.^[21] Objective 2 targets minimizing adverse drivers of forced migration, such as poverty, conflict, and climate effects, through investments in sustainable development and early warning systems, though causal links to reduced outflows remain dependent on verifiable implementation data absent in the compact's voluntary structure.^[21] Objectives 5 and 6 focus on enhancing regular migration pathways and fair recruitment, including labor mobility agreements, ethical agency regulation, and enforcement of decent work standards to protect rights and reduce irregular flows, with data requirements for monitoring exploitation risks.^[21] On smuggling and enforcement, Objective 9 commits to transnational cooperation against smuggling networks via prosecution, intelligence sharing, and protection of smuggled individuals, while Objective 23 strengthens global partnerships for orderly migration, including best-practice exchanges and alignment with development goals, but without binding enforcement tools, limiting causal efficacy to state willingness.^[21] Integration policies under Objective 16 empower migrants through social cohesion programs, labor inclusion, and community initiatives, supported by Objective 13's emphasis on labor rights by limiting detention to last-resort measures and promoting alternatives that preserve work opportunities.^[21] Return mechanisms in Objective 21 facilitate dignified readmissions and reintegration via bilateral agreements, individual assessments, and support for sustainable livelihoods in origin countries, tied to data on returnee outcomes for evaluation.^[21] The compact's actionable commitments, such as those for tracking progress through indicators and reporting, hinge on voluntary national plans without sanctions, potentially undermining empirical verifiability as states may underreport or selectively implement, with reviews occurring every four years via the International Migration Review Forum starting in 2022.^[21]^[23] This structure preserves sovereignty but constrains causal impact on migration management, as evidenced by uneven adoption rates and persistent irregular flows post-adoption.^[25]

Adoption and State Participation

Intergovernmental Conference and Voting

The Intergovernmental Conference to Adopt the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration convened in Marrakech, Morocco, on December 10–11, 2018, where representatives from 164 UN member states adopted the document by acclamation.^[26] UN Secretary-General António Guterres addressed the gathering, emphasizing the need for international cooperation to manage irregular migration flows, noting that over 60,000 migrants had died en route since 2000, and framing the compact as a non-binding framework to address shared challenges without infringing on national sovereignty.^[27] The compact's formal endorsement occurred during a United Nations General Assembly plenary session on December 19, 2018, via recorded vote on resolution A/RES/73/195, resulting in 152 states in favor, 5 against (Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy, Poland, and United States), and 12 abstentions (including Austria, Australia, Bulgaria, Chile, Italy initially but shifted, Dominican Republic, Israel, Libya, Romania, Singapore, and Switzerland).^[28] ^[29] ^[30] This vote highlighted geopolitical divisions on migration governance, with adopting states viewing the process as a milestone in multilateral diplomacy despite the document's explicitly non-legally binding status.^[28] ^[27] The Marrakech adoption carried symbolic weight as the first intergovernmentally negotiated global agreement on migration, yet its non-binding nature prompted immediate political contention within several endorsing countries, where domestic critics challenged its alignment with national priorities even prior to UNGA confirmation.^[30] ^[26] Guterres reiterated in post-adoption remarks that the compact imposed no obligations, serving instead as a voluntary roadmap amid escalating global mobility pressures.^[27]

Signatories, Abstentions, and Withdrawals

The Global Compact for Migration was initially endorsed by 164 UN member states at the Marrakech intergovernmental conference on December 10, 2018, though several had announced prior non-participation. In the UN General Assembly's formal endorsement vote on December 19, 2018 (resolution A/RES/73/195), 152 states voted in favor, 5 against, and 12 abstained, reflecting reservations among nations prioritizing national sovereignty in migration matters.^[28]^[31] The five states opposing the resolution were the Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy, Poland, and the United States.^[28] These included right-leaning governments focused on stringent border controls, such as Hungary under Prime Minister Viktor Orbán, Poland under the Law and Justice party, Italy under the Five Star Movement-Lega coalition led by Matteo Salvini, and the Czech Republic under Andrej Babiš's ANO party, which emphasized domestic migration policy autonomy over multilateral commitments.^[32] The United States had withdrawn from negotiations on December 3, 2017, under the Trump administration, arguing the compact would undermine sovereignty and promote unregulated migration. Abstentions came from Australia, Austria, Bulgaria, Chile, Dominican Republic, Israel, Liberia, Libya, Romania, Singapore, Slovakia, and Switzerland.^[28] This group featured administrations skeptical of global frameworks encroaching on national authority, including Australia under Prime Minister Scott Morrison, which cited risks to its border protection regime; Austria under Chancellor Sebastian Kurz's ÖVP-FPÖ coalition, which withdrew support in October 2018 over blurred distinctions between legal and illegal migration; and Slovakia under a center-right government.^[33]^[34] Bulgaria reversed course in early December 2018, opting to abstain after initial consideration of endorsement, amid concerns from its GERB-led government about potential legal obligations.^[35] Switzerland, a co-facilitator of negotiations, also abstained following a November 2018 parliamentary vote rejecting endorsement.^[25] Non-endorsement patterns correlated strongly with governments across Europe and beyond that favored unilateral border security measures, often under conservative or populist leadership, over collective UN approaches—evident in the clustering of Eastern and Central European states like Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Bulgaria, alongside Western examples like Austria and Australia. No formal post-adoption withdrawals occurred, as the non-binding compact lacks ratification mechanisms, though several non-endorsers maintained distance in subsequent implementation phases.^[36]

Implementation Framework

Institutional Roles and Mechanisms

The International Organization for Migration (IOM) coordinates the United Nations Network on Migration, a system-wide mechanism established by the UN Secretary-General in 2018 to support the Compact's implementation through coherent UN agency collaboration and state assistance.^[37] The Network, chaired by the IOM Director General, mobilizes resources for capacity-building, knowledge sharing, and policy advice tailored to member states' needs, without imposing binding obligations.^[38] This structure emphasizes voluntary multi-stakeholder engagement, including forums for input from civil society, migrants, and private sector actors, to foster partnerships under the Compact's 23 objectives. Implementation relies on national-level mechanisms, with states encouraged to designate focal points for coordination and to develop voluntary pledges or action plans aligned with Compact commitments. These pledges, submitted through the IOM-led platform, focus on areas like data collection and border management tools but carry no enforcement or funding requirements, depending instead on domestic political will and bilateral cooperation. The absence of centralized coercive authority underscores the framework's decentralized nature, where IOM provides technical tools—such as the Migration Governance Indicators for self-assessment—yet ultimate accountability rests with individual governments.^[39] This reliance on national focal points and voluntary contributions has inherent limitations in ensuring uniform adherence, as the Network lacks punitive measures or mandatory reporting beyond periodic voluntary updates, potentially diffusing responsibility across fragmented state and UN entities.^[40] Funding for initiatives, channeled through voluntary mechanisms like the Migration Multi-Partner Trust Fund, further highlights the non-mandatory character, with contributions totaling approximately $50 million by 2023 but uneven distribution tied to donor priorities rather than comprehensive oversight.^[41]

Review Processes and Reporting

The International Migration Review Forum (IMRF) serves as the primary global mechanism for assessing implementation of the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration, convening every four years in a State-led format with multi-stakeholder input to evaluate progress across local, national, regional, and global scales.^[42] The inaugural IMRF occurred from May 17 to 20, 2022, at United Nations Headquarters in New York, culminating in an intergovernmental Progress Declaration that outlined advancements and commitments.^[42] Subsequent forums are scheduled quadrennially, with regional reviews—initiated in 2020 and continuing through processes like the 2021 Africa Regional Review—providing preparatory inputs by facilitating State-led discussions on Compact objectives within regional contexts.^[43]^[44] States report progress voluntarily through national implementation plans and reviews, supported by a framework of indicators aligned with the Compact's 23 objectives, designed to enable consistent, inclusive tracking while minimizing reporting burdens and integrating with Sustainable Development Goal metrics.^[45]^[44] These indicators emphasize evidence-based policymaking but remain non-mandatory, allowing flexibility in how countries demonstrate adherence to commitments such as data collection on migration flows or minimization of migrant vulnerabilities.^[45] The 2024 United Nations Secretary-General's report on Compact implementation highlighted persistent gaps, including inconsistent data across regions that impedes comprehensive evaluation, and the absence of binding targets or enforcement mechanisms, which limits accountability given the Compact's non-binding status.^[46] It recommended enhanced cooperation and standardized foresight tools to address these deficiencies, underscoring how voluntary submissions often result in uneven progress measurement without coercive follow-through.^[46]

Reception and Stakeholder Positions

Supporters' Perspectives

Supporters of the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM), including the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), view it as a non-legally binding cooperative framework that enhances international coordination on migration without infringing on state sovereignty.^[19] Adopted by 152 UN member states on December 10, 2018, at the Intergovernmental Conference in Marrakech, the Compact is praised for upholding states' rights to control borders and formulate national policies while promoting shared responsibility to address migration's root causes and risks.^[21] IOM emphasizes that its objectives, such as minimizing drivers of irregular migration and improving pathways for regular migration, enable data-driven governance to reduce vulnerabilities without imposing obligations.^[19] However, empirical assessments through 2024 indicate persistent high migrant fatalities—over 8,000 recorded deaths and disappearances in 2023 alone—suggesting that claimed reductions via safe pathways have not yet materialized at scale despite implementation efforts.^[47] From a humanitarian standpoint, advocates argue the GCM fosters cooperation to combat smuggling networks and establish legal channels, thereby decreasing deaths on perilous routes like the Mediterranean, where irregular crossings have historically led to thousands of annual fatalities.^[48] UNHCR and IOM highlight commitments under Objective 5 to enhance availability and flexibility of pathways, such as humanitarian visas and temporary protections, as mechanisms to divert migrants from hazardous irregular flows.^[49] European Union states like France, which endorsed the Compact, point to its role in bolstering search-and-rescue operations and anti-trafficking measures, aligning with regional pledges for orderly entry and integration support.^[48] Yet, UN Secretary-General reports note that existing safe pathways remain insufficient to match migration pressures, with irregular routes persisting and deaths reaching record levels post-adoption, underscoring implementation gaps rather than inherent flaws in the framework.^[49]^[47] Economically, proponents stress the GCM's focus on harnessing migrants' contributions, particularly through Objective 14, which aims to maximize remittances and diaspora investments for sustainable development in origin countries.^[50] Remittances to low- and middle-income countries totaled $656 billion in 2023, exceeding foreign direct investment and comprising up to 60% of household income in some recipient families, with supporters crediting Compact-inspired policies for facilitating portable benefits and financial inclusion.^[51] IOM advocates argue that by promoting skills matching and labor mobility under Objective 18, the framework enables host economies to benefit from migrant productivity while channeling funds back to development, as seen in partnerships reducing transfer costs from an average 6.4% in 2023.^[19]^[51] Nonetheless, causal links between GCM commitments and remittance growth remain indirect, as global flows have risen steadily pre- and post-2018 due to broader factors like wage differentials, with limited evidence of Compact-specific policy shifts driving measurable increments.^[51] In response to sovereignty concerns, supporters maintain the Compact's voluntary nature allows tailored national implementation, countering claims of overreach by reaffirming states' primacy in migration decisions.^[52] UN documentation underscores that it builds on existing international law without creating new enforcement mechanisms, enabling countries like those in the EU to align it with domestic integration programs focused on employment and education for migrants.^[21] This flexibility is cited as key to fostering trust among adopting states for collaborative data-sharing and capacity-building, though progress reviews through 2025 reveal uneven uptake, with only modest advancements in joint initiatives against smuggling.^[49]

Opponents' Perspectives

The United States, under the Trump administration, ended participation in the Global Compact for Migration process on December 3, 2017, asserting that its provisions were inconsistent with U.S. immigration policy and would undermine the sovereign right of states to control borders and determine migration levels.^[3] Similarly, Hungary announced its withdrawal in July 2018, with Prime Minister Viktor Orbán describing the Compact as a "threat to the world" and rejecting the notion that migration constitutes a basic human right, arguing it incentivizes uncontrolled inflows that challenge national identity and security.^[53]^[54] Opponents contend that the Compact normalizes elevated levels of irregular migration by conflating economic migrants with refugees and promoting policies that weaken deterrence mechanisms, such as limiting detention to a "last resort" and emphasizing alternatives to criminalizing irregular entry, which they argue encourages more unauthorized crossings without addressing root causes effectively.^[55] This perspective links high migration volumes to persistent cultural assimilation challenges, as rapid demographic shifts strain social cohesion and integration capacities in receiving societies, a view echoed by conservative analysts who highlight failures in maintaining national cultural continuity amid unchecked inflows.^[56] Critics further express concern over the Compact's "whole-of-society" approach, which advocates multi-stakeholder partnerships involving non-governmental organizations (NGOs), diasporas, and civil society, potentially exerting implicit pressure on governments through advocacy groups that favor expansive migration pathways and open-border policies, thereby diluting state-centric control over migration governance.^[57] Empirical data post-adoption in 2018 shows no discernible reduction in irregular migration flows to Europe; for instance, Frontex detected a 60% increase in irregular border crossings in 2021 compared to 2020, reaching 199,900, with persistent high volumes along key routes indicating the Compact has not curbed incentives for risky journeys.^[58] Moreover, migrant deaths and disappearances in the Mediterranean reached a record 3,041 in 2023, the deadliest year since tracking began in 2014, underscoring ongoing perils and the absence of effective deterrence against irregular attempts.^[59]

Criticisms and Controversies

Sovereignty and Border Control Issues

Critics of the Global Compact for Migration (GCM) have alleged that its provisions indirectly erode national sovereignty over border control by promoting international norms that constrain domestic enforcement mechanisms, such as restrictions on detention and requirements for orderly returns.^[55] Specifically, Objective 13 advocates using immigration detention only as a last resort, opposing "arbitrary" detention and favoring alternatives like community-based care, which opponents argue limits states' ability to detain irregular migrants effectively during border enforcement, potentially conflicting with national security laws.^[60] Similarly, Objective 21 emphasizes "safe and dignified" returns and reintegration, while Objective 5 promotes regular migration pathways including family reunification, raising concerns that these could pressure states to adopt more permissive policies on removals and family entries, overriding stricter domestic criteria.^[61]^[62] Despite these allegations, the GCM explicitly reaffirms states' sovereign rights to control borders and formulate migration policies, stating it is a non-legally binding framework that respects jurisdictional prerogatives.^[19]^[63] Empirical evidence from abstaining states underscores this: Hungary, which abstained in the 2018 UN vote and rejected the compact, maintained and expanded strict border measures, including a 2015 fence along its Serbian border reinforced with patrols and pushbacks, resulting in a 99% drop in crossings by 2016 without GCM influence.^[32] Poland and the Czech Republic, also abstainers, implemented tighter controls post-2018, such as Poland's 2021 pushback law authorizing border guards to deny entry to irregular migrants from Belarus, contrasting with signatory states facing EU-level harmonization pressures that echo GCM norms.^[64] The non-binding status mitigates direct sovereignty threats, but soft power mechanisms—such as biennial review forums and international reporting—can exert normative influence, fostering reputational costs for non-compliant states and aligning policies toward compact objectives through multilateral cooperation.^[23] For instance, within the European Union, signatory members have encountered internal directives promoting alternatives to detention akin to Objective 13, while abstainers like Italy under subsequent governments prioritized bilateral deals for returns over GCM frameworks, preserving unilateral control.^[22] This dynamic highlights causal realism in multilateralism: while lacking enforceability, repeated endorsement of compact principles can embed them in domestic discourse, particularly in institutions prone to supranational alignment, though abstaining states demonstrate that sovereign border assertions remain viable without participation.^[63]

Cultural and Economic Integration Challenges

Objective 15 of the Global Compact for Migration commits signatories to providing migrants, irrespective of status, with access to basic services such as education, health care, and housing to facilitate their integration into host societies.^[21] This approach emphasizes non-discriminatory service provision over stringent assimilation requirements, yet empirical data from European host countries reveal persistent failures in achieving cohesive integration, often resulting in the formation of parallel societies. In Sweden, for instance, police-identified "vulnerable areas" characterized by high concentrations of non-Western migrants exhibit limited interaction with broader society, with residents frequently adhering to imported cultural norms that conflict with host legal and social frameworks, as documented in official assessments of over 50 such zones by 2023.^[65] These parallel structures correlate with elevated crime rates in high-migration locales, challenging claims of seamless integration. A study of large-scale refugee inflows in Germany found no immediate crime spike upon arrival but a detectable increase in overall rates one year later, attributable to demographic and socioeconomic factors among new arrivals.^[65] Similarly, analyses across EU countries differentiate high-immigration states, where robbery and burglary rates are markedly higher compared to low-immigration peers, even after controlling for economic variables.^[66] Such patterns underscore causal links between rapid, unselective inflows and social cohesion erosion, as diversity in the short term diminishes trust and community bonds, per longitudinal surveys in the UK and continental Europe.^[67] Economically, the Compact's integration push overlooks fiscal strains on host nations, where low-skilled migrants from non-OECD origins impose net costs exceeding contributions. Aggregate OECD data from 1995–2019 indicate that immigration heightens ethnic fractionalization, which correlates with expanded welfare expenditures and reduced per-capita fiscal surpluses in receiving countries.^[68] Remittances, totaling $529 billion to developing countries in 2018, primarily benefit origin economies by funding consumption and poverty alleviation there, but represent capital outflows from hosts that limit domestic reinvestment and GDP multipliers.^[69] Temporary or low-wage migrants prioritize such transfers over host-country savings or entrepreneurship, yielding minimal long-term productivity gains while straining public services without commensurate tax offsets.^[70] The underemphasis on mandatory assimilation—such as language proficiency and civic value alignment—fosters multiculturalism policies critiqued for normalizing cultural silos over unified national identity. Empirical comparisons favor assimilation models, where enforced adaptation yields higher second-generation socioeconomic outcomes and reduced segregation compared to permissive multiculturalism, which sustains attitudinal divides in Europe.^[71] This realism highlights how Objective 15's service-focused mandates, absent robust cultural convergence incentives, exacerbate rather than mitigate integration barriers, as evidenced by persistent gaps in employment and social participation among non-assimilated cohorts.^[72]

Alleged Promotion of Irregular Migration

Critics of the Global Compact for Migration (GCM) have argued that its provisions, particularly under Objective 5, which seeks to "enhance availability and flexibility of pathways for regular migration," signal an undue tolerance for irregular entries by prioritizing expanded legal channels without robust disincentives for unauthorized crossings.^[73] Hungarian officials, who opposed the Compact's adoption, asserted that it effectively encourages irregular migration by framing economic migrants alongside refugees and discouraging policies perceived as "discriminatory" toward irregular entrants, such as stringent border enforcement, thereby eroding deterrence.^[54]^[74] Objective 11's emphasis on "integrated, secure and coordinated management of borders" while respecting human rights and minimizing differential treatment has been cited by opponents as diluting national capacities to prioritize security over humanitarian imperatives in practice.^[73] Post-adoption trends in irregular migration flows have been invoked as circumstantial evidence of such incentives. Frontex data indicate that detections of irregular border crossings into the European Union increased from 116,845 in 2018 to 141,719 in 2019, fluctuating before surging to 330,457 in 2022 and approximately 380,000 in 2023, with Mediterranean routes accounting for significant portions amid persistent smuggling networks.^[75] These rises occurred despite the Compact's stated aim to reduce irregular migration through smuggling disruptions (Objective 9), leading detractors to claim that the document's non-binding nature and focus on cooperative border management foster expectations of eventual leniency rather than rejection.^[73] A 2024 United Nations Secretary-General's report on GCM implementation reiterated calls to "enhance and diversify safe, regular migration pathways" as a means to curb hazardous irregular routes, coinciding with a record 8,938 documented migrant deaths worldwide that year, predominantly on irregular paths.^[49]^[76] Opponents, including sovereignty-focused governments, view this persistence in advocating pathways—without mandatory enforcement quotas or penalties—as perpetuating a cycle where aspirant migrants weigh high risks against perceived policy softening, absent causal enforcement linkages to curb attempts.^[47] Such critiques highlight the Compact's reliance on voluntary state actions, which lack verifiable deterrents, potentially amplifying irregular incentives in regions with weak bilateral controls.^[77]

Empirical Impact and Outcomes

Measured Effects on Migration Flows

Post-adoption of the Global Compact for Migration in December 2018, global irregular migration flows showed no measurable decline, with the International Organization for Migration (IOM) documenting persistent high volumes and escalating risks. IOM's Missing Migrants Project recorded 8,565 migrant deaths and disappearances in 2023, the deadliest year on record since tracking began in 2014, surpassing previous highs and indicating sustained dangerous irregular routes despite the Compact's objectives for safe and orderly migration.^[78] By 2024, fatalities reached even higher levels, with over 72,000 total deaths documented since 2014, primarily from drowning, violence, and vehicle accidents on land and sea routes.^[79]^[76] Efforts to expand legal pathways, as encouraged by the Compact's Objective 5, yielded limited global impact relative to irregular dominance. Initiatives such as the U.S.-Canada Safe Mobility Offices in Latin American countries provided some humanitarian parole and refugee processing options post-2022, admitting thousands via expanded pathways, but these remained dwarfed by irregular crossings, with smuggling networks continuing to facilitate millions annually.^[49]^[80] In Europe, EU member states implementing Compact-aligned policies saw irregular Mediterranean arrivals fluctuate but average over 150,000 annually from 2019-2023, with no attributable reduction tied to legal expansions.^[81] Countries abstaining from the Compact, such as Hungary, correlated with sustained low irregular inflows through pre-existing border fortifications and enforcement. Hungary intercepted over 1.1 million irregular entrants from 2015-2025 via its southern fence and pushback policies, maintaining asylum applications below 5,000 annually post-2018, in contrast to broader EU trends.^[82]^[83] Total third-country nationals entering Hungary rose modestly to 403,112 by 2023, primarily via regulated labor visas rather than irregular means.^[84] These patterns underscore that physical border measures, independent of Compact participation, were associated with reduced unauthorized flows in select cases.^[85]

Evaluations of Effectiveness Up to 2025

The first International Migration Review Forum (IMRF) in May 2022 resulted in over 150 voluntary pledges from states, UN entities, and local actors to advance Global Compact for Migration (GCM) objectives, including commitments to regularization programs, data collection, and alternatives to child detention.^[86] However, uptake remained slow, with persistent gaps in funding, regular pathways, and addressing discrimination, as evidenced by limited implementation of diaspora engagement and insufficient scaling of bilateral labor agreements.^[86] The United Nations Secretary-General's 2024 report on GCM implementation highlighted uneven regional progress, with some states integrating migration into national development plans (e.g., 21% of 2023 Voluntary National Reviews referencing the GCM, up from 9% in 2022) and champion initiatives expanding to 35 countries for peer learning.^[49] Yet, causal failures persisted in core goals, such as minimizing vulnerabilities: safe and regular pathways inadequately matched migration trends, leading migrants to irregular routes, while only 66% of submitted National Adaptation Plans included concrete human mobility provisions despite broader references to climate displacement.^[49] Challenges included 2023 marking the deadliest year for migrants in a decade (~8,500 deaths or disappearances), rising securitization exacerbating rights violations, and financing barriers hindering local-level action in low- and middle-income countries.^[49] Regional reviews in early 2025, such as those in Asia-Pacific (February) and Latin America and the Caribbean (March), reaffirmed commitments but underscored ongoing implementation disparities and "lost momentum" in scaling rights-based governance post-COVID-19, with previews linking to the 2026 IMRF indicating no substantial reversal in displacement drivers.^[87]^[88] The GCM's non-binding framework has thus produced primarily symbolic advancements—guiding policy discourse without enforceable mechanisms—yielding limited substantive reductions in vulnerabilities and imposing administrative costs on high-exposure nations that outweigh measurable benefits in orderly migration management.^[23]^[24]

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There are several direct references to migration in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (2030 Agenda), including Target 10.7 which calls for countries ...
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[PDF] A/RES/71/1: New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants
Sep 19, 2016 · We commit to launching, in 2016, a process of intergovernmental negotiations leading to the adoption of a global compact for safe, orderly and ...
[11]
Data and research to inform global policy: the global compact for ...
Mar 4, 2020 · The Global Compact for the Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM) illustrates the elevation of human migration discourse within the United ...
[12]
New York Declaration - Refugees and Migrants
Achieve a more equitable sharing of the burden and responsibility for hosting and supporting the world's refugees by adopting a global compact on refugees in ...
[13]
Thematic sessions | Refugees and Migrants - the United Nations
A series of six informal thematic sessions on facilitating safe, orderly and regular migration will be held between April 2017 and November 2017.
[14]
Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM)
The Global Compact is grounded in international human rights law and reaffirms States' commitment to respecting, protecting, and fulfilling all human rights ...
[15]
GCM Development process - Migration Data Portal
Jun 9, 2020 · The elaboration of the Global Compact took place through three phases (i.e., consultation phase, stocktaking phase, and negotiation phase).Definition · Recent developments · Data sources · Data strengths & limitations
[16]
Donald Trump pulls US out of UN global compact on migration
Dec 3, 2017 · The Trump administration has pulled out of the United Nations' ambitious plans to create a more humane global strategy on migration.Missing: controversies | Show results with:controversies
[17]
PRESS RELEASE: UNITED NATIONS FINALIZES FIRST EVER ...
Jul 13, 2018 · United Nations, New York, 13 July 2018 – The text of the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration, was finalized today.
[18]
'Historic moment' for people on the move, as UN agrees first-ever ...
Jul 13, 2018 · United Nations Member States have agreed an all-encompassing Global Compact to better manage international migration, address its challenges, strengthen ...
[19]
Global compact for safe, orderly and regular migration
The Global Compact for Migration is the first inter-governmental agreement covering international migration in a holistic and comprehensive manner.
[20]
[PDF] MIGRATION GOVERNANCE INDICATORS DATA AND THE ...
The Global Compact for Migration is based on 10 guiding principles: (a) being people-centred,. (b) international cooperation, (c) national sovereignty, (d) rule ...
[21]
[PDF] GLOBAL COMPACT FOR SAFE, ORDERLY AND REGULAR ...
Human rights: The Global Compact is based on international human rights law and upholds the principles of non-regression and non-discrimination. By implementing ...
[22]
The alleged tension between the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly ...
May 27, 2020 · 2.2 The main criticism against the Global Compact for Migration: Preserving states sovereignty at all costs? There are a number of key aspects ...
[23]
Non-binding and therefore irrelevant? The Global Compact for ...
Nov 27, 2020 · This article analyzes the GCM's legal form, mechanisms of effectiveness, and legitimacy and finds that while the legal form of the GCM is ...
[24]
The politics of soft law: progress and pitfall of the global compact for ...
Sep 28, 2023 · The Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM) epitomizes the potential and the limits of soft law in promoting global migration governance.
[25]
The Global Compact for Migration Six Years On: Time for a Shake-up?
Oct 25, 2024 · The GCM was adopted by Member States at the “Marrakech Conference” on 10-11 December 2018, and then endorsed by the General Assembly the ...
[26]
The United Nations Global Compact for Migration - Commons Library
Aug 16, 2019 · The Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration was formally adopted by 164 Member States of the United Nations, including the UK ...Background · Opposition To The Compact · Adoption Of The Compact
[27]
Remarks at Intergovernmental Conference to adopt the Global ...
Dec 10, 2018 · The Compact will allow the United Nations to impose migration policies on Member States, infringing on their sovereignty. False.
[28]
General Assembly Endorses First-Ever Global Compact on ...
Dec 19, 2018 · The Global Compact is a milestone in the international discussion on how to reduce irregular migration and make regular migration more safe and ...
[29]
UNGA Votes to Endorse Marrakech Compact on Migration
Dec 21, 2018 · In a vote, 152 Member States supported the UNGA resolution on endorsing the Compact, while five countries opposed (Czech Republic, Hungary, ...
[30]
General Assembly officially adopts roadmap for migrants to improve ...
Dec 19, 2018 · The United Nations General Assembly officially endorsed the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration on Wednesday.
[31]
163 states just approved the Global Compact for Migration. Now what?
Dec 11, 2018 · On Monday 163 countries approved the new Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM) – the first comprehensive international agreement to ...
[32]
Nine EU members stay away from UN migration pact | Euractiv
the United States, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Poland and Israel. Among the twelve abstaining countries are EU ...
[33]
Austria to shun global migration pact, fearing creep in human rights
Oct 31, 2018 · Austria will follow the United States and Hungary in backing out of a United Nations migration pact over concerns it will blur the line ...
[34]
Marrakesh UN forum adopts migration pact despite withdrawals
Billed as the first international document on managing migration, it lays out 23 objectives to open up legal migration and discourage illegal border crossings, ...
[35]
Bulgaria becomes latest EU state to shun U.N. migration pact | Reuters
Nov 12, 2018 · "The position of the Bulgarian government will be not to join the United Nations' global pact on migration," the deputy leader of the main ...
[36]
The Global Compact on Migration (GCM) and U.S. Policy
Sep 1, 2020 · In December 2017, the Trump Administration withdrew the United States from the GCM negotiations. (In November 2018, it also withdrew U.S. ...Missing: controversies | Show results with:controversies
[37]
About Us - United Nations Network on Migration
Provide leadership to mobilize coordinated and collaborative action on migration by the UN ... The Network Coordinator is IOM. The Director General of IOM or his/ ...
[38]
IOM Issue Briefs: Global Compact for MIgration
In its role as Coordinator of the UN Network on Migration, IOM is well-placed to guide the UN system in supporting governments to strengthen international ...
[39]
Migration Governance Indicators
Migration Governance Indicators Success Stories 2024 · Data Insights into the Implementation of the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration.
[40]
[PDF] The role of inter-State consultation mechanisms on migration in the ...
In view of the adoption of the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration, IOM has reviewed the role of ISCMs in the Global Compact with the aim of ...
[41]
[PDF] The Migration Compact Fund
The Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM) is a landmark recognition that migration is best governed through international cooperation ...
[42]
International Migration Review Forum - EN - the United Nations
The first International Migration Review Forum (IMRF) will take place at the United Nations Headquarters in New York on 17-20 May 2022.
[43]
Regional Reviews | United Nations Network on Migration
The regional reviews of the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM) present an opportunity for a State-led discussion on GCM ...
[44]
Global Compact for Migration: Follow-Up and Review
created the International Migration Review Forum (IMRF), which will take place every four years, beginning in 2022, to serve as the primary global platform to ...
[45]
Limited set of indicators to review progress related to GCM ...
The GCM indicators are designed to help Member States review progress in implementing the Global Compact for Migration in a consistent and inclusive manner.
[46]
Secretary-General report 2024 | United Nations Network on Migration
GCM Indicators: A voluntary framework to track progress, align policies with the 2030 Agenda and improve migration data. Saving lives: Concrete proposals to ...
[47]
Deadliest Year for Migrants Spurs New UN Recommendations to ...
Dec 5, 2024 · A report issued in New York today by the United Nations Secretary-General recommends concrete steps to reduce the risk that migrants die or go missing.
[48]
Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration
The Global Compact aims to guarantee safe, orderly and regular migration and fight against dangerous, disorganized and irregular migration.<|control11|><|separator|>
[49]
[PDF] Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration
Dec 4, 2024 · States further requested recommendations on missing migrants and humanitarian assistance to migrants in distress to prevent loss of life in ...Missing: motivations empirical
[50]
14. Maximizing the economic contribution of remittances and ...
This workstream seeks to maximize the economic contribution of remittances and diasporas to sustainable development including through strengthened partnerships.
[51]
Migration & Remittances Overview - World Bank
In 2023, remittance flows to low and middle-income countries reached $656 billion, surpassing foreign direct investment (FDI) and official development ...
[52]
What is the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration
Nov 13, 2018 · Ten principles such as the universality of human rights, national sovereignty, and the non-legally binding character of the document guide ...
[53]
Hungary to quit U.N. migration pact shunned by Washington | Reuters
Hungary will quit a U.N. migration pact before its final approval, it said on Wednesday, calling the agreement a "threat to the world".Missing: criticism | Show results with:criticism
[54]
Hungary will not sign UN migration compact – DW – 07/18/2018
Jul 18, 2018 · Hungary will not sign the UN's first compact on global migration, after all UN member nations except the US approved the draft to be signed in December.
[55]
Why the U.S. Is Right to Refuse to Sign UN Migration Compact
Dec 11, 2018 · Signing on to the compact provides no additional authority or ability to adjust U.S. migration policy to meet urgent or ongoing needs. It does, ...
[56]
Global Migration Pact: The UN's Attempt to Erode Sovereignty
Dec 12, 2018 · The compact recognizes that there is a difference between these refugees and economic migrants. But it is clearly an attempt to begin erasing ...Missing: opponents | Show results with:opponents
[57]
Narrating an ideal migration world? An analysis of the Global ...
As noted above, the GCM is a reaction to the 'migration crisis' and to states' perceived inability to keep unauthorised migration under control. Objective 4, ...
[58]
Irregular migration data
Sep 29, 2022 · In 2021, FRONTEX reported an increase of irregular border crossings by 60 per cent compared to 2020, with 199,900 people detected in total ( ...
[59]
UN says 2023 deadliest year for migrants in a decade - DW
Mar 7, 2024 · With a 20% increase from 2022, 2023 saw 8,565 migrant deaths, making it the deadliest year since 2014. The Mediterranean route from North ...
[60]
GCM Objective 13 - Alternatives to detention
The GCM requires States to prevent and reduce instances of arbitrary immigration detention and to end the practice of child immigration ...
[61]
GCM Commentary: Objective 21: Cooperate in facilitating safe and ...
Nov 1, 2018 · In Objective 21, states commit not to return migrants when there is a real and foreseeable risk of death, torture and other cruel, inhuman, and ...Missing: reunification | Show results with:reunification<|separator|>
[62]
[PDF] A guide - children & the Global Compacts on refugees & migration
The GCM refers to States' obligation under international law to uphold the right to respect for private and family life and encourages States to facilitate ...
[63]
Making the non-binding bindA critical analysis of the Global ...
Dec 4, 2018 · The compact clearly confirms the sovereign right of states to determine their national migration policy as well as their prerogative to govern ...How We Got Here · Favourable Reception · Trouble With Two
[64]
Global Compact for Migration: what is it and why are countries ...
Dec 7, 2018 · We can see four interrelated reasons that explain this growing opposition. First, states with a restrictive migration agenda, such as Hungary ...
[65]
Do refugees impact crime? Causal evidence from large-scale ...
Our results indicate that crime rates were not affected during the year of refugee arrival, but there was an increase in crime rates one year later.
[66]
High Immigration Versus Low Immigration European Union Countries
Sep 16, 2024 · This paper analyzes the impact of immigration on robbery and burglary rates while differentiating between European Union (EU) countries with ...
[67]
Immigration Diversity and Social Cohesion - Migration Observatory
Dec 13, 2019 · Drawing on research in the US, UK and other European countries, it focuses on the relationship between immigration, diversity and social
[68]
[PDF] Immigration, ethnic fractionalization, and the fiscal burden in the OECD
In this study, we examine annual aggregate data for 31 OECD countries from 1995 to 2019, looking for evidence in country-level data that immigration alters ...
[69]
Remittances matter: 8 facts you don't know about the money ...
“The small amounts of $200 or $300 that each migrant sends home make up about 60 per cent of the family's household income, and this makes an enormous ...
[70]
How immigration affects investment and productivity in host and ...
Temporary migrants put most of their savings into remittances, which do not boost investment in the host country. Attracting high-skilled immigrants may lead to ...
[71]
Full article: Assimilation and integration in the twenty-first century
Feb 3, 2024 · The classic accounts of assimilation treated assimilation as unidirectional, with those of immigrant origin changing to assimilate while the ...Richard Alba And The... · Assimilation And Integration... · Cross-Cutting Themes And...
[72]
Multidimensionality in the Integration of First- and Second ...
Apr 19, 2022 · Focusing on Europe, empirical evidence on the matter is limited, as the majority of existing studies tend to have a narrow scope in terms of ...
[73]
[PDF] GLOBAL COMPACT FOR SAFE, ORDERLY AND REGULAR ...
This Global Compact aims to mitigate the adverse drivers and structural factors that hinder people from building and maintaining sustainable livelihoods in ...
[74]
The EU, migration and contestation: the UN Global Compact for ...
Jan 17, 2021 · This article analyses the EU and Member States dynamics of dissent vis-à-vis substantive and procedural norms.
[75]
Irregular border crossings into EU drop sharply in 2024 - Frontex
Jan 14, 2025 · New preliminary data from Frontex reveal a significant 38% drop in irregular border crossings into the EU in 2024, reaching the lowest level since 2021.Missing: 2018-2024 | Show results with:2018-2024
[76]
2024 is Deadliest Year on Record for Migrants, New IOM Data ...
Mar 21, 2025 · The 2024 toll continues a five-year trend of more deaths each year and last year's toll tops the previous record in 2023, when 8,747 migrant ...
[77]
Opposition To The Global Compact For Migration Is Just Sound And ...
Nov 13, 2018 · The main concerns appear to be sovereignty, and that the pact actively encourages migration by conflating refugees and economic migrants. “ ...
[78]
Deadliest Year on Record for Migrants with Nearly 8,600 Deaths in ...
Mar 6, 2024 · Geneva/ Berlin, 6 March – At least 8,565 people died on migration routes worldwide in 2023, making it the deadliest year on record, ...
[79]
Migrant deaths and disappearances - Migration Data Portal
Mar 1, 2025 · Data Insights into the Implementation of the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM) · Resources.Missing: reducing pathways
[80]
US Compliance with the Global Compact on Migration: A Mixed ...
Feb 2, 2024 · The US has achieved a mixed record of adhering to the provisions of the GCM, a document which creates a multilateral framework for the international community ...Missing: motivations empirical evidence<|control11|><|separator|>
[81]
[PDF] ICMPD Migration Outlook 2025
Jan 19, 2025 · Despite the complex and multifaceted nature of migration, state fra- gility and violent conflict will remain key drivers of migration trends.
[82]
Bakondi: Hungary stopped over 1.1 million illegal migrants from ...
Sep 11, 2025 · Hungary has prevented more than 1.1 million illegal migrants from entering Europe over the past ten years, using its own border fence and ...
[83]
Migration in Hungary
The number of migrants dropped to 3,397 in 2017, a total decrease of 88% compared to 2016. In the first quarter of 2018 asylum applications remained low with ...
[84]
Hungary: Latest immigration statistics - Migration and Home Affairs
Jun 10, 2024 · In 2018 Hungary hosted a total of 263 445 immigrants, and by the end of 2023 this number had increased to 403 112.
[85]
Hungary | migrationpolicy.org
After 390,000 migrants and asylum seekers arrived in 2015, the government of Viktor Orbán issued policies to significantly limit migration and enacted a law ...
[86]
[PDF] INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION REVIEW FORUM 17-20 May 2022 ...
May 20, 2022 · services; and (ii) the Global Compact remains an important and effective tool for governing migration in a safe, orderly, and regular way.
[87]
Second Asia-Pacific Regional Review of Implementation of ... - ESCAP
Second Asia-Pacific Regional Review of Implementation of the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration. 04 to 06 Feb 2025 | By invitation only ...
[88]
Discussion panel on the progress and challenges identified ... - SELA
Jul 3, 2025 · This process allowed Member States and stakeholders to assess progress, challenges and opportunities in the implementation of the Global Compact ...