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Glycogenesis

Glycogenesis is the metabolic process by which glucose is converted into glycogen, a branched polysaccharide that serves as the primary form of carbohydrate energy storage in animals, primarily in the liver and skeletal muscle tissues.^[1] This synthesis pathway ensures glucose homeostasis by storing excess glucose after meals and enabling rapid release during fasting or exercise.^[2] The process begins with the uptake of glucose into cells via specific transporters, such as GLUT2 in the liver or GLUT4 in muscle,^[2] followed by phosphorylation to glucose-6-phosphate by hexokinase or glucokinase.^[1] Glucose-6-phosphate is then isomerized to glucose-1-phosphate by phosphoglucomutase, and activated to UDP-glucose by UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase using UTP.^[2] Glycogenin initiates the formation of a primer chain of 10-20 glucose residues through self-glucosylation, after which glycogen synthase extends the chain via α-1,4-glycosidic linkages, and the branching enzyme introduces α-1,6 branches every 8-12 residues to create the highly branched structure essential for efficient storage and mobilization.^[1]^[3] Regulation of glycogenesis is tightly controlled to match energy needs, primarily through hormonal signals and allosteric mechanisms. Insulin promotes synthesis by activating protein phosphatase 1 (PP1), which dephosphorylates and activates glycogen synthase via pathways involving protein kinase B (Akt) and inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3); conversely, glucagon and epinephrine inhibit it through cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA) phosphorylation.^[1] Glucose-6-phosphate acts as an allosteric activator of glycogen synthase, while high glycogen levels provide feedback inhibition.^[2] In muscle, exercise-induced AMPK further modulates this balance to replenish stores post-activity.^[3] Physiologically, hepatic glycogenesis maintains blood glucose levels by storing ~100g of glycogen postprandially, while muscle stores ~400g for local energy use during contraction, comprising up to 2% of muscle wet weight.^[2] Dysregulation leads to glycogen storage diseases, such as type 0 (GSD 0) from glycogen synthase deficiencies, causing hypoglycemia and cardiomyopathy, or Lafora disease from laforin/malin mutations, resulting in abnormal polyglucosan accumulation and neurodegeneration.^[1]^[3]

Overview

Definition

Glycogenesis is the anabolic biochemical pathway responsible for the synthesis and storage of glycogen from glucose, serving as a key mechanism for carbohydrate energy reserve in animals.^[1] This process primarily occurs in the liver and skeletal muscle tissues, where glycogen accumulates to meet fluctuating energy demands.^[1] The pathway begins with the uptake of glucose and proceeds through a series of phosphorylation and activation steps to form glycogen: glucose is first converted to glucose-6-phosphate, then to glucose-1-phosphate, followed by activation to UDP-glucose, which is ultimately incorporated into the growing glycogen polymer via glycosidic linkages.^[1] This multi-step conversion enables the efficient polymerization of glucose units into a branched polysaccharide structure suitable for compact storage.^[1] The discovery of glycogenesis traces back to the mid-19th century, when French physiologist Claude Bernard identified glycogen in the liver and described its role in animal carbohydrate metabolism, establishing the foundation for understanding this synthetic process.^[4] In contrast to glycogenesis, which builds glycogen reserves, the catabolic process of glycogenolysis breaks down glycogen to release glucose for immediate energy use or blood glucose maintenance.^[1]

Physiological Role

Glycogenesis plays a central role in energy homeostasis by converting excess glucose into glycogen, a branched polysaccharide stored primarily in the liver and skeletal muscle, thereby preventing hyperglycemia following nutrient intake. In the fed state, when blood glucose levels rise after meals (typically to 120-140 mg/dL), insulin stimulates glycogenesis to sequester surplus glucose, maintaining euglycemia and avoiding the toxic effects of prolonged high blood sugar. This process integrates with whole-body metabolism by prioritizing glucose storage over immediate oxidation, ensuring a buffer against fluctuations in nutrient availability.^[1]^[5] The pathway's tissue-specific functions underscore its physiological importance. In the liver, glycogen serves as a reservoir for maintaining systemic blood glucose levels, releasing glucose during periods of need to support glucose-dependent tissues like the brain. Hepatic glycogen stores constitute approximately 5-10% of liver wet weight, amounting to about 100 g in a typical adult.^[1]^[6] In contrast, skeletal muscle glycogen, totaling around 300-500 g in untrained adults (up to 700 g in athletes), supports local ATP production during physical activity, fueling glycolysis without contributing to circulating glucose due to the absence of glucose-6-phosphatase in muscle cells.^[7]^[8] During fasting or exercise, stored glycogen provides a rapid source of energy, with breakdown (glycogenolysis) yielding glucose-1-phosphate for immediate metabolic use, particularly in muscle to meet heightened demands. This replenishable reserve counters energy deficits before alternative pathways like lipolysis or gluconeogenesis dominate. In the fed state, glycogenesis counterbalances catabolic processes such as gluconeogenesis—suppressed during nutrient abundance—and diverts glucose away from unchecked glycolysis, promoting anabolic storage to prepare for future energy needs. Overall, these dynamics ensure metabolic flexibility, with total body glycogen (roughly 600 g) representing a critical, though limited, fuel depot.^[1]^[9]^[5]

Biochemical Components

Key Enzymes

Glycogen synthase (GS), a glycosyltransferase encoded by GYS1 (muscle isoform) and GYS2 (liver isoform), catalyzes the transfer of glucose from UDP-glucose to the non-reducing ends of growing α-1,4-linked glucan chains in glycogen, extending linear chains by forming new α-1,4-glycosidic bonds and releasing UDP.^[10] The enzyme's structure consists of a tetrameric assembly, each subunit featuring two Rossmann-like domains that undergo conformational closure upon substrate binding to position the glucosyl moiety for transfer.^[11] The dephosphorylated form of GS represents the active state, exhibiting higher affinity for UDP-glucose and increased catalytic efficiency compared to the phosphorylated, inactive form.^[11] Kinetic studies indicate a Km for UDP-glucose in the range of approximately 0.1-1 mM for the active form, reflecting its sensitivity to substrate availability in cellular conditions.^[12] The glycogen branching enzyme, known as amylo-(1→4)to-(1→6)-transglycosylase and encoded by GBE1, introduces α-1,6-glycosidic branch points into the linear α-1,4-glucan chains synthesized by GS, enhancing glycogen's solubility and compactness.^[13] Structurally, GBE1 comprises an N-terminal helical domain, a carbohydrate-binding module (CBM48), a central (β/α)8 barrel catalytic core with a conserved Asp-Glu-Asp triad, and a C-terminal insertion domain, enabling substrate recognition and transfer.^[13] Its catalytic mechanism involves a double-displacement reaction: first, cleavage of an α-1,4-linked oligoglucan segment (typically 6-7 glucose units long) from a linear chain to form a covalent glucosyl-enzyme intermediate, followed by transfer of the segment to a C6 hydroxyl group on another chain, forming the branch.^[14] The enzyme exhibits specificity for donor chains of at least 8-14 glucose residues, preferentially creating branches every 8-12 residues to achieve the characteristic tiered structure of glycogen.^[15] Glycogenin, a self-glucosylating primer protein encoded by GYG1 (muscle) or GYG2 (heart/liver), initiates glycogen biosynthesis by forming a short oligosaccharide chain covalently attached to its own tyrosine residue, serving as the nucleation site for subsequent elongation by GS.^[16] The protein exists primarily as a dimer, with each monomer featuring a catalytic domain that adopts a Rossmann fold for UDP-glucose binding and a flexible C-terminal region for chain accommodation.^[16] Its mechanism proceeds autocatalytically: UDP-glucose binds to the active site, where a conserved aspartate residue deprotonates the tyrosine hydroxyl (Tyr194 in humans), enabling nucleophilic attack to form the first α-1,4-glucosyl-tyrosine linkage; subsequent additions build a chain of 8-12 glucose units via iterative transglycosylation.^[17] This primer is essential, as GS requires a pre-existing glucan chain of minimal length to initiate elongation.^[18] UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (UGP), encoded by UGP2 in humans, activates glucose for glycogenesis by synthesizing UDP-glucose, the glucosyl donor for GS and glycogenin.^[19] The enzyme forms an octameric structure, with each subunit displaying a single-domain fold dominated by a central eight-stranded β-sheet flanked by α-helices, assembled as a dimer of dimers for cooperative catalysis.^[19] Catalytically, it employs a single-displacement mechanism: the phosphate of glucose-1-phosphate attacks the α-phosphorus of UTP, displacing pyrophosphate and forming UDP-glucose, facilitated by active-site residues such as Lys202 (stabilizing the β-phosphate) and Glu201 (positioning the glucosyl moiety), in the presence of Mg²⁺.^[19] This reversible reaction ensures a steady supply of UDP-glucose, linking upstream glucose phosphorylation to glycogen assembly.^[2]

Substrate Sources

The primary substrate for glycogenesis is glucose-6-phosphate (G6P), which is generated through the phosphorylation of dietary glucose upon cellular uptake, primarily via hexokinase in most tissues or glucokinase in the liver.^[1] G6P can also arise from glycolytic intermediates, such as when excess glucose is shunted away from energy production toward storage.^[1] G6P is then converted to glucose-1-phosphate (G1P) by the enzyme phosphoglucomutase (PGM), an interconversion that exists in equilibrium with an equilibrium constant K_{eq} \approx 0.05 (favoring G6P over G1P)./02:Unit_II-_Bioenergetics_and_Metabolism/15:Glucose_Glycogen_and_Their_Metabolic_Regulation/15.02:Glycogenesis) This equilibrium is driven forward in the glycogenesis pathway by the rapid consumption of G1P in subsequent reactions, ensuring a steady supply despite the thermodynamic bias toward G6P.^[20] G1P is activated to form uridine diphosphate glucose (UDP-glucose), the immediate donor for glycogen chain elongation, through its reaction with uridine triphosphate (UTP) catalyzed by UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (UGP)./02:Unit_II-_Bioenergetics_and_Metabolism/15:Glucose_Glycogen_and_Their_Metabolic_Regulation/15.02:Glycogenesis) This reversible reaction releases inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi), which is subsequently hydrolyzed by pyrophosphatase to drive the process forward thermodynamically.^[20] In the liver, alternative substrates from gluconeogenesis contribute to G6P pools, notably fructose-6-phosphate, which is isomerized to G6P by phosphoglucoisomerase, allowing de novo glucose synthesis to feed into glycogenesis during fasting-to-fed transitions.^[21] This integration supports hepatic glycogen replenishment from non-carbohydrate precursors like amino acids or lactate.^[22] All substrate preparation and transformations for glycogenesis occur in the cytosol of eukaryotic cells, particularly in liver and muscle tissues where glycogen storage is prominent.^[1]

Pathway Mechanism

Primer Formation

Glycogenin serves as the essential primer protein for the initiation of glycogen synthesis, preventing de novo polymerization of glucose residues by glycogen synthase. Through an autocatalytic process, glycogenin attaches the first glucose unit from UDP-glucose to a specific tyrosine residue on itself, forming the foundation of an α-1,4-linked glucosyl chain that acts as the primer.^[23] This self-priming mechanism ensures that glycogen particles begin with a protein core, which remains covalently bound throughout the molecule's lifecycle.^[24] The autocatalytic glucosylation proceeds in a stepwise manner, with glycogenin adding up to 8-12 glucose units to the initial tyrosine-linked residue, typically reaching an average chain length of about 11 residues after extended incubation. In human muscle, this occurs at tyrosine-195 (Tyr195), creating a short maltooligosaccharide primer via successive α-1,4-glycosidic bonds.^[23]^[24]^[25] The process is Mn²⁺-dependent, requiring the divalent cation as a cofactor to facilitate UDP-glucose binding and transfer, with optimal activity observed at concentrations around 1 mM MnCl₂.^[24] Additionally, glycogenin exhibits glucosyltransferase activity for chain extension and a hydrolytic activity that can trim excess residues, maintaining appropriate primer length and preventing over-elongation during initiation.^[26] Glycogen synthesis strictly requires this primer, as glycogen synthase cannot initiate chain formation independently, thus avoiding uncontrolled polymerization. Existing glycogen molecules, already primed by glycogenin, can also serve as substrates for further extension, allowing reuse of glycogen particles in tissues with ongoing turnover.^[27]^[28] Once the primer achieves a chain length of approximately 10 glucose residues, it becomes a competent substrate for handover to glycogen synthase, which then extends the linear chain using additional UDP-glucose molecules. This threshold ensures efficient transition from priming to bulk elongation in the glycogenesis pathway.^[24]

Chain Elongation

Chain elongation in glycogenesis is primarily catalyzed by glycogen synthase, which extends the primed glycogen chain by sequentially adding glucose units derived from UDP-glucose to the non-reducing end through the formation of α-1,4-glycosidic bonds.^[3] This enzyme transfers the glucosyl moiety from UDP-glucose to the terminal glucose residue of the growing chain, resulting in the elongation of the linear α-1,4-glucan polymer.^[29] The core reaction can be represented as:

(\text{glycogen})_n + \text{UDP-glucose} \rightarrow (\text{glycogen})_{n+1} + \text{UDP}

This process is reversible in principle, but the forward direction is strongly favored by the rapid removal of UDP through cellular pyrophosphatases and nucleoside diphosphate kinases, preventing product inhibition.^[30] Glycogen synthase operates in a highly processive manner, remaining associated with the glycogen particle to catalyze multiple successive additions of glucose units without frequent dissociation, thereby enhancing the efficiency of chain extension.^[10] This processivity allows for the rapid buildup of linear chains, typically extending to 12-14 glucose residues before the rate slows, at which point branching enzymes introduce α-1,6 linkages to create tiered structures (as detailed in the Branching and Termination section).^[31] The incorporation of each glucose unit into glycogen incurs an energy cost equivalent to two ATP molecules per glucose: one ATP is consumed in the initial phosphorylation of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate, and a second ATP equivalent is used to regenerate UTP from UDP during the formation of UDP-glucose, with the overall process driven by the hydrolysis of the resulting pyrophosphate.^[28]

Branching and Termination

The glycogen branching enzyme (GBE), also known as amylo-(1→4)→(1→6)-transglycosylase, introduces α-1,6-linked branches into the growing glycogen chain by cleaving a segment of approximately 6-7 glucose residues from the non-reducing end of an α-1,4-linked chain and transferring it to a C6 hydroxyl group on an internal glucose residue, typically when the linear chain has reached 11-13 residues in length.^[32] This transfer creates a branch point, allowing multiple chains to grow simultaneously from a central core.^[1] The process requires prior elongation of linear chains by glycogen synthase, ensuring sufficient substrate length for effective branching.^[33] The highly branched architecture of the resulting glycogen molecule features branches approximately every 10-12 glucose residues, which increases the number of non-reducing ends available for rapid glucose release during mobilization.^[34] This structure contrasts with linear polymers like amylose, enabling efficient storage and quick enzymatic access.^[1] Glycogen particle synthesis concludes when the macromolecule, or β-particle, attains roughly 55,000 glucose units, yielding a molecular weight of about 10^7 Da; this size limit is thought to arise from steric constraints and regulatory feedback rather than a discrete termination signal.^[35]^[36] The branching pattern enhances glycogen's solubility by preventing crystallization of the glucose chains, facilitating compact cytosolic storage without disrupting cellular osmotic balance.^[37] This amorphous, hydrated form allows high concentrations in tissues like liver and muscle while maintaining accessibility for metabolic enzymes.^[1]

Regulation

Hormonal Mechanisms

Glycogenesis is primarily regulated by hormones that respond to nutritional status, with insulin promoting the process during fed states and counter-regulatory hormones like glucagon and epinephrine inhibiting it during fasting or stress. Insulin, secreted by pancreatic β-cells in response to elevated blood glucose, activates glycogenesis by enhancing glucose uptake and stimulating the synthesis of glycogen from glucose-6-phosphate.^[38] Conversely, glucagon from α-cells and epinephrine from the adrenal medulla elevate blood glucose by suppressing glycogenesis and promoting glycogenolysis.^[39] Insulin promotes glycogenesis through the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, which leads to the dephosphorylation and activation of glycogen synthase, the rate-limiting enzyme. Upon binding, insulin activates its receptor, triggering PI3K to generate PIP3, which recruits and activates Akt (also known as PKB). Akt then phosphorylates and inhibits glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3), preventing GSK3 from phosphorylating glycogen synthase at inhibitory sites, thereby allowing its dephosphorylation by protein phosphatase 1 and subsequent activation. This pathway ensures efficient conversion of postprandial glucose into stored glycogen, particularly in liver and muscle.^[40] In contrast, glucagon and epinephrine inhibit glycogenesis by activating the cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA) pathway, which phosphorylates glycogen synthase to its inactive form. Glucagon and epinephrine bind to their respective receptors, stimulating adenylate cyclase to increase intracellular cAMP levels, which activates PKA. PKA directly phosphorylates glycogen synthase at multiple sites, reducing its activity and favoring glycogen breakdown over synthesis during fasting or exercise.^[39] This reciprocal regulation maintains glucose homeostasis by shifting metabolic flux away from storage when energy demand increases.^[41] Insulin binds to its receptor tyrosine kinase (a heterotetrameric α2β2 structure), leading to autophosphorylation of tyrosine residues in the β-subunits and activation of downstream signaling cascades including PI3K-Akt.^[42] Glucagon binds to a G-protein-coupled receptor (class B), which couples to Gs proteins to activate adenylate cyclase and elevate cAMP.^[43] Epinephrine similarly engages β-adrenergic G-protein-coupled receptors to trigger the same cAMP-PKA axis.^[44] The temporal dynamics of these hormones fine-tune glycogenesis: insulin levels peak 30-60 minutes after meals, sustaining activation of the pathway for several hours to facilitate glycogen storage from dietary glucose.^[45] In fasting states, glucagon and epinephrine provide rapid counter-regulation within minutes, overriding insulin effects via second messengers like cAMP.^[46]

Intracellular Signals

Glycogen synthase (GS), the rate-limiting enzyme in glycogenesis, is subject to allosteric regulation by glucose-6-phosphate (G6P), which binds to a specific allosteric site on the enzyme, thereby relieving the inhibitory effects of phosphorylation and promoting its activation.^[47] This mechanism allows GS to respond directly to intracellular glucose availability, as elevated G6P levels—derived from glucose uptake and phosphorylation—shift the enzyme toward its active conformation, enhancing glycogen synthesis without requiring changes in phosphorylation state.^[48] In mammalian skeletal muscle, G6P binding increases GS activity by up to 10-fold under physiological conditions, underscoring its role in fine-tuning glycogenesis to match energy demands.^[48] In skeletal muscle, calcium ions (Ca²⁺) play a key role in coordinating glycogen metabolism through their interaction with calmodulin, forming a Ca²⁺-calmodulin complex that activates phosphorylase kinase.^[49] This activation primarily inhibits glycogen synthase and stimulates glycogen phosphorylase to promote glycogenolysis during muscle contraction. Post-contraction, declining Ca²⁺ levels and other signals (e.g., insulin, AMPK) facilitate glycogen resynthesis to restore stores.^[49] The Ca²⁺-dependent regulation ensures metabolic balance, as transient elevations in Ca²⁺ (around 10⁻⁵ M during contraction) synchronize energy provision with replenishment.^[50] Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), a critical second messenger, mediates the inhibitory effects on GS in response to upstream hormonal triggers such as epinephrine.^[51] Epinephrine stimulates adenylyl cyclase, which catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cAMP and pyrophosphate (PPᵢ), as shown in the reaction:

\text{ATP} \to \text{cAMP} + \text{PP}_\text{i}

^[52] The resulting increase in cAMP activates protein kinase A (PKA), which phosphorylates GS at multiple sites, reducing its activity and thereby inhibiting glycogenesis to prioritize glycogen breakdown during stress.^[51] This cAMP-PKA pathway provides rapid, reversible control, with cAMP levels rising 10- to 20-fold within seconds of epinephrine exposure in target tissues.^[52] GS regulation also involves dynamic phosphorylation and dephosphorylation at nine distinct sites primarily located in its N- and C-terminal regions, which collectively determine its activity state.^[53] Phosphorylation by kinases such as PKA inactivates GS by promoting a tense (T-state) conformation less amenable to substrate binding, whereas dephosphorylation by protein phosphatase 1 (PP1)—often targeted to glycogen particles—removes these phosphate groups, shifting GS to its active, relaxed (R-state) form and stimulating glycogenesis.^[53] PP1 activation, in particular, can increase GS activity by over 80% through site-specific dephosphorylation, integrating this process with broader intracellular signals like insulin-mediated pathways.^[54]

Tissue-Specific Variations

Glycogenesis in the liver is characterized by high glucokinase activity, which facilitates efficient glucose uptake following meals due to its high Km for glucose, allowing the liver to act as a buffer for postprandial hyperglycemia.^[5] This enzyme phosphorylates glucose to glucose-6-phosphate, the substrate for glycogen synthesis, and the liver's possession of glucose-6-phosphatase enables the reciprocal process of glycogenolysis to export free glucose into the bloodstream, maintaining systemic glucose homeostasis.^[1] In skeletal muscle, glucose uptake for glycogenesis is limited by hexokinase isoforms with low Km, which operate near saturation under normal conditions, and is heavily dependent on insulin-stimulated translocation of GLUT4 transporters to the plasma membrane.^[55] Unlike the liver, skeletal muscle lacks glucose-6-phosphatase, preventing the release of glucose from glycogen into circulation; instead, glycogen serves as a local energy reserve for contraction, broken down to glucose-6-phosphate for glycolysis. In skeletal muscle, exercise-induced activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) inhibits glycogen synthase during contraction to prioritize energy production but promotes its dephosphorylation and activation post-exercise to replenish glycogen stores, integrating with insulin signaling for efficient recovery.^[56]^[3] Glycogenesis plays minor roles in other tissues: the kidney stores small amounts of glycogen primarily for local energy needs during gluconeogenic activity, while the brain maintains minimal glycogen reserves as a supplementary fuel source under glucose scarcity, and adipose tissue exhibits negligible glycogen synthesis, prioritizing lipid storage over carbohydrate deposition.^[57] Quantitative differences in regulation highlight tissue specificity; in the liver, the glycogen synthase response in the regulatory cascade shows high sensitivity to cAMP levels (Hill coefficient ~13.6), enabling rapid modulation in response to hormonal signals postprandially, whereas in skeletal muscle, it responds more to energy status indicators like AMP and ADP levels, which activate AMPK to phosphorylate and modulate GS activity, aligning with contractile demands.^[58]

Clinical Relevance

Associated Disorders

Glycogen storage disease type 0 (GSD0), also known as glycogen synthase deficiency, is a rare autosomal recessive disorder caused by mutations in the GYS2 gene, which encodes the liver isoform of glycogen synthase, leading to impaired hepatic glycogenesis and resulting in fasting hypoglycemia, postprandial hyperglycemia, and ketosis without hepatomegaly.^[59] Affected individuals often present with morning fatigue, poor growth, and episodes of hypoglycemia, particularly after fasting, due to the inability to store glycogen in the liver.^[60] The incidence of GSD0 is estimated at approximately 1 in 1,000,000 individuals, representing about 1% of all glycogen storage diseases.^[61] Diagnosis typically involves genetic testing to identify GYS2 mutations or liver biopsy demonstrating reduced glycogen content and enzyme activity.^[62] A rarer variant, GSD 0b, results from mutations in the GYS1 gene encoding the muscle isoform of glycogen synthase. This form leads to glycogen deficiency in skeletal and cardiac muscle, causing exercise intolerance, muscle weakness, and cardiomyopathy, potentially progressing to sudden cardiac death. Unlike the hepatic form, it does not cause hypoglycemia but manifests in childhood with physical activity limitations and cardiac symptoms. Incidence is even lower, with fewer than 20 cases reported worldwide as of 2023.^[59]^[63]^[64] Lafora disease is a fatal autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by mutations in the EPM2A gene (encoding laforin, a glycogen phosphatase) or NHLRC1 gene (encoding malin, an E3 ubiquitin ligase), which disrupt normal glycogen branching during glycogenesis, leading to the accumulation of poorly branched, insoluble polyglucosan bodies known as Lafora bodies in neurons and other tissues.^[65] These abnormal glycogen aggregates trigger progressive myoclonus epilepsy, cognitive decline, and ataxia, typically manifesting in adolescence and resulting in death within a decade of onset.^[66] The disease's hallmark polyglucosan bodies arise from hyperphosphorylated and elongated glycogen chains that precipitate due to defective dephosphorylation and ubiquitination processes in glycogenesis.^[67] McArdle disease, or glycogen storage disease type V (GSD V), results from mutations in the PYGM gene encoding muscle glycogen phosphorylase, primarily impairing glycogen breakdown but indirectly affecting glycogenesis through feedback mechanisms that exacerbate glycogen accumulation in skeletal muscle.^[68] This leads to exercise-induced muscle cramps, fatigue, myoglobinuria, and rhabdomyolysis, as the inability to mobilize glycogen for energy disrupts the metabolic balance, potentially upregulating synthesis pathways secondarily.^[69] The disorder is autosomal recessive, with symptoms typically beginning in childhood or adolescence, though diagnosis often occurs in adulthood.^[70]

Therapeutic Implications

Glycogenesis plays a critical role in glucose homeostasis, and its dysregulation contributes to metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), where impaired insulin signaling reduces glycogen synthesis in liver and muscle tissues.^[71] Therapeutic strategies targeting glycogenesis aim to enhance glucose disposal by activating key enzymes like glycogen synthase (GS), thereby mitigating hyperglycemia. One prominent approach involves inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3), which phosphorylates and inactivates GS; selective GSK3 inhibitors have demonstrated the ability to potentiate insulin-stimulated glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis in insulin-resistant skeletal muscle cells and animal models of T2DM.^[72] For instance, pharmacological GSK3 inhibition in rodents improved oral glucose tolerance primarily through increased hepatic glycogen deposition, highlighting its potential to restore postprandial glucose control without excessive hypoglycemia risk.^[73] In T2DM, GSK3β isoform inhibition emerges as a promising target due to its role in insulin resistance pathways, with preclinical studies showing that reducing GSK3β activity enhances insulin sensitivity and ameliorates glucose metabolism in diabetic models.^[74] Compounds like tideglusib and CHIR-99021, selective GSK3 inhibitors, have improved insulin action in vitro and in vivo by promoting GS dephosphorylation and subsequent glycogenesis, offering a mechanistic basis for novel antidiabetic agents that complement existing therapies like metformin.^[75] Genetic knockdown of GSK3β in insulin-resistant mice further corrected hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia, underscoring the translational potential of this pathway for human T2DM management.^[76] However, clinical translation requires addressing off-target effects, as GSK3 regulates multiple processes including inflammation and neurodegeneration. Glycogen storage disease type 0 (GSD 0), caused by mutations in the GYS2 (hepatic) or GYS1 (muscle) genes leading to deficient glycogen synthase activity, exemplifies direct impairment of glycogenesis, resulting in hypoglycemia and cardiomegaly in affected individuals.^[59] Current management relies on dietary interventions, such as frequent high-protein meals to stimulate gluconeogenesis and prevent fasting hypoglycemia in GSD 0a, or carbohydrate-rich intake to support energy needs in GSD 0b, though these do not address the underlying enzymatic defect.^[77] Emerging gene therapy holds substantial promise for GSDs, including type 0, by delivering functional GYS genes via adeno-associated viral vectors to restore glycogenesis in liver and muscle tissues, as demonstrated in preclinical models for related GSDs like type Ia and Pompe disease (GSD II).^[78] Ongoing advancements in vector design and tissue-specific targeting suggest that gene therapy could provide long-term correction for GSD 0, potentially eliminating the need for lifelong dietary restrictions.^[79]

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The glycogen branching enzyme (GBE) catalyzes the last step in glycogen biosynthesis by attaching a short glucosyl chain (about 7 glucosyl units) in an α-1,6- ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Dynamics of the Glycogen β-Particle Number in Rat Hepatocytes ...
It is believed that a completely formed glycogen macromolecule (β-particle) has a diameter of 42–44 nm and a molecular weight of ~107 Da and includes ~55,000 ...
[33]
Neurological glycogen storage diseases and emerging therapeutics
A single glycogen particle is composed of up to ∼55,000 glucose monomers that form α-1,4-linked linear chains with periodic α-1,6-linked branches (Fig. 1a) ...
[34]
Cecropia peltata Accumulates Starch or Soluble Glycogen by ...
Compared with polymers comprising leaf starch, glycogen is more highly branched and has shorter branches—factors that prevent crystallization and explain its ...
[35]
The Insulin Receptor and Its Signal Transduction Network - NCBI - NIH
Apr 27, 2016 · The intracellular part of the receptor contains a tyrosine kinase domain, inactive in the absence of ligand. In the presence of ligand bound to ...
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Regulation of glucose metabolism from a liver-centric perspective
Mar 11, 2016 · Initially, insulin counterregulatory hormones such as glucagon and epinephrine are critical in activating the PKA-driven kinase cascades ...
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In normal sate, insulin mediates PI3K/AKT pathway and then regulates glucose transport through activating AS160, glycogen synthesis through inhibiting GSK3 and ...Missing: seminal | Show results with:seminal
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Physiology, Glucagon - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Glucagon modulates glucose-6-phosphatase activity via the PKA-dependent mechanism. In addition to promoting glycogenolysis, glucagon also inhibits glycogenesis ...
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Insulin signaling in health and disease - JCI
Jan 4, 2021 · The receptor is an α2β2 heterodimer that binds to insulin with high affinity, resulting in the activation of its tyrosine kinase activity. Once ...
[40]
GCGR - Glucagon receptor - Homo sapiens (Human) | UniProtKB
G-protein coupled receptor for glucagon that plays a central role in the regulation of blood glucose levels and glucose homeostasis.
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Glycogenolysis and its Regulation by Glucagon and Epinephrine ...
Aug 26, 2025 · Let's look at glycogen breakdown, called glycogenolysis, and its control by two hormones, glucagon, and epinephrine.
[42]
The selective control of glycolysis, gluconeogenesis and ... - NIH
May 14, 2013 · Glycogenesis is regulated by a balance of the enzymatic activities of glycogen synthase (GS) and glycogen phosphorylase (GP) (Bollen et al, 1998 ...
[43]
Glucagon: acute actions on hepatic metabolism | Diabetologia
Apr 26, 2016 · Glucagon acts on the liver to increase glucose production through alterations in hepatic metabolism, and reducing the elevated glucagon signalling in diabetic ...Glucagon: Acute Actions On... · Glucagon: Hormonal Mediator... · Glucagon AntagonismMissing: synthase | Show results with:synthase<|separator|>
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Glucose-6-Phosphate–Mediated Activation of Liver Glycogen ...
Liver glycogen synthase (GYS2), a key enzyme in glycogen synthesis, is controlled by a complex interplay between the allosteric activator glucose-6-phosphate ( ...
[45]
Regulation of glycogen synthase from mammalian skeletal muscle
Glycogen synthase, a key enzyme in muscle glycogen synthesis, is extensively regulated, both allosterically (by glucose-6-phosphate, ATP, and others) and ...
[46]
The regulation of muscle phosphorylase kinase by calcium ions ...
The regulation of phosphorylase kinase by calcium ions may therefore also provide a mechanism for co-ordinating the rates of glycogenolysis and glycogen ...
[47]
Calcium control of muscle phosphorylase kinase through ... - PubMed
The regulation of phosphorylase kinase by Ca2+ may therefore also provide a mechanism for achieving synchronous control of the pathways of glycogenolysis and ...
[48]
Epinephrine-stimulated glycogen breakdown activates glycogen ...
Epinephrine increases glycogen synthase (GS) phosphorylation and decreases GS activity but also stimulates glycogen breakdown, and low glycogen content ...
[49]
Adenylyl Cyclases - Basic Neurochemistry - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Adenylyl cyclase is a synthetic enzyme that regulates cAMP formation by creating cAMP from ATP, releasing pyrophosphate.Multiple forms of adenylyl... · The different forms of adenylyl...
[50]
Molecular basis for the regulation of human glycogen synthase by ...
Jul 14, 2022 · For the activated states, GYS1–GYG1ΔCD was diluted to 0.75 or 0.5 mg ml−1 in 25 mM HEPES, pH 7.5, 200 ... 100% humidity. Sample (3 µl) was ...
[51]
A novel glycogen-targeting subunit of protein phosphatase 1 that is ...
Stimulation of glycogen-targeted protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) activity by insulin contributes to the dephosphorylation and activation of hepatic glycogen ...
[52]
Insulin, Muscle Glucose Uptake, and Hexokinase: Revisiting the ...
Major advances have been made in defining the regulation of the insulin-stimulated glucose transporter (GLUT4) in skeletal muscle. By contrast, the insulin ...
[53]
Biochemistry - Glycogenolysis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jan 27, 2024 · The formation of glycogen from glucose is known as glycogenesis, and the breakdown of glycogen to form glucose is called glycogen metabolism or glycogenolysis.
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Glycogen metabolism in humans - PubMed
Feb 27, 2016 · Glycogen has been identified in other tissues such as brain, heart, kidney, adipose tissue, and erythrocytes, but glycogen function in these ...
[55]
the ultrasensitive responses of liver glycogen synthase and muscle ...
May 20, 2005 · In liver, the phosphorylation states of GP and GS are regulated by glucose and glucose-6-phosphate, whereas in muscle, GP and GS are regulated ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Glycogen storage disease type 0: MedlinePlus Genetics
Jan 1, 2014 · Mutations in the GYS1 or GYS2 gene lead to a lack of functional glycogen synthase, which prevents the production of glycogen from glucose.
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Glycogen Storage Disease - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Jan 21, 2025 · Common presenting symptoms include growth retardation and poor weight gain in children, exercise intolerance, hypoglycemia, hepatomegaly, low ...Glycogen Storage Disease · Etiology · Evaluation
[58]
A patient with glycogen storage disease type 0 and a novel ... - NIH
Aug 11, 2020 · Glycogen storage diseases (GSD) affect approximately 1 in 20,000 to 25,000 people, with GSD0 representing only around 1% of all GSD cases, ...
[59]
Glycogen storage disease due to hepatic glycogen synthase ...
Patients present with morning fatigue and fasting hypoglycemia (without hepatomegaly) associated with hyperketonemia but without hyperalaninemia or ...
[60]
Lafora Disease - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Lack of either protein results in poorly branched, hyperphosphorylated glycogen that precipitates, aggregates, and accumulates into Lafora bodies.[5] The ...
[61]
Laforin is a glycogen phosphatase, deficiency of which ... - PNAS
The hallmark of the disease is the formation of Lafora bodies, which contain insoluble, poorly branched glycogen-like polysaccharide or “polyglucosan” (5–7).
[62]
Lafora disease offers a unique window into neuronal glycogen ...
Feb 26, 2018 · Lafora disease (LD) is a fatal, autosomal recessive, glycogen-storage disorder that manifests as severe epilepsy. LD results from mutations ...
[63]
Glycogen storage disease type V - Genetics - MedlinePlus
Jun 1, 2014 · Glycogen storage disease type V (also known as GSDV or McArdle disease) is an inherited disorder caused by an inability to break down a complex sugar called ...
[64]
Glycogen Storage Disease Type V - GeneReviews® - NCBI Bookshelf
Apr 19, 2006 · Glycogen storage disease type V (GSDV, McArdle disease) is a metabolic myopathy characterized by exercise intolerance manifested by rapid fatigue, myalgia, and ...
[65]
Entry - #232600 - GLYCOGEN STORAGE DISEASE V; GSD5 - OMIM
McArdle disease is an autosomal recessive metabolic disorder characterized by onset of exercise intolerance and muscle cramps in childhood or adolescence.
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Insulin Resistance: From Mechanisms to Therapeutic Strategies
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Selective Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3 Inhibitors Potentiate Insulin ...
Mar 1, 2003 · Moreover, our results highlight the ability of these selective GSK-3 inhibitors to enhance insulin action in insulin-resistant skeletal muscle ...
[68]
Effects of a novel glycogen synthase kinase-3 inhibitor on insulin ...
In conclusion, GSK-3 inhibition significantly improved oral glucose disposal, mostly by increasing liver glycogen synthesis. These studies suggest that GSK-3 ...
[69]
Glycogen synthase kinase-3: A potential target for diabetes
Sep 7, 2023 · Inhibiting GSK-3 activity has been shown to improve insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism in animal models of diabetes. This has led to the ...
[70]
Glycogen synthesis and beyond, a comprehensive review of GSK3 ...
Nov 3, 2021 · Some studies have suggested that GSK3 participates in insulin signaling and glucose metabolism in skeletal muscle by regulating other pathways ...GSK3 IN SKELETAL MUSCLE · GSK3 IN THE BRAIN · GSK3 AND TUMOR...
[71]
Genetic Deficiency of Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3β Corrects ...
We demonstrated that genetically reducing the levels of Gsk-3β in the insulin-resistant mouse improved glucose homeostasis.<|separator|>
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Glycogen Storage Disease Type 0 - Metabolic Support UK
In general, no specific treatment exists to cure GSD 0. In some cases, diet therapy is helpful. Patients with GSD 0 will be referred to a specialist dietician ...
[73]
Gene therapy for glycogen storage diseases - Oxford Academic
Gene therapy has reversed disease involvement of both liver and muscle GSDs and continues to be developed as a new therapy for these disorders.Missing: 0 | Show results with:0
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https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0968089623002547