Gyeongju is a historic city located in North Gyeongsang Province in southeastern South Korea, approximately 28 kilometers inland from the East Sea, and it served as the capital of the ancient Silla Kingdom from 57 BCE to 935 CE for nearly a millennium.[1][2] As the political, economic, and cultural center of Silla during Korea's ancient "golden age," Gyeongju was modeled after the Chinese city of Chang'an and featured a grid-patterned urban layout by the 7th century, fostering advancements in science, art, Buddhism, and international trade along the Silk Roads with regions including China, Japan, and West Asia.[2][3]Renowned as the "museum without walls" due to its abundance of well-preserved archaeological remains visible throughout the city, Gyeongju encompasses over 52 cultural properties, including royal tombs, fortresses, temples, and pagodas that reflect Silla's architectural and artistic achievements.[1][3] The city hosts four UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the Gyeongju Historic Areas, designated in 2000 for its ruins of palaces, temples, and tumuli parks like the Great Tumuli Park; Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Grotto, inscribed in 1995 as exemplars of 8th-century Buddhist architecture and sculpture; Yangdong Folk Village, added in 2010 as a preserved Joseon-era clan village; and Oksanseowon Confucian Academy, part of the Seowon sites inscribed in 2019.[2][1][3][4]In the present day, Gyeongju covers an area of 1,324 square kilometers and has a population of approximately 250,000 as of 2025, making it the second-largest city by area in Gyeongsangbuk-do province.[5] It remains a premier tourist destination, drawing visitors to sites such as Mount Namsan— an outdoor repository of Buddhist sculptures and treasures from the 7th to 10th centuries—and the ruins of Hwangnyongsa Temple, once home to an 80-meter nine-story wooden pagoda.[3] The city's enduring legacy underscores its role as a cradle of Korean heritage, blending ancient history with modern preservation efforts.[1][2]
History
Ancient origins
The Gyeongju Basin, a fertile lowland surrounded by mountains, has yielded evidence of human settlement dating back to the Neolithic era, approximately 8000–1500 BCE, when early inhabitants engaged in foraging, fishing, and rudimentary agriculture using polished stone tools and comb-pattern pottery. Archaeological surveys indicate sparse but continuous occupation, with sites revealing pit houses and coastal resource exploitation, though no monumental structures or tombs from this period have been identified in the immediate area.[6][7]During the subsequent Bronze Age, particularly the Mumun pottery period (c. 1500–300 BCE), the region saw increased population density and social complexity, marked by the production of plain, reddish-brown pottery used for storage and cooking, alongside evidence of dry-field farming and communal burials. Dolmens—megalithic tombs consisting of large stone slabs supporting a capstone—emerged as a key burial practice, with examples found in Gyeongju's Gangdong-myeon district and representing broader southern Korean traditions; prominent regional clusters at Gochang (with 447 dolmens) and Gimhae underscore the cultural continuity of these megalithic structures across the peninsula during the late Mumun phase. These finds, including pottery sherds and stone tools from settlement sites like those in Hwangseong-dong, suggest the beginnings of proto-urban aggregation in the basin, fostering trade and ritual activities.[6][8][9]By the late first millennium BCE, external influences from the northern kingdom of Gojoseon, including ironworking technologies and migratory groups, contributed to cultural exchanges in the southeast, setting the stage for localized chiefdoms. Tradition holds that these developments culminated in the mythical founding of the Silla polity in 57 BCE by Hyeokgeose (r. 57 BCE–4 CE), who legendarily hatched from a giant egg laid by a divine horse near the Gamgang River and established the early confederation at Seorabeol (modern Gyeongju), a fortified settlement that grew from village clusters into a political center. This foundational myth, recorded in the 12th-century Samguk sagi, symbolizes the transition from tribal alliances to formalized kingship, with archaeological correlates in early iron artifacts and wooden coffin burials from the proto-Three Kingdoms era.[10][11]
Silla Kingdom era
Gyeongju, originally known as Seorabeol, served as the capital of the Silla Kingdom from its legendary founding in 57 BC until 935 AD, evolving from a modest settlement into a bustling metropolis that symbolized the kingdom's power and cultural sophistication. Over centuries, the city expanded through strategic urban planning, incorporating fortified walls, administrative districts, and residential areas that supported a growing population. By the Unified Silla period (668–935 AD), Seorabeol had developed into one of East Asia's largest cities, with historians estimating its population at nearly 1 million inhabitants at its peak, reflecting Silla's economic prosperity from agriculture, trade, and tribute systems.[12]A pivotal moment in Silla's history occurred through its alliance with the Tang Dynasty of China, which enabled the conquest of Baekje in 660 AD and Goguryeo in 668 AD, achieving the unification of the Three Kingdoms under King Munmu (r. 661–681 AD). This alliance, initially forged to counter shared threats, allowed Silla forces, led by generals like Kim Yu-sin, to capture key territories, culminating in the fall of Goguryeo's capital, Pyongyang. King Munmu's reign marked the transition to Unified Silla, with Gyeongju as the centralized hub for governance, military campaigns, and diplomatic relations that solidified the kingdom's dominance on the Korean Peninsula.[13]Silla's architectural and cultural achievements in Gyeongju highlighted its advancements in engineering, astronomy, and artistry, with early royal tombs such as those in the Daereungwon area demonstrating sophisticated mound construction using stone and wood chambers to house elite burials. The Wolseong Palace complex, established around 101 AD during King Pasa's reign and expanded over time, functioned as the primary royal residence and fortress, featuring moats, gates, and pavilions that blended defensive architecture with aesthetic grandeur. Complementing these were scientific innovations like the Cheomseongdae Observatory, constructed during Queen Seondeok's reign (632–647 AD) as East Asia's oldest surviving astronomical structure, comprising 362 granite stones arranged in a bottle shape to facilitate celestial observations for calendrical and agricultural purposes.[14]The Hwarang, an elite youth corps of aristocratic males formed in the mid-6th century under King Jinheung, played a crucial role in shaping Silla's military prowess and social cohesion, training members in martial arts, ethics, and leadership to foster loyalty to the throne. Numbering in the hundreds per group and often led by a senior warrior, the Hwarang undertook expeditions, rituals, and educational pursuits influenced by Buddhism and Confucianism, contributing to key victories in unification wars and instilling a warrior ethos that permeated Silla society. Their multifaceted role extended beyond combat to cultural patronage, promoting poetry, music, and moral discipline that reinforced hierarchical structures and national identity.[15][16]
Post-Silla periods
The fall of Silla in 935 CE marked the end of its nearly thousand-year rule, as Goryeo forces under King Taejo (Wang Geon) conquered the kingdom and unified the Later Three Kingdoms period.[17] In 940 CE, King Taejo renamed the former capital Seorabeol to Gyeongju, signifying a "congratulatory district" and honoring its historical significance while integrating it into the new dynasty's administrative framework.[18] During the Goryeo era (918–1392), Gyeongju transitioned from a central political hub to a regional center, but it suffered extensive damage from the Mongol invasions between 1231 and 1259 CE, which devastated cultural sites across the Korean Peninsula.[19] Notably, the grand Hwangnyongsa Temple in Gyeongju, once the largest wooden structure in East Asia, was completely destroyed by fire in 1238 during one of these campaigns, leaving only foundation remnants that underscore the invasions' destructive impact on Silla's enduring legacy.[19]Under the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910), Gyeongju experienced relative stability but diminished as a national political center, evolving into a cultural backwater overshadowed by the new capital in Hanyang (modern Seoul). The city nonetheless served as a stronghold for prominent yangban clans, particularly the Gyeongju Kim clan, which traced its lineage to Silla's royal family and maintained significant influence through land ownership, scholarly pursuits, and local governance.[20] These clans preserved Silla-era traditions amid Joseon's Neo-Confucian reforms, which prioritized ancestral rites and historical reverence, allowing Gyeongju to function as a repository of ancient artifacts and folklore despite its peripheral status.[21]The Japanese colonial period (1910–1945) brought renewed attention to Gyeongju's archaeological riches, but primarily through exploitative excavations that suppressed Korean heritage narratives. Japanese scholars and authorities conducted systematic digs at Silla tombs, such as the Gold Crown Tomb (excavated in 1921) and the Double Burial in Bomun-dong (investigated in 1915), unearthing gold crowns, belts, and earrings that were often transported to Japan for study or display, framing Silla history within imperial Japanese ideologies of continuity.[22][23] This era's policies marginalized Korean archaeologists and promoted assimilation, effectively commodifying Gyeongju's sites to bolster colonial legitimacy while restricting local access to cultural preservation efforts.[6]Following Korea's liberation in 1945, Gyeongju began recovering its heritage through institutional efforts, including the establishment of the Gyeongju National Museum in the same year to house and protect Silla artifacts repatriated or rediscovered post-colonialism.[24] The mid-20th century saw initial recognitions under South Korea's Cultural Heritage Protection Act of 1962, with key sites like Bulguksa Temple designated as Historic Site No. 1 in 1966, laying the groundwork for international acknowledgment of Gyeongju's universal value.[25] These designations facilitated systematic conservation, marking a shift toward national and global stewardship of the city's ancient remains amid post-war reconstruction.
Modern developments
Following the Korean War, Gyeongju experienced significant economic growth driven by national industrialization efforts, with the establishment of the Wolseong Nuclear Power Plant serving as a key catalyst. The plant's first unit, Wolsong 1, entered commercial operation on April 22, 1983, providing substantial employment opportunities and contributing to the local economy as one of South Korea's major energy facilities.[26] This development marked a shift from Gyeongju's historical role toward modern industrial integration, supporting population stability and infrastructure improvements in the region.[27]The designation of the Gyeongju Historic Areas as a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site in 2000 further transformed the city by emphasizing cultural preservation alongside economic progress. This recognition prompted extensive restoration initiatives, including the ongoing reconstruction of the Hwangnyongsa Temple site, one of Silla's largest ancient structures, and excavations at the Wolseong royal district to uncover and protect archaeological remains.[28] These projects not only safeguarded the city's ancient legacy but also boosted heritage tourism, integrating modern conservation techniques with historical authenticity.[29]In the 2000s, Gyeongju underwent urban expansion as a cultural and tourist hub, with its population hovering around 260,000 residents amid efforts to balance growth with heritage protection. This period saw infrastructure enhancements, such as improved roadways and visitor facilities, to accommodate increasing domestic and international visitors drawn to the UNESCO sites. Building on this foundation of historical continuity from earlier eras, the city positioned itself as a bridge between tradition and modernity.[3]Gyeongju's global prominence culminated in hosting the 2025 APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting from October 31 to November 1, with preparations announced in June 2024 focusing on tourism infrastructure upgrades and innovative cultural programs. These included venue developments at historic sites and forums highlighting Silla heritage to promote sustainable regional cooperation. The event underscored Gyeongju's evolution into an international venue, enhancing its administrative and cultural outreach.[30][31]
Geography
Location and topography
Gyeongju is situated in the southeastern part of North Gyeongsang Province, South Korea, approximately 28 km inland from the East Sea.[32] The city borders Ulsan to the south and Pohang to the north, as well as Cheongdo and Yeongcheon counties to the west.[33] This positioning places Gyeongju within a transitional zone between the coastal plains and inland highlands, contributing to its diverse natural landscape.The total area of Gyeongju covers 1,324.82 km², encompassing the expansive Gyeongju Basin at its core, which features fertile alluvial soils ideal for cultivation.[34] To the east and north, the terrain rises into the Taebaek Mountains, a major ridgeline of the Korean Peninsula that forms a natural barrier along the East Sea coast.[35] The highest peak in this range within Gyeongju is Munboksan, reaching an elevation of 1,015 m and exemplifying the rugged, forested uplands that characterize the city's topography.[36] Additionally, Gyeongju includes a 36 km coastline along the East Sea, primarily in its eastern districts, where low-lying coastal areas meet the basin.[37]Nam-san Mountain, rising to 494 m (with peaks up to 494 m) south of the city center, stands as a prominent natural and cultural landmark, its slopes densely dotted with over 700 heritage sites from the Silla era, including temples, statues, and pagodas integrated into the landscape.[38][28] The mountain's granite formations and valleys have preserved these relics, making it a focal point of Gyeongju's topographic and historical identity.Major rivers, such as the Hyeongsan and Namcheon, traverse the Gyeongju Basin, originating from surrounding highlands and flowing eastward toward the sea.[39] The Hyeongsan River, rising in Ulju County and winding through the city, deposits nutrient-rich sediments that support agricultural productivity in the basin's lowlands.[39] Similarly, the Namcheon River meanders through central Gyeongju, historically channeling water for irrigation and shaping the placement of ancient settlements and monuments along its banks. These waterways not only enhance the region's fertility but also define the spatial distribution of archaeological features within the basin.
Climate
Gyeongju experiences a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa), featuring hot and humid summers alongside cold and relatively dry winters.[40]The city's annual average temperature stands at approximately 12.5°C, with monthly means varying from 1.1°C in January—the coldest month—to 25.3°C in August, the warmest.[41] Temperatures typically reach highs of around 31°C in summer and lows of -6°C in winter, with extremes rarely exceeding 34°C or falling below -11°C, reflecting the region's seasonal extremes influenced by continental air masses in winter and maritime flows in summer.[41]Annual precipitation totals about 1,157 mm, concentrated primarily during the summer monsoon season, when roughly 60% falls between June and September.[37] This period brings heavy rains, often intensified by the East Asian monsoon, while occasional typhoons approaching from the East Sea can cause additional downpours and strong winds from July to September.[42]These weather patterns significantly shape tourism in Gyeongju, drawing visitors in April for the vibrant cherry blossom season amid mild spring conditions, and in autumn (October–November) for the striking foliage displays under cooler, clearer skies.[43]
Administrative divisions
Government structure
Gyeongju-si serves as an administrative city within North Gyeongsang Province, South Korea, governed by a local executive and legislative structure typical of the nation's si-level municipalities. The executive branch is led by a directly elected mayor, who oversees city operations, while the legislative branch comprises the Gyeongju City Council, consisting of 21 members elected every four years to represent electoral districts and proportional seats.[44][45]As of 2025, the mayor is Joo Nak-young, who was reelected in the 2022 local elections and focused on leveraging the city's historical significance for sustainable development, including hosting international events like the 2025 APEC Summit. Key departments under the city hall include the Department of Planning and Culture, responsible for heritage preservation and cultural initiatives; the Department of Construction and Public Facilities, handling urban planning and infrastructure; and the Department of Industry and Environment, managing economic development and environmental policies. These departments coordinate local administration, ensuring alignment with provincial and national guidelines.[46]The city's annual budget, approximately 2 trillion South Korean won as of 2024, allocates a significant portion to cultural heritage funding and tourism-related initiatives, supporting site maintenance, visitor facilities, and promotional activities that preserve Gyeongju's UNESCO World Heritage status. For instance, investments in heritage restoration and eco-tourism infrastructure underscore the priority given to balancing development with conservation.[47]Gyeongju plays a vital role in implementing national policies through collaboration with the Cultural Heritage Administration (CHA), which provides overarching protection for the city's historic areas. This partnership includes environmental protection measures, such as regulating development near ancient sites to mitigate pollution and climate impacts, ensuring compliance with laws like the Cultural Heritage Protection Act.[28]
Subdivisions
Gyeongju is administratively divided into 4 eup (towns), 8 myeon (townships), and 11 dong (neighborhoods), comprising a total of 23 units that facilitate local governance and service delivery.[48] These subdivisions reflect the city's blend of urban and rural landscapes, with the eup and myeon primarily encompassing peripheral and agricultural zones, while the dong form the more densely developed areas. The structure is overseen by the municipal government to ensure coordinated urban planning and resource allocation across the districts.[48]The urban core of Gyeongju is concentrated in Hwangnam-dong and Wolseong-dong, where key commercial hubs, markets, and ancient relics like the Daereungwon Tumuli Park are located, serving as focal points for tourism and daily activities.[49] In contrast, rural subdivisions such as Gampo-eup highlight coastal economies, with its port supporting fishing operations and seafood processing as primary livelihoods.[50]Recent developments have influenced subdivision dynamics, notably the 2015 operational start of the low- and intermediate-level radioactive waste disposal facility in Yangbuk-myeon, which reallocated substantial land for secure industrial storage and altered surrounding agricultural and residential patterns.[51] Historical sites are dispersed throughout these units, enhancing their cultural significance; for instance, archaeological remains of a Silla-period temple, including pagodas and halls, have been uncovered in Inwang-dong.
Demographics
Population trends
Gyeongju's population reached its historical peak during the Silla Kingdom, estimated at around 1 million residents by the 9th centuryCE, supported by its role as the capital and center of political and economic activity.[52] Following the fall of Silla in 935 CE, the city experienced a prolonged decline, with population levels remaining modest through the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties. Post-Korean War industrialization in the mid-20th century spurred renewed growth, as national economic development drew migrants and boosted local industries, elevating the population from approximately 100,000 in the 1950s to over 250,000 by the late 20th century.[32]In recent decades, Gyeongju's population has trended downward due to rural-urban migration toward larger cities like Seoul and Busan, reflecting broader South Korean demographic shifts. The official count stood at 270,000 in 2010, but fell to 258,733 by 2024, with recent reports indicating approximately 250,000 as of late 2025 amid ongoing decline.[3][53][5]This decline is compounded by an aging demographic structure, with approximately 26% of the population in North Gyeongsang Province aged 65 or older as of 2024, higher than the national average of 19.2% due to out-migration of younger cohorts.[54][55] The city's fertility rate aligns closely with the national low of 0.75 children per woman in 2024 and contributes to sustained population contraction.[56][57]A positive countertrend is the increasing presence of foreign residents, numbering 6,381 as of 2023 (latest available), up from 4,671 in 2007, driven by tourism, education, and labor opportunities in the region's heritage sector.[58][59] Urban subdivisions like the city center exhibit higher population densities compared to rural outskirts, highlighting intra-city migration patterns. Projections indicate further decline to around 250,000 by 2030, influenced by national trends of low fertility, aging, and net out-migration from non-metropolitan areas.[60] The 2025 Population and Housing Census (October 22–November 18, 2025) is underway, expected to provide updated figures soon.[61]
Year
Population
Key Trend
9th century CE (Silla peak)
~1,000,000
Capital-driven expansion[52]
2010
270,000
Pre-decline baseline[3]
2024
258,733
Rural-urban migration impact[53]
2025 (late est.)
~250,000
Continued decline amid census[5]
2030 (proj.)
~250,000
Aging and low birth rates dominate[60]
Language and ethnicity
The predominant language in Gyeongju is the Gyeongsang dialect, a regional variant of Southeastern Korean spoken throughout North Gyeongsang Province. This dialect is characterized by its distinct phonetic features, including the preservation of aspirated consonants and a tonal system absent in standard Korean, which some linguists attribute to remnants of the ancient Silla language spoken in the region over a millennium ago.[62][20]Gyeongju's ethnic composition is overwhelmingly homogeneous, with ethnic Koreans forming approximately 99% of the population. Small migrant communities, particularly from China and Vietnam, add to the city's diversity, reflecting broader national trends in immigration.[63]Historical clans originating from the Silla Kingdom continue to influence local identity, notably the Kim surname, which accounts for about 21.5% of all Korean surnames nationwide (with major clans like Gimhae and Gyeongju Kim originating from the region), and the Choi surname, representing around 4.7% (primarily the Gyeongju Choi clan). Together, these clans are prominent in Gyeongju, comprising a substantial share of local family names tied to the city's ancient heritage.[64][65]Preservation efforts for the Silla language, an ancestor of modern Korean, are supported through exhibits at the Gyeongju National Museum, which display artifacts like inscriptions and hyangga poetry that illustrate early linguistic forms and scripts from the Silla era.[66]
Culture and heritage
Cultural properties
Gyeongju's cultural properties are renowned for their representation of Silla Kingdom artistry and architecture, with several sites recognized internationally for their historical significance. The city features two UNESCO World Heritage listings from 1995: the Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Grotto complex (Site No. 736), which exemplifies Unified SillaBuddhist architecture through its stone pagodas and sculpted figures, including the Dabotap Pagoda (National Treasure No. 20) and the gilt-bronze Vairocana Buddha statue (No. 26) at Bulguksa, alongside the Seokguram Grotto itself (No. 24), a granitecave housing a masterful granite Buddha statue and attendant figures.[25][67][68] The Gyeongju Historic Areas (Site No. 976) encompass palaces, fortresses, and pagodas, preserving the urban layout of ancient Silla capitals.[28] Additionally, Yangdong Folk Village (Site No. 1324), inscribed in 2010, preserves a Joseon-era clan village, showcasing traditional Koreanvernacular architecture and social structures.[69]The Daereungwon Tomb Complex, a designated Historic Site, protects 23 large-scale Silla-era burial mounds dating from the 5th to 6th centuries, part of over 600 ancient tumuli scattered across Gyeongju and its outskirts that highlight the kingdom's royal funerary practices. Notable among them is the Geumnyongchong tomb, a significant mound structure yielding exquisite gold crowns, belts, and earrings upon excavation in the mid-20th century, reflecting Silla's advanced metalworking techniques.[70][71]Gyeongju National Museum serves as the primary repository for these artifacts, maintaining a collection of over 16,000 Silla relics, including the Divine Bell of King Seongdeok (National Treasure No. 29), a 771 CE bronze bell weighing 18.9 tons and renowned for its inscription and resonant tone.[72] The city boasts 31 National Treasures in total, alongside more than 600 provincial cultural properties designated by the Cultural Heritage Administration for protection and study. Preservation efforts include ongoing digitization initiatives, such as 3D scanning of the Seokguram Grotto completed in 2008 and metaverse reconstructions of the Daereungwon Complex to enhance accessibility and conservation.[73][74]
Religion and festivals
Gyeongju's religious composition reflects its deep historical ties to Buddhism, which emerged as the dominant faith during the Silla Kingdom era (57 BCE–935 CE) and continues to hold a prominent place today, supported by active temples such as Bulguksa Temple, a UNESCO World Heritage site that serves as a center for ongoing worship, meditation, and seasonal rituals.[75] Historical influences from Silla-era shamanism persist in local folklore and ceremonial practices, blending indigenous spiritual elements with Buddhist traditions to foster community harmony and ancestral veneration.[76]Christianity is also present, with Protestant and Catholic congregations maintaining churches throughout the city that host regular services and community outreach. Confucianism exerts influence, particularly through clan-based rituals and ancestral rites performed at sites like Gyeongju Hyanggyo, where the Seokjeondaeje ceremony honors Confucius biannually.[77] Adherents of Islam and other minority faiths represent a small portion, with no significant organized communities reported.The city's festivals emphasize its cultural and religious heritage, drawing visitors to celebrate Silla's legacy through reenactments and seasonal observances. The Silla Cultural Festival, held annually in October since 1962, features parades, traditional performances, and historical reenactments at venues like Hwangseong Park, commemorating the kingdom's golden age with events that integrate Buddhist and shamanistic motifs.[78] In April, the Gyeongju Cherry Blossom Festival transforms historic sites into blooming spectacles, with lantern-lit walks and folk dances honoring spring renewal, often held along paths near ancient tombs and bridges.[75] Lantern events, such as the Hwangseong River Lantern Festival in late April, illuminate the night with thousands of glowing paper lanterns symbolizing enlightenment and tied to Buddha's Birthday celebrations, creating a "burning night" atmosphere of communal reflection.[79]In 2025, Gyeongju's hosting of the APEC Summit from October 31 to November 1 incorporated traditional rituals into its cultural programs, including gugak music performances and heritage reenactments that highlighted Confucian and Buddhist elements to promote regional harmony.[80] These events utilized cultural properties like Bulguksa as backdrops for brief, symbolic ceremonies, underscoring the city's role in blending ancient practices with contemporary diplomacy.[81]
Cuisine and arts
Gyeongju's culinary traditions emphasize hearty, flavorful dishes that draw on local ingredients and historical influences, often served in communal settings. A signature item is Hwangnam-ppang, also known as Gyeongju bread, a soft, wheel-shaped pastry made from egg-flour dough filled with sweet red bean paste and baked to a golden finish; it originated in 1939 at a bakery in Hwangnam-dong and remains a beloved street food sold by family-run shops throughout the city.[82] Ssambap, a customizable wrap meal featuring tender beef, pork, or duck marinated in soy sauce and grilled tableside, accompanied by fresh vegetables, perilla leaves, and ssamjang paste, exemplifies the region's interactive dining style and is commonly enjoyed at specialized restaurants like Gyodong Ssambap.[83]Haejangguk, a restorative ox bone soup simmered for hours with cabbage, radish, and fermented soybean paste, serves as a local hangover remedy and staple breakfast, reflecting Gyeongju's emphasis on nourishing, broth-based comfort foods.[83]The city's artistic heritage thrives through traditional crafts practiced in rural myeon and dedicated villages, preserving techniques tied to its Silla-era legacy. Silk weaving, particularly myeongju—a plain, high-quality fabric spun from silkworm cocoons—continues in areas like the Gyeongju Folk Craft Village, where artisans produce unpatterned silk cloths used in hanbok and modern textiles; this craft, recognized as a national intangible cultural heritage, supports local economies in townships such as Bomun-myeon.[84] At the same village, established in 1986 to revive Silla-inspired workmanship, visitors can observe and participate in pottery making, with potters creating earthenware vessels that echo ancient forms like long-necked jars and stemmed cups.[85] Annual art markets, often held during seasonal festivals, showcase these handmade items alongside woodcrafts and jewelry, fostering community engagement and sales for over 40 artisan households.[86]Contemporary arts in Gyeongju blend historical motifs with modern expressions, particularly in urban creative hubs. Hwangridan-gil, a revitalized street in the historic Hwangnam district, has emerged since around 2018 as a vibrant arts corridor lined with preserved 1960s buildings transformed into cafes, galleries, and performance spaces; it features colorful murals, indie music shows, and pop-up exhibitions that attract young artists and tourists.[87] Local potters draw inspiration from Silla ceramics to produce innovative pieces, such as glazed stoneware with subtle iridescent finishes, displayed in workshops like those at Bomun Folk Craft Village and sold at nearby markets.[88]Recent fusion trends highlight Gyeongju's evolving food and arts scene, amplified by international events like the 2025 APEC summit hosted in the city. Culinary pop-ups and leader dinners incorporated local specialties such as galbijjim (braised short ribs) and bibimbap with Gyeongju greens, presented by chefs like Edward Lee to emphasize authentic flavors without heavy Western influences, drawing global attention to the region's produce.[89] These initiatives, including K-food tasting zones at the summit venue, have spurred collaborations between traditional artisans and contemporary creators, such as Silla-themed pottery installations, further integrating cuisine and arts during festivals.[90]
Notable people
Gyeongju, as the ancient capital of Silla, is closely associated with several prominent historical figures from the kingdom's ruling elite. Queen Seondeok (c. 606–647), the first female monarch in Korean history, ruled Silla from 632 to 647 and was born in Seorabeol, the historical name for Gyeongju, as the daughter of King Jinpyeong.[91] Her reign advanced diplomatic ties with Tang China and promoted Buddhism, including the construction of the iconic Cheomseongdae observatory in Gyeongju.[28] General Kim Yu-sin (595–673), a key military leader of Silla, played a pivotal role in unifying the Korean Peninsula by leading campaigns that conquered Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668, often in alliance with Tang forces.[92] Though born in what is now Jincheon County, his tomb is located in Gyeongju, reflecting his enduring ties to the Silla heartland.In the medieval period, Gyeongju produced influential scholars who bridged Silla's legacy with emerging Neo-Confucian traditions. Yi Chehyŏn (1287–1367), a member of the Gyeongju Yi clan, served as a prominent Goryeo diplomat, poet, and Confucian reformer who advocated for the printing and dissemination of the Four Books to foster moral governance and endorsed the ideal of a sage-king. His writings emphasized Confucian values over Buddhist practices, influencing the transition to Joseon-era scholarship.[93]Several major Korean clans trace their origins to Silla royalty centered in Gyeongju, preserving the city's aristocratic heritage. The Gyeongju Park clan descends from Park Hyeokgeose, the semi-legendary founder of Silla in 57 BCE, who established the kingdom's early monarchical line.[94] Similarly, the Gyeongju Lee clan claims descent from Silla's noble families, with figures like Yi Chehyŏn exemplifying their scholarly prominence into the Goryeo period.[93] These lineages highlight Gyeongju's role as a cradle of Korea's enduring clan-based social structure.
Economy
Primary industries
Gyeongju's primary industries form a vital economic foundation, encompassing manufacturing, agriculture, energy production, and fishing, which together support local employment and growth independent of the tourism sector. Automotive parts manufacturing is also significant, with numerous companies in the sector.The manufacturing sector is centered in designated industrial complexes, such as the Oedong-eup Industrial Complex in Gyeongju, which spans 609,595 m² and was developed from 2014 to 2016 to attract businesses in various fields, including electronics and textiles. These facilities host key firms, including affiliates of major conglomerates, fostering job creation and technological advancement in the region.[95]Agriculture thrives in the fertile Gyeongju Basin, where rice and barley cultivation predominates due to the area's suitable soil and climate, making it a leading production hub for these staple grains. Pear orchards are prominent in the rural myeon districts, contributing to fruit output and supporting traditional farming practices.The energy sector is dominated by the Wolseong Nuclear Power Plant near the coast in Yangnam-myeon, featuring four CANDU-type reactors built with Canadian technology. Unit 1 entered commercial operation in 1983, followed by Units 2–4 between 1997 and 1999, collectively generating significant electricity and providing substantial economic benefits to Gyeongju through direct employment, supplier contracts, and local taxes that support community development.[27]Fishing activities in Gampo-eup, a coastal township, focus on capturing and processing East Sea seafood, with the local port serving as an important landing point for marine resources. Local initiatives, such as the release of juvenile rockfish to enhance stocks, underscore efforts to sustain this sector's viability.[96]
Tourism sector
Gyeongju's tourism sector is a cornerstone of the local economy, leveraging the city's status as a UNESCOWorld Heritage site to attract visitors interested in its ancient Silla Kingdom legacy. In 2024, the city welcomed millions of domestic tourists and approximately 1.18 million international visitors from December 2023 to November 2024.[97][98]The infrastructure supporting this sector includes over 1,100 hotels and guesthouses, ranging from luxury resorts to traditional hanok stays, catering to diverse traveler needs. Visitor numbers exhibit seasonal peaks, with approximately 4.1 million tourists recorded from January to October 2023 during periods like spring cherry blossoms and autumn foliage, straining capacity but highlighting the city's appeal.[99][100]Tourism's economic multipliers are evident in its contribution to employment, supporting a significant portion of local jobs in the hospitality and related industries, as well as ancillary sectors like retail and transport. The 2025 APEC summit in Gyeongju has enhanced the city's global visibility, with expected long-term boosts in visitor arrivals and revenue.[30]Despite these benefits, the sector faces challenges such as overcrowding at major historical sites, leading to the adoption of sustainable management policies since 2010. These include visitor caps, timed entry systems, and eco-friendly initiatives to preserve cultural assets while promoting long-term viability.[101]
Society and recreation
Sports
Gyeongju features several key sports facilities that support local and regional athletic activities. The Gyeongju Civic Stadium, opened in 1979, serves as the primary venue for football and other events, with a seating capacity of 12,199 on a natural grass surface.[102] Adjacent to the stadium is the Gyeongju Football Park, which includes an indoor gymnasium, wrestling field, six soccer fields, and one futsal field, enhancing training options for athletes.[103] For aquatic sports, the Hwarang Village Swimming Pool functions as a public outdoor facility and youth training center, offering pools for swimming and water activities during summer months.[50]The city is home to Gyeongju KHNP WFC, a professional women's football club sponsored by Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power, founded in March 2017 with an initial roster of 27 players and five coaches. The team competes in the WK League, South Korea's top women's football division, and plays home matches at Gyeongju Civic Stadium and Gyeongju Football Park. In the 2020 season, disrupted by COVID-19, Gyeongju finished second in the regular season standings with 17 wins from 21 matches and advanced to the championship final, though they were defeated by Incheon Hyundai Steel Red Angels.In November 2025, Gyeongju hosted the APEC Summit, featuring international cultural exchanges and recreational events that highlighted the city's sports facilities.[104]Gyeongju hosts prominent running events that draw international participants and highlight the city's historical landscapes. The Gyeongju International Marathon, established in 1993 as a road race over the full 42.195 km distance, takes place annually in mid-October, starting at Hwangseong Park and passing ancient Silla Kingdom sites before ending near the Gyeongju National Museum.[105] The event, certified by World Athletics as an Elite Label road race, typically attracts thousands of runners, with over 15,000 participants reported for the 2025 edition.[106] Complementing this is the Gyeongju Cherry Blossom Marathon, held each April at the Bomun Tourist Complex amid blooming cherry trees, offering half-marathon, 10 km, and 5 km courses organized by the Gyeongju City Sports Association.[107]Gyeongju maintains strong connections to taekwondo, a national sport with Olympic significance since its full inclusion in 2000. The city has hosted major international competitions, including the 2011 WTF World Taekwondo Championships, which drew over 1,000 athletes from around the world for six days of events.[108] The city previously hosted the Gyeongju Korea Open InternationalTaekwondo Championships, a World Taekwondo G2-ranked event that brought together competitors from more than 20 countries, utilizing local dojos and facilities for training and matches.[109] These events position Gyeongju as a hub for elite taekwondo preparation, supporting South Korea's ongoing Olympic success in the discipline.[110]
Media and education
Gyeongju's media landscape features local newspapers that focus on regional news, culture, and community events. The Gyeongju Sinmun and Seorabeol Sinmun serve as primary weekly publications, providing coverage tailored to the city's historical and contemporary context. The Korean Broadcasting System (KBS) maintains a local branch in Gyeongju, delivering radio and television programming that includes news, educational content, and cultural broadcasts relevant to the North Gyeongsang Province.[111]The city's education system encompasses a range of institutions from primary to higher education, supporting its residents. South Korea's national adult literacy rate stands at 98.8%, a figure reflective of Gyeongju's high educational attainment. Gyeongju hosts several elementary, middle, and high schools that follow the standard six-year elementary, three-year middle, and three-year high school structure, emphasizing foundational skills and preparation for university entrance.[112][113]At the tertiary level, Gyeongju is home to notable universities, including Dongguk University Gyeongju Campus, a Buddhist-affiliated institution with programs rooted in Buddhist principles and broader academic disciplines, including medicine at its WISE campus.[114] Gyeongju University offers specialized programs, such as in cultural assets preservation, providing vocational training focused on cultural conservation techniques essential for maintaining the city's ancient Silla-era artifacts and sites.[115]Recent developments in digital media have enhanced Gyeongju's connectivity, particularly through tourism-focused applications. In 2023, the Korea Tourism Organization launched GyeongjuROn, an integrated smart tourism app developed under the Smart Tourism City project, featuring AI-based multilingual guides, AR experiences, and gamified content to promote local heritage and visitor convenience. This initiative, supported by a 2 billion KRW investment over two years, underscores the growth of digital platforms in amplifying Gyeongju's cultural narrative.[116]
Infrastructure
Transportation
Gyeongju is served by the KTXhigh-speed rail line, connecting the city to Seoul in approximately two hours over a distance of 280 kilometers.[117] The primary rail hub is Gyeongju Station (formerly Singyeongju Station), which opened in November 2010 as part of the Gyeongbu high-speed line expansion, providing efficient access to major destinations across South Korea.[118] Trains depart frequently from Seoul Station, with multiple daily services facilitating travel for both locals and tourists exploring the region's historical sites.Road infrastructure in Gyeongju includes National Highways 7 and 33, which traverse the city and link it to surrounding areas like Busan and Pohang. The Gyeongbu Expressway provides direct connectivity to Busan, approximately 70 kilometers away, with driving times around one hour under normal conditions.[119] These routes support seamless regional mobility, integrating Gyeongju's subdivisions through well-maintained networks.The city's intra-city bus system operates with multiple routes, including key lines like 10, 11, 60, and 61, offering affordable and frequent service to connect residential areas, tourist attractions, and terminals.[120] For air travel, shuttle buses from Gyeongju Intercity Bus Terminal to Daegu International Airport take about 45 minutes, with services running every 30 minutes.[121]Cycling paths encircle Gyeongju's heritage sites, forming a network of six routes totaling 108 kilometers developed since 1994 to promote eco-tourism and sustainable exploration of ancient landmarks.[122] These paths were expanded in 2022 to enhance accessibility for visitors, integrating with broader efforts to support low-impact mobility around cultural treasures like Bulguksa Temple and the Daereungwon Tomb Complex.[123]
Healthcare and utilities
Gyeongju's healthcare infrastructure includes major facilities such as Dongguk University Gyeongju Hospital, a general hospital with 430 beds across 30 departments, including specialized centers for radiation oncology and comprehensive cancer care.[124] The Gyeongju City Senior Specialized Nursing Hospital provides targeted geriatric services, addressing the needs of the city's aging demographic, where approximately 21.2% of residents were aged 65 or older as of 2020, exceeding the national average of 20.3% as of 2025.[125] This high elderly proportion underscores the focus on chronic disease management and long-term care in local clinics and hospitals. Additional support comes from facilities like Keimyung University Gyeongju Dongsan Hospital, offering 98 beds for regional medical services.[126]Public health initiatives in Gyeongju, aligned with national efforts, utilized local public health centers and hospitals as vaccination sites during the COVID-19 pandemic from 2020 to 2022, providing free immunizations to residents and contributing to South Korea's high coverage rates.[127] These centers facilitated rapid deployment of vaccines, including mRNA and viral vector types, as part of a government-funded program that achieved over 80% first-dose uptake nationwide by mid-2021.Utilities in Gyeongju are managed through municipal and national systems, with water supply primarily sourced from the Hyeongsan River and regional networks, with targets to achieve 97.9% coverage for residents in Pohang and Gyeongju combined by 2025, contributing to national rates of 99.5% as of 2023.[128]Electricitydistribution is handled by Korea Electric Power Corporation (KEPCO), with the nearby Wolseong Nuclear Power Plant providing substantial output, including approximately 5,600 MW from its operational units, supporting the national grid that meets about one-third of South Korea's electricity needs.[27]Waste management emphasizes sustainability, with municipal recycling rates reflecting national trends of around 59% for general waste in 2023, supported by separation programs for recyclables, organics, and landfill items.[129]Sewage treatment covers over 90% of the population through public facilities, with urban areas benefiting from advanced plants that treat wastewater to meet environmental standards before discharge or reuse.[130]
International relations
Twin towns and sister cities
Gyeongju maintains a network of international sister city relationships to promote cultural, historical, and economic exchanges, reflecting its status as a UNESCO World Heritage site and host of global events like the 2025 APEC Summit. These partnerships facilitate mutual understanding between ancient capitals and modern cities, emphasizing shared heritage and people-to-people connections. As of October 2025, Gyeongju has exchange agreements (including sister and friendship cities) with 22 cities across 12 countries, 8 of which are in China.[131]Key partnerships include Nara, Japan, established in 1970 to foster cultural exchanges rooted in the historical ties between the Silla Kingdom and ancient Japanese kingdoms.[132]Xi'an, China, became a sister city in 1994, focusing on heritage preservation and archaeological collaboration due to their parallel roles as ancient capitals along the Silk Road.[133] In the United States, Inglewood, California, paired with Gyeongju in 1990 to advance educational and cultural programs, marking one of the city's early international links.[134]More recent additions highlight Gyeongju's expanding global outreach. Nitra, Slovakia, formalized its sister city status on August 21, 2014, building on exchanges initiated in 2011 that include youth sports tournaments and agricultural cooperation.[135]Almaty, Kazakhstan, agreed to a friendship pact in September 2015, aimed at cultural and economic ties linked to Silk Road themes.[136]Yangzhou, China, established relations in 2008, promoting tourism and scholarly exchanges inspired by historical figures like the Silla scholar Choe Chi-won.[137]These relationships support various exchange programs, such as student and youth delegations, joint cultural festivals, and collaborative exhibitions, particularly amplified ahead of the 2025 APEC Summit in Gyeongju. In 2025, ahead of and during the APEC Summit, partnerships with cities like Xi'an and Yangzhou were strengthened through joint exhibitions of artifacts, calligraphy, and cultural performances that bridge historical narratives.[133][137] Benefits include enhanced tourism promotion and economic opportunities through trade initiatives, though specific figures vary by partnership.[62][138]