Soup
Soup is a flavorful, primarily liquid food prepared by simmering ingredients such as meat, vegetables, legumes, or grains in water, stock, or another liquid medium to extract and combine tastes, often resulting in a nutritious and easily digestible dish served warm or hot.[1][2]
Archaeological evidence suggests soup's origins trace to prehistoric humans, possibly Neanderthals boiling animal bones for nutrient extraction as early as 20,000 BC, marking it as one of the oldest prepared foods tied to the advent of cooking liquids over fire.[3]
Classified broadly into clear broth-based varieties and thick emulsions incorporating starches or dairy, soups adapt to diverse ingredients and techniques, reflecting efficient resource use in cooking while empirical research links their consumption to lower meal energy intake, enhanced satiety, and greater fiber and protein absorption compared to solid equivalents.[2][4][5]
Definition and Fundamentals
Etymology and Terminology
The word soup entered English in the late 14th century from Old French soupe, denoting broth or a piece of bread soaked in it, which itself derived from Late Latin suppa ("soaked bread" or liquid food absorbed by bread).[6] This root traces further to a Proto-Germanic stem sup-, meaning "to sip" or "to soak," shared with terms like "supper," "sup," and "sop," emphasizing the act of absorbing liquid into solids as a foundational preparation method.[6][7] The concept aligns with post-classical Latin suppāre ("to soak"), underscoring soup's historical identity as a simple, liquid-infused sustenance rather than a standalone dish.[8] Culinary terminology distinguishes soup as a dish where liquid predominates, often resulting from simmering ingredients to extract flavors into a broth or stock base, with solids either strained or suspended for consumption.[9] This contrasts with stew, which employs less liquid that barely covers chunkier ingredients, subjecting them to prolonged, low-heat cooking to tenderize solids while thickening the medium through reduction or starch release, yielding a heartier, semi-solid consistency served from the cooking vessel.[9][10] Broth refers specifically to a clear, seasoned liquid extracted by gently simmering meat, bones, or vegetables, functioning as a finished, flavorful soup variant or base, whereas stock denotes an unseasoned, concentrated broth simmered longer from bones and aromatics, primarily for building other dishes.[11] These distinctions arose from practical cooking evolutions, with soups prioritizing liquid extraction and versatility, as evidenced in historical recipes prioritizing infusion over structural integrity of solids.[9]Composition and Basic Characteristics
Soup consists primarily of a liquid medium in which solid ingredients are simmered to extract flavors, nutrients, and aromas through heat-induced solubilization of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and other compounds.[12] The core composition includes a base liquid such as water, stock (derived from simmering bones, meat, or vegetables), or broth, which constitutes the majority of the volume and serves as the vehicle for dissolved essences.[2] Solid components typically encompass proteins from meats, poultry, fish, or legumes; carbohydrates from vegetables, grains, or starches; and fats from animal sources or added oils, with seasonings like herbs, spices, and aromatics (e.g., onions, celery, carrots in mirepoix) enhancing umami and balance.[13] In clear soups, the composition emphasizes unemulsified broths or stocks strained to remove particulates, preserving transparency while concentrating gelatin from collagen breakdown in bones, which imparts body without opacity.[2] Thick soups, by contrast, incorporate thickeners such as pureed starchy vegetables (e.g., potatoes or legumes), roux (flour-fat mixtures), rice, or dairy products like cream, which bind particles and increase viscosity through starch gelatinization or emulsification.[13] These elements result in a spectrum of textures from brothy lightness to velvety smoothness, with nutritional profiles varying by ingredients—e.g., vegetable-based soups providing fiber and vitamins, while meat-inclusive variants adding bioavailable proteins and minerals.[2] Basic characteristics of soup include its extractive preparation method, where prolonged simmering (typically 1-4 hours depending on ingredients) facilitates Maillard reactions for depth and hydrolysis for tenderness, yielding a cohesive flavor profile distinct from mere mixtures.[12] Soups are predominantly served hot to optimize aroma volatilization and sensory perception, though cold variants (e.g., gazpacho) rely on raw or chilled extraction for freshness, with overall liquid content exceeding 70-90% by volume to maintain pourability.[13] Garnishes, such as diced vegetables or herbs added post-cooking, preserve textural contrast without overcooking, ensuring the final product balances homogeneity with identifiable elements.[2]Historical Development
Prehistoric and Ancient Origins
The practice of boiling ingredients to create soup-like preparations predates pottery, relying on stone-boiling techniques where heated rocks were dropped into water-filled containers made from animal hides, bark, or wooden vessels to cook food without direct fire contact.[14] This method, evidenced by archaeological patterns of fire-cracked rocks and food residues in Paleolithic sites, likely produced early broths or stews from meat, bones, and plants as early as the Middle Paleolithic. Recent analysis of faunal remains from a 125,000-year-old Neanderthal site in Germany indicates systematic smashing of bones to access marrow, followed by inferred boiling to render and skim fat for caloric enrichment during lean periods, marking one of the earliest documented instances of nutrient extraction akin to broth-making.[15][16] The invention of ceramic pottery around 20,000 years before present in East Asia revolutionized boiling by providing durable, heat-resistant vessels capable of sustaining prolonged simmering. Fragments from Xianrendong Cave in Jiangxi Province, China, dated to approximately 18,000–20,000 BP, bear scorch marks and residues suggestive of cooking fish or other proteins in water, representing the earliest direct evidence of pottery used for soup preparation.[17] Micromorphological studies of these contexts confirm repeated heating events consistent with boiling starchy plants, seeds, or aquatic resources, enabling more efficient extraction of nutrients from otherwise indigestible materials.[18] In ancient civilizations, soup evolved into a staple with documented recipes and residues. In Mesopotamia, cuneiform tablets from around 1750 BCE describe barley-based stews with leeks, onions, and meat simmered in broths, reflecting everyday and elite consumption patterns inferred from excavated cooking vessels.[19] Egyptian archaeological sites yield evidence of bone broths dating to circa 6000 BCE, often incorporating hippopotamus or fish, as indicated by lipid residues in pottery, though textual records emphasize medicinal porridges over elaborate soups.[20] In China, by the Warring States period (circa 400 BCE), sealed bronze vessels preserved meat and bone soups, such as a 2,400-year-old example unearthed near Xi'an containing gelatinous remains of mutton or goat, demonstrating advanced preservation and flavoring techniques with herbs and spices.[21] These developments underscore soup's role in utilizing available resources for sustenance and health across diverse environments.Medieval to Early Modern Periods
In medieval Europe, pottages constituted a primary dietary staple, consisting of thick, boiled mixtures of available grains like oats or peas, vegetables such as leeks, cabbage, and onions, and sparse meat or fish additions when possible, simmered in water or rudimentary broths. These dishes served both as sustenance and preservation method for perishable ingredients amid agrarian economies prone to scarcity, with daily consumption varying by season and class—peasants relying on simple vegetable-heavy versions while nobility enhanced theirs with imported spices.[22][23] The Forme of Cury, an English culinary manuscript compiled circa 1390 under the supervision of King Richard II's cooks, documents over 20 pottage variants, including "Caboches in Potage," which instructs boiling cabbage and onions in broth augmented with saffron, powder douce (a blend of spices like cinnamon and ginger), and optional meat, yielding a colored, aromatic soup served at courtly banquets.[24] Other entries, such as "Iowtes of Almaund Mylke," feature herb-based green soups thickened with ground almonds instead of dairy, accommodating Lenten fasting or dairy scarcity.[25][26] Monastic traditions further shaped soup preparation, emphasizing vegetable and pulse broths for ascetic diets, as evidenced in surviving herbals and rulebooks like the Regula Sancti Benedicti, which prescribed diluted, nourishing liquids during fasts to sustain laborers without excess.[27] Transitioning into the early modern era (circa 1500–1800), Italian Renaissance cookery elevated soups through refined techniques and documentation, as seen in Bartolomeo Scappi's Opera dell'arte del cucinare (1570), a comprehensive papal cookbook outlining dozens of zuppe—thick or clear preparations using clarified meat stocks, foraged elements like field mushrooms sautéed with butter before simmering, or chickpeas pureed with prosciutto and broth for density.[28][29] Scappi's recipes introduced layered flavors, such as hop-shoot soups parboiled then enriched with eggs and verjuice for acidity, reflecting access to diverse botanicals and a shift toward gastronomic precision in elite households.[30] Northern European variants persisted, including beer soups favored as breakfast for rulers, prepared by heating ale with egg yolks, cream, mace, butter, and raisins for a spiced, restorative porridge-like dish.[31] Printed cookbooks proliferated post-Gutenberg, disseminating these methods across classes, though socioeconomic divides endured—rural poor continued basic pottages while urban elites experimented with consommé precursors strained for clarity.[28]Industrial Revolution and Beyond
The Industrial Revolution facilitated the commercialization of soup through innovations in preservation and distribution. Canning technology emerged in the early 19th century, enabling the production of shelf-stable soups for military provisions, westward migrations, and urban households. Dehydrated soups also appeared during this period, supporting chuck wagons and covered wagon trains.[20] Urban industrialization exacerbated poverty and famine, prompting organized soup relief efforts. In 1847, amid the Irish Potato Famine, French chef Alexis Soyer established model soup kitchens in Dublin, designing efficient systems with large boilers to serve up to 5,000 meals daily to the starving population. Soyer's approach emphasized nutritious, low-cost formulations using available ingredients like Indian meal and rice, influencing public health responses to destitution in growing industrial cities.[32][33] Commercial soup production advanced significantly in the late 19th century. The Campbell Soup Company, founded in 1869 in Camden, New Jersey, by Joseph A. Campbell and Abraham Anderson as a canning operation for fruits and vegetables, pivoted to soups. In 1897, chemist John T. Dorrance invented condensed soup by removing water content, reducing packaging size and costs, which made canned varieties affordable for mass markets and transformed soup from a luxury to a staple.[34][35] In the 20th century, further mechanization and global supply chains expanded soup varieties and accessibility. Dehydration techniques improved for instant preparations, while branding and advertising, exemplified by Campbell's iconic labels, integrated soup into everyday diets amid rising consumerism. These developments prioritized convenience and scalability, with production scaling to meet demands from wartime rations to household pantries.[20]Preparation Techniques
Stocks, Broths, and Bases
Stocks and broths serve as foundational liquids in soup preparation, extracting flavors, proteins, and minerals from animal tissues and vegetables through prolonged simmering to create a concentrated base that enhances umami and body in finished dishes.[36][37] Stock specifically derives from bones, cartilage, and connective tissues, yielding a gelatinous liquid due to collagen breakdown after extended cooking, typically 4 to 12 hours depending on the type.[38] Broth, by contrast, emerges from simmering meat or vegetables for shorter durations, often 1 to 3 hours, resulting in a lighter, more aromatic liquid suitable for direct consumption or simpler soups.[39][36] These distinctions trace to French culinary codification in the 19th century, where stocks were refined as essences for sauces and reductions, building on ancient practices of boiling bones for sustenance.[40] Preparation of stock begins with selecting bones—such as beef knuckles, chicken carcasses, or fish heads—often roasted for brown stock to develop Maillard reaction flavors via caramelization at temperatures around 300–400°F (149–204°C) for 30–60 minutes.[38] The bones are then covered with cold water in a stockpot, brought to a gentle simmer, and augmented with mirepoix (roughly equal parts onions, carrots, and celery, comprising about 20% of the total volume) plus aromatics like bay leaves, thyme, parsley stems, and peppercorns.[41] Impurities are skimmed regularly to maintain clarity, and the mixture simmers uncovered to reduce volume by 20–50%, concentrating gelatin and extracting glucosamine and minerals like calcium from bones.[42] White stocks skip roasting, using raw ingredients blanched in boiling water to preserve lightness for velouté-based soups.[38] Broth preparation mirrors this but prioritizes meat cuts like chicken thighs or beef shanks, cut into pieces for faster flavor release, with less emphasis on bones and a shorter simmer to avoid cloudiness from over-extraction.[36][41] Soup bases encompass commercial concentrates, such as bouillon cubes or pastes, which replicate stock or broth profiles through dehydration and seasoning, often invented in the early 20th century—Knorr's version dates to 1908—for efficient reconstitution in professional and home kitchens.[43] These differ from homemade versions by incorporating salt (up to 30% by weight), MSG for umami enhancement, and preservatives, yielding a product with higher sodium content (around 800–1000 mg per cup reconstituted) but less nuanced depth due to processed ingredients.[37] Vegetable-based broths or stocks, lacking animal proteins, rely on high-water-content produce like leeks, mushrooms, and tomatoes simmered for 45–90 minutes, providing acidity and earthiness without gelatin, ideal for vegan soups.[44] In soup-making, stocks impart structure for creamy or thick varieties via reduction, while broths suit clear consommés or noodle-based preparations, with the choice influencing final texture—gelatin from stock sets upon cooling, signaling quality.[42][36]Cooking Methods and Variations
Soups are fundamentally prepared by simmering ingredients in a liquid base, such as water, stock, or broth, to extract flavors, soften textures, and integrate components. Aromatics like onions, garlic, celery, and carrots are typically sweated in fat (e.g., butter, oil, or bacon renderings) over low heat to release essential oils without browning, followed by the addition of liquid and primary ingredients, which are brought to a boil then reduced to a gentle simmer at approximately 85–95°C (185–205°F) to avoid clouding or toughening.[45][46] This method preserves clarity in broths and allows for controlled flavor development, with cooking durations ranging from 30 minutes for vegetable-based soups to 3–8 hours for meat or bone stocks, depending on the density of ingredients.[47] Clear soup variations emphasize straining to remove solids after simmering, yielding a transparent liquid such as consommé or bouillon. For consommés, additional clarification involves rafting—a process where ground meat, mirepoix, and egg whites form a floating filter that traps impurities as the mixture simmers gently for 1–2 hours, resulting in a refined, amber-hued broth.[48] Straining through cheesecloth or fine mesh ensures particle-free results, often followed by degreasing via chilling or skimming.[49] These techniques prioritize purity and lightness, contrasting with unstrained broths that retain subtle particulate matter for rustic presentations. Thick soup variations achieve body through pureeing, emulsification, or starch-based thickening. In pureed soups, ingredients are simmered until tender (e.g., root vegetables or legumes softening in 20–45 minutes), cooled slightly, then blended using an immersion blender submerged to avoid splatters or a food processor filled halfway to vent steam, yielding textures from chunky to silky; straining may follow for smoothness, with adjustments via additional stock for consistency.[45] Roux-thickened types, like chowders or veloutés, incorporate equal parts fat and flour cooked to a pale golden stage (blond roux) before whisking in hot liquid, simmering 1 hour to develop flavor and prevent lumps, then finishing with dairy or pureed elements.[49][50] Bisques extend this by pureeing shellfish post-simmering, straining, and enriching with cream or rice puree, while cream soups add dairy directly after base cooking to emulsify without curdling.[51] These methods enhance mouthfeel but require vigilant stirring to maintain emulsion stability.Classification of Soups
By Consistency and Texture
Soups are primarily classified by consistency into clear and thick categories, with texture arising from the presence or absence of solid particles, emulsions, or suspensions that alter viscosity and mouthfeel. Clear soups feature a thin, unthickened liquid base derived from strained stocks or broths, yielding a smooth, transparent texture free of visible solids or opacity.[2][48] These maintain fluidity at serving temperature, allowing separation of fat if not skimmed, and rely on natural clarity from simmering and clarification techniques like raft formation in consommés.[52] Thick soups, by contrast, exhibit higher viscosity achieved through incorporation of starches, purees, or dairy, resulting in creamy, velvety, or chunky textures that coat the palate more substantially.[53] Common thickening agents include roux—a cooked mixture of flour and fat that gelatinizes upon heating—or slurries of cornstarch dispersed in liquid, both of which form suspensions that trap water and increase body without separation.[54][55] Pureeing starchy vegetables like potatoes or legumes provides inherent thickness via cell rupture and starch release, producing smooth consistencies in soups such as vichyssoise.[56] Within thick soups, subtypes further delineate texture: bisques involve pureed shellfish enriched with cream and strained for silkiness, while chowders incorporate diced solids like potatoes or seafood in a milk- or cream-based medium, yielding a hearty, particulate texture.[57][52] Velouté-based creams use roux-thickened poultry or fish stocks finished with liaison of egg yolks and cream for a light, emulsified smoothness, distinct from heavier purees reliant on ingredient starch alone.[53] These variations in consistency and texture influence not only sensory appeal but also stability, with emulsions prone to breaking if overheated and suspensions requiring agitation to prevent settling.[54]| Type | Consistency/Texture Description | Thickening Method | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| Clear/Broth | Thin, smooth, transparent liquid | None (strained stock) | Consommé, bouillon[48] |
| Puree | Smooth, thick paste-like | Vegetable/legume pulverization | Potato leek, lentil[56] |
| Cream/Velouté | Velvety, emulsified creaminess | Roux + dairy/egg liaison | Asparagus cream, chicken velouté[57] |
| Bisque | Silky, rich puree | Puree + cream straining | Lobster bisque[52] |
| Chowder | Chunky, hearty with solids | Starch/dairy suspension | Clam chowder, corn chowder[53] |