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Hello Girls

The Hello Girls, officially the Signal Corps Female Telephone Operators Unit, were approximately 223 bilingual (English and French) women recruited by the United States Army to serve as switchboard operators during , connecting critical military telephone communications for the (AEF) primarily in . Initiated by General in 1917 amid inefficient male-operated systems, the program drew over 7,000 applicants, selecting experienced telephone operators who underwent military training at various U.S. camps before deploying overseas starting in March 1918 under Chief Operator Grace Banker. They were the first non-nursing women sworn into the Army and assigned to overseas duty, operating in uniform amid combat zones, including during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, where they maintained lines under shellfire and restored service after evacuations. These operators handled millions of calls, often exceeding 5,000 per eight-hour shift across units, achieving connections six times faster than their male predecessors and earning praise from leadership for their efficiency and reliability, which freed male soldiers for frontline duties. Over 30 received individual commendations, with Banker awarded the Distinguished Service Medal for leadership in . Despite their military oath, uniforms, and exposure to hazards, the classified them as civilian contractors post-war, denying veterans' benefits, burial rights, and pensions—a decision rooted in administrative policy rather than their service record—which sparked a six-decade legal and legislative battle by survivors and advocates. Recognition came incrementally, with surviving operators granted veteran status in 1977 via a bill signed by President , followed by broader honors including the 2019 awarded collectively to the unit.

Origins and Context

The Need for Bilingual Operators

Prior to the entry of the into , the U.S. relied on male soldiers, often untrained or reassigned from combat duties, to operate switchboards, resulting in frequent delays and errors due to their lack of specialized skills and high turnover rates. These operators typically required up to one minute to connect a single call, hampering the rapid transmission of critical orders for artillery coordination and troop movements. The deployment of to intensified the demand for efficient communication, as frontline switchboards interfaced with telephone networks, necessitating operators fluent in both English and to ensure accurate, connections amid mixed-language commands. civilian operators, while available, often lacked English proficiency and exhibited lax performance, further degrading reliability for U.S. operations. Bilingual capability was essential for bridging these systems, enabling swift relays of tactical instructions that could determine battlefield outcomes. On November 8, 1917, General cabled Washington requesting 100 professional women telephone operators proficient in both languages to supplant the ineffective male personnel, prioritizing operational efficacy over traditional gender roles in the . This directive underscored the military's pragmatic assessment that skilled female civilians could deliver superior performance in sustaining the communication backbone vital to Allied advances.

History of the Term "Hello Girls"

The term "Hello Girls" emerged in the late as common for civilian female operators , particularly those employed by companies like Bell , who routinely greeted callers with "hello" to establish connections. This designation highlighted their role in facilitating clear, polite communication but carried the era's informal, gendered connotations for women in technical service positions. During , the nickname was repurposed for the 223 bilingual women recruited by the U.S. Army Signal Corps to handle overseas switchboard operations, distinguishing their military-aligned duties from domestic civilian work despite lacking formal Army enlistment or designation as soldiers—they served as civilian contractors under oath. The first documented military applications appeared in early media, including a March 20 announcement of their readiness for and a Stars and Stripes dispatch on their arrival, reflecting rapid informal adoption amid urgent deployment needs. The operators protested the term later in 1918, seeking the War Department to enforce "soldier" as their official address in recognition of their disciplined service, yet it endured in soldier letters, Army newspapers, and postwar accounts for its evocation of their efficient frontline connectivity under fire. This usage underscored both practical admiration for their technical prowess and the period's casual descriptors for women in support roles, without supplanting their operational identity.

Recruitment and Preparation

Selection Criteria and Process

The U.S. Army established stringent selection criteria for female telephone operators in early , prioritizing bilingual fluency in English and to ensure precise transmission of military orders amid the chaos of frontline communications, prior professional experience with switchboard operations—typically acquired at private firms like the —and overall fitness for overseas duty in a war zone. Candidates also needed to pass physical examinations, psychological assessments, and security background checks to verify reliability under stress and potential enemy threats. These requirements targeted unmarried, college-educated women in their mid-20s on average, reflecting a merit-based approach driven by General John J. Pershing's urgent cablegram for skilled operators to bolster the ' failing telephone networks. Recruitment involved nationwide newspaper advertisements soliciting applications from experienced civilian operators, yielding over 7,000 responses despite the demanding overseas commitment. Applicants underwent rigorous interviews, proficiency tests in telephony and languages, and evaluations of poise and patriotism, with selections emphasizing technical competence over numerical quotas; ultimately, 223 women qualified for the inaugural unit after weeding out those lacking the requisite speed, accuracy, and resilience. The chosen operators enlisted voluntarily via oaths administered under military authority, pledging service for the war's duration in exchange for pay rates comparable to junior officers—ranging from $60 per month for standard roles—plus government-provided transportation, rations, and quarters, underscoring their patriotic response to the national crisis. This process ensured a cadre of highly capable women, many with prior training, ready to integrate into the Signal Corps without diluting operational standards.

Training Regimen

The training for Female Telephone Operators, commonly known as the Hello Girls, encompassed military indoctrination and specialized instruction to equip participants for frontline communication duties in . Recruits, selected for their bilingual French-English proficiency and prior switchboard experience, underwent preparation at multiple U.S. sites, including Camp Fort Meade in and the American Telephone & Telegraph headquarters in , . This regimen integrated civilian expertise with standards, as the operators were sworn into federal service and issued olive drab uniforms, helmets, and gas masks akin to those of male soldiers. Daily military drills formed a core component, instilling discipline, proper saluting, rank awareness, and adherence to protocols, with chief operators holding authority equivalent to non-commissioned officers. Trainees practiced physical formations and marches, often on rooftops during final phases before , to foster and readiness for the rigors of overseas assignment. Additional elements included gas mask donning drills and basic firearms familiarization with pistols, reflecting expectations of proximity to zones despite their non-combat roles. Technical training focused on advanced switchboard operations tailored to needs, such as rapid connection of lines for command coordination and handling high-volume calls under time pressure. Emphasis was placed on accuracy in transmitting orders, including coded or urgent messages, with rigorous evaluation of language skills and technical aptitude to ensure reliability in chaotic environments. Approximately 450 women entered the program in early 1918, but only 223 deployed to France after completing requirements, underscoring the selective nature of the preparation that prioritized operational effectiveness over volume. This multifaceted approach transformed civilian operators into a disciplined cadre capable of sustaining the ' signaling network.

Deployment and Operations

Arrival in France and Assignments

The first contingent of 33 Hello Girls arrived in in March 1918, with subsequent groups following to bolster Expeditionary Forces communications. Over the course of the war, a total of 223 women were deployed overseas, assigned to operate switchboards at critical hubs such as , Chaumont (General John J. Pershing's headquarters), Souilly, , and other forward positions. These assignments placed operators in high-volume exchanges handling thousands of calls daily, often in areas vulnerable to artillery fire, including Souilly near the front lines during the launched on September 26, 1918. Rapid deployment expansions supported the offensive's demands, with call volumes surging dramatically at key sites like Souilly to facilitate coordination among Allied units. Bilingual operators integrated systems with infrastructure, adapting immediately to challenges such as frequently damaged lines from shelling and intermittent power supplies, ensuring reliable connectivity for command operations.

Daily Duties and Technical Role

The Hello Girls operated manual cord-type switchboards, inserting plugs into jacks to connect incoming and outgoing calls across multiple positions, thereby linking headquarters with field units and allied lines. These switchboards facilitated the routing of critical , including orders for troop deployments and artillery coordination, using standardized procedures to ensure rapid linkage of local and long-distance circuits. Switchboard operations ran continuously, with operators rotating through day, evening, and night shifts to maintain 24-hour coverage; at key locations like headquarters, individual shifts lasted approximately six hours under high-volume conditions. Upon answering a call via the ringing drop or lamp signal, an would confirm the destination, insert the cords, ring the receiving party, and verify the circuit's integrity before transferring control, often employing bilingual -English skills to coordinate with interconnected exchanges or messages if direct patching failed. Operators monitored active connections for transmission quality, addressing disruptions such as static interference or line cuts by testing circuits, substituting alternate routes, or manually relaying verbal content when automated linkage was unavailable. Each connection required logging details including time, parties involved, and duration to support record-keeping and billing for the Army's communication network. Individual operators averaged 250 to 350 connections per hour during peak loads, such as in exchanges where processing a single call took 40 to 60 seconds. Over the course of their deployment from March 1918 to November 1918, the 223 Hello Girls collectively handled more than 26 million calls, sustaining the ' telephone infrastructure across bases in Chaumont, Paris, and other French sites.

Risks and Operational Challenges

The Hello Girls operated switchboards in proximity to active combat zones, exposing them to shelling, gas attacks, and aerial . During the St. Mihiel Offensive in September 1918, operators at forward exchanges, such as those near Chaumont, maintained connections while within range of German fire, keeping steel helmets and gas masks readily accessible for immediate use. Similar hazards persisted at other stations, where incoming shells damaged infrastructure and required operators to continue duties amid constant threats, often with little sleep and under blackout conditions to avoid detection. Their status further compounded risks, as they lacked priority for evacuation during attacks, relying on personnel for protection without formal combat privileges. Operational difficulties included frequent disruptions to lines from sabotage, enemy shelling, and , which severed connections and overloaded switchboards during major offensives. Lines were routinely cut or bombed, necessitating rapid manual splicing and repairs by teams working under fire, while operators managed surging call volumes—up to thousands daily—that tested equipment limits and required precise bilingual coordination to restore critical links. Primitive living quarters in requisitioned buildings or tents exacerbated these challenges, with operators enduring vermin infestations, inadequate sanitation, and exposure to prevalent in wartime , contributing to health declines without access to rear-area medical priorities. Psychological tolls arose from overhearing frontline reports of , coordinates, and urgent orders, fostering sustained tension in high-stakes environments where errors could delay reinforcements or . Two operators died during service from non-combat causes, including and accidents, highlighting their vulnerability despite avoidance of direct ; others returned with lasting injuries like spinal acquired in damp, overcrowded billets. These exposures underscored the operators' roles in hazardous, forward positions essential to functionality, though without the safeguards afforded to armed troops.

Achievements and Effectiveness

Communication Impacts on the War Effort

The bilingual capabilities of the Hello Girls enabled rapid connection of telephone calls, averaging 10 seconds per call compared to 60 seconds for male operators, which minimized delays in relaying commands and intelligence across the (AEF) in . This efficiency was crucial for real-time coordination, as prior reliance on non-French-speaking personnel had caused communication lags that hindered operational tempo. In the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, launched on September 26, 1918, Hello Girls at First Army headquarters in Souilly operated switchboards under intermittent German artillery fire, seven miles from the front lines, sustaining the vital links that directed over 1.2 million troops and facilitated artillery adjustments and troop reinforcements essential to breaking the by November 11. Their uninterrupted service prevented the kinds of breakdowns experienced with earlier male-operated systems, directly supporting advances that inflicted heavy casualties on German forces and accelerated the war's end. Peak operational demands saw the operators handling up to 150,000 calls daily, maintaining logistical supply chains and command relays that sustained AEF divisions amid the rapid mobilization of the final offensives. General praised their contributions for enabling effective battlefield communications, crediting the Female Telephone Operators Unit with outstanding performance in official dispatches. Post-Armistice on , 1918, contingents transferred to to support proceedings through January 1919, ensuring reliable telephone connectivity for U.S. delegates and averting disruptions during negotiations that formalized the Allied victory. Overall, their role in processing millions of calls fortified the AEF's operational resilience, contributing causally to the collapse of German resistance by preserving the integrity of command and sustainment networks.

Comparisons to Male Operators

Prior to the deployment of female operators, male soldiers assigned to switchboard duties, often untrained draftees lacking prior experience, averaged to complete a connection, resulting in delays that hindered communications. In contrast, the Hello Girls, selected for their expertise in bilingual switchboard operations, reduced average connection times to 10 seconds, enabling six times greater efficiency and minimizing disruptions in urgent calls. This proficiency translated to substantial increases in call volume; upon their arrival in in March 1918, daily connections tripled from 13,000 to 36,000, and with subsequent units, reached 150,000 per day by war's end, approximately tenfold the pre-deployment capacity. The female operators also demonstrated superior accuracy and reliability, with Signal Corps evaluations attributing fewer misrouted calls and operational errors to their specialized training and lower turnover rates compared to male counterparts frequently reassigned to roles. Male operators' inexperience contributed to higher error incidences, while the Hello Girls' retention in static positions without diversions ensured consistent , as noted in post-war assessments praising their "unquestioned superiority." Chief Signal Officer George O. Squier's 1919 report concluded that employing skilled female civilians was "decidedly a success," recommending their model for future efficiency over rotating unskilled soldiers.

Military Status Dispute

Service Conditions and Uniformity

The female telephone operators of the U.S. , known as the Hello Girls, wore regulation military uniforms consisting of wool coats, skirts, and caps adorned with buttons and insignia. Initially , these uniforms were later modified to olive drab to align more closely with standard attire, including campaign hats and capes. Operators purchased the garments at their own expense, with no reimbursement, underscoring their operational integration despite classification. Hierarchy among the operators mirrored military structure, with chief operators holding supervisory roles equivalent to non-commissioned officers, responsible for overseeing teams and maintaining discipline. They underwent rigorous military training, including drills, usage, , and instruction in traditions and terminology, fostering a regimen akin to enlisted personnel. The Hello Girls were bound by Army discipline, including subjection to the , which subjected them to courts-martial jurisdiction for violations such as dereliction of duty. Instances occurred where officers threatened courts-martial to compel evacuation from fire-endangered posts, only after operators insisted on completing connections. General John J. Pershing's 1918 directives incorporated them seamlessly into the , issuing orders that treated them as essential combatants without differentiating from male soldiers in frontline communications roles. Though compensated at rates—approximately $60 monthly base plus overseas increments—they functioned under direct command, saluting officers and adhering to operational protocols indistinguishable from those of uniformed troops. This military status was evident in their assignment to forward exchanges under artillery fire, where they prioritized mission continuity over personal safety.

Post-War Denial of Veteran Benefits

Upon returning to the between 1919 and early 1920, the 223 Hello Girls who had served overseas with the U.S. Signal Corps were not issued honorable discharge papers, as the classified them as civilian contract employees rather than enlisted soldiers. This classification stemmed from pre-war U.S. enlistment statutes, which explicitly limited regular enlistment to men and excluded women from or line-of-communication roles under military oath, despite the operators having sworn oaths, worn uniforms, and adhered to and courts-martial during service. As a result, the women were denied mustering-out pay—such as the $60 bonus provided to personnel—and eligibility for pensions or burial in national cemeteries, with the citing their technical non-enlistment status amid prevailing norms that reserved soldierhood for men in wartime operations. Individual claims for these benefits, submitted immediately upon return, were rejected; for instance, Merle E. Anderson's application for the bonus was turned down on grounds that she was not a recognized . By 1924, the newly formed U.S. Veterans Bureau systematically rejected broader benefit applications from the Hello Girls, disregarding evidence of their uniformed service, frontline risks, and operational integration with male troops, and upholding the civilian employee designation to avoid expanding veteran liabilities in an era when female military incorporation remained statutorily barred. This bureaucratic stance prolonged denials, contributing to over 200 of the overseas operators dying without recognition or access to veterans' services, as the government's position prioritized legal technicalities over the causal realities of their contributions to wartime communications.

Legal Arguments and Government Position

The operators argued that their service constituted military status due to formal oaths administered under military authority, integration into the Army chain of command, and subjection to , including ranks equivalent to warrant officers and requirements for saluting superiors. They faced combat-zone risks such as artillery bombardment and gas attacks alongside s, performing functions essential to operational command without civilian equivalents, as evidenced by General John J. Pershing's post-war assertion that they were "as much a part of the as any soldier." Service records documented their training in military drills, wearing of Army uniforms, and handling of classified communications under penalty of for breaches. The U.S. government maintained that the operators were civilian contract employees, not enlisted personnel, because federal statutes at the time restricted regular Army enlistment to males and did not authorize women's inclusion in combat-zone military roles beyond auxiliary nursing. Absent a formal enlistment oath compliant with statutory requirements under the Articles of War, they were classified akin to other wartime civilian laborers, ineligible for veterans' benefits like pensions or bonuses administered by the Veterans Bureau. This position reflected early 20th-century policy prioritizing preservation of traditional gender roles in the military, confining women to support functions without granting soldier status to avoid implications for family structures and combat purity. In the , administrative rulings by the Veterans Bureau upheld these technical distinctions, denying benefit claims on grounds of non-enlistment despite functional military contributions, emphasizing form over operational equivalence. Subsequent historical analyses have highlighted the causal parity of their switchboard operations to frontline , arguing that statutory gaps created inequity in recognition without negating service under Pershing's expeditionary authority.

Fight for Recognition

Initial Post-War Efforts

Upon returning to the in 1919, Hello Girls operators applied for mustering-out pay and veteran benefits, but the War Department denied these claims, asserting that they had served as civilian contract employees rather than , despite their oaths of enlistment, subjection to military law, and performance of duties under fire. Individual operators, including those who had operated switchboards in forward areas, submitted personal petitions citing service records and exposure to combat risks equivalent to soldiers, yet these were rejected on the grounds that only combatants qualified under the Revenue Bill of 1918 for such compensation. In the early 1920s, scattered letters from former operators reached and officials, emphasizing their bilingual expertise's critical role in frontline communications and requesting inclusion in veterans' rolls alongside male members. Small, informal groups of operators began coordinating basic efforts through personal networks and associations, though lacking or widespread public support as memories faded. The War Department maintained resistance, prioritizing the civilian contract precedent to preclude similar claims from other wartime workers, which stalled momentum amid postwar fiscal retrenchment. By 1927, the first congressional bills emerged to retroactively grant military status, but these lapsed without passage due to entrenched bureaucratic opposition and insufficient advocacy unity. In 1930, renewed pushes included submissions of operator logs, affidavits attesting to their integration, and direct appeals to committees, spearheaded by figures like Merle Egan Anderson; however, these were dismissed, citing legal precedents against reclassifying civilians and emerging economic pressures from the that diminished appetite for expanded benefits.

Mid-Century Advocacy

Following , the successful integration of women into the U.S. military through the (WAC), established in 1942 under legislation sponsored by Representative , underscored the disparities in recognition for earlier female contributors like the Hello Girls. Unlike the WAC members, who received full military status and benefits, the World War I operators had been classified as civilians despite performing essential overseas duties under Army discipline. Rogers, a staunch for women veterans, highlighted this inconsistency, drawing parallels between the WAC's structured service and the Hello Girls' frontline communications role to argue for retroactive equity. In the , renewed legislative pushes emerged, with bills introduced to confer veteran status on the surviving operators, garnering endorsements from veterans and alumni who attested to their integral wartime contributions. These proposals, echoing Rogers' broader campaigns for female service recognition, faced resistance from the Veterans Administration and officials, who cited contractual civilian employment as precluding benefits eligibility, despite evidence of the operators' adherence to oaths, uniforms, and hierarchies. Surviving Hello Girls and their allies persisted in , compiling affidavits and service records to demonstrate the operators' soldierly sacrifices, though bureaucratic vetoes stalled progress. By the 1960s, amid evolving societal attitudes toward gender roles and policy—fueled by the Vietnam War's demands for expanded personnel—the advocacy gained traction through scattered media accounts and veterans' organization support, pressuring for historical reevaluation. Incremental advancements included references to the Hello Girls' efficiency in official retrospectives, framing their work as foundational to modern communications doctrine without yet granting formal status. These nods, while symbolic, contributed to a gradual shift, aligning with wider reviews of women's precedents and setting the stage for intensified federal scrutiny.

1977 Congressional Action and Aftermath

In 1977, Congress passed the GI Bill Improvement Act (Public Law 95-202), sponsored by Senator Barry Goldwater and signed into law by President Jimmy Carter on November 23, which retroactively granted veteran status to the 233 female telephone operators of the Army Signal Corps who had served overseas during World War I. The legislation was supported by declassified military records confirming their enlistment, oath-taking, and service under military authority, overturning prior government denials based on their civilian contract status. This action provided the women with honorable discharges, eligibility for the World War I Victory Medal, and access to Veterans Administration benefits, including pensions and medical care. By the time of the law's passage, however, the operators' average age exceeded 80 years, and only approximately 18 survivors remained to receive these honors directly. The retroactive benefits enabled the few living recipients to claim modest pensions and ensured burial in national cemeteries with military honors for them and eligible deceased relatives, though many had already passed without such recognition. Deceased operators' estates gained limited posthumous entitlements, but the delay meant most families received no substantive financial redress after decades of advocacy. In the aftermath, the Veterans Administration faced processing backlogs, with some applications unresolved for months amid bureaucratic hurdles in verifying overseas service records. The law explicitly excluded stateside trainees and domestic operators, limiting relief to the overseas contingent and leaving broader inequities unaddressed despite their auxiliary contributions. This partial resolution after 60 years highlighted persistent administrative resistance but marked a formal acknowledgment of their , paving the way for future commemorations.

Legacy and Recent Developments

Cultural and Historical Commemoration

Elizabeth Cobbs' 2017 book The Hello Girls: America's First Women Soldiers, published by Harvard University Press, utilizes primary archival materials including operators' diaries and military records to substantiate the women's essential role in facilitating over 26 million calls that supported Allied command efficiency during World War I. The work frames their service as a foundational instance of female integration into military logistics, drawing causal links between their bilingual switchboard operations and rapid communication advancements that outpaced male-only systems. Documentary films since the , such as the 2018 production The Hello Girls, incorporate 100-year-old letters, photographs, and interviews to depict the operators' frontline adaptations and technical innovations without overlaying modern ideological lenses on their contractual employment status. These media efforts highlight empirical outcomes, like reduced connection times under shellfire, positioning the Hello Girls as innovators in wartime rather than symbols of broader advocacy. Museum exhibits, including the National Museum of the Army's dedicated "Our Girls Over There" display, present artifacts and timelines that underscore the operators' contributions to efficacy, integrating their story into overviews focused on logistical realism over combat narratives. Such commemorations educate on the discrete impact of specialized non-combat labor, evidencing how the Hello Girls' proficiency in handling encrypted lines and multilingual protocols directly bolstered operational tempo in 1918 campaigns.

Ongoing Honors and Memorials

In December 2024, President Biden signed the Hello Girls Act into law, authorizing a single to collectively honor the 223 female telephone operators of the U.S. for their service overseas. This bipartisan legislation, advanced by advocates including the Forgotten Female Veterans group, recognized their deployment as the first women officially mustered into the U.S. for combat-zone duty, building on their veteran status without altering prior benefit structures. A 2023 PBS documentary, The Hello Girls, directed by Jim Theres, featured archival letters, photographs, and historian interviews to highlight survivor accounts and operational impacts, airing on to renewed public interest. Complementing this, the musical The Hello Girls—premiering in 2018 for the war's centennial—has seen revivals, including at Syracuse Stage in 2025 and Four Seasons Theatre in December 2025, dramatizing verified service records through ensemble performances of bilingual operators' experiences. Memorial efforts include the 2024 dedication of a for operator Marie Edmee LeRoux at Fort Lincoln Cemetery, marking her previously after decades of tied to . At , events in March 2025 at the Military Women's Memorial commemorated the group, including a screening of the documentary and remarks on the recent , honoring burials like that of Zada Daniels , the only known Hello Girl interred there. These tributes reflect incremental archival-driven recognition, with ceremonies at Signal Corps-related sites emphasizing their frontline communications role amid ongoing pushes for descendant-accessible records.