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Human relations movement

The Human Relations Movement was a paradigm in management and organizational theory that emerged in the late 1920s and early 1930s, emphasizing the influence of social interactions, group dynamics, and psychological factors on worker productivity rather than solely physical or economic incentives.^[1]^[2] It originated primarily from the Hawthorne experiments at the Western Electric Company's Hawthorne Works in Chicago, conducted between 1924 and 1933 under the leadership of Australian psychologist Elton Mayo and associates including Fritz Roethlisberger, which unexpectedly revealed that productivity gains often stemmed from workers' perceptions of being observed and valued, rather than changes in lighting or rest periods.^[1]^[3] This movement represented a critique of earlier scientific management principles, such as those advanced by Frederick Taylor, which prioritized task efficiency and treated workers as interchangeable parts, by instead advocating for attention to informal social structures, morale, and interpersonal relations within organizations.^[4]^[5] Key findings underscored the role of non-monetary motivators, including group norms and supervisory styles, in fostering cooperation and output, laying foundational concepts for fields like organizational behavior and modern human resource management.^[6]^[7] Among its notable achievements, the movement shifted managerial practices toward participatory leadership and employee involvement, influencing post-World War II industrial relations and contributing to theories of motivation that integrated social needs alongside physiological ones.^[8] However, it faced significant controversies, including methodological flaws in the Hawthorne studies—such as small sample sizes, lack of rigorous controls, and potential observer bias—which led critics to argue that the famed "Hawthorne effect" (productivity boosts from mere attention) was overstated or artifactual, neglecting enduring economic incentives and structural power dynamics in workplaces.^[9]^[10] Further scrutiny highlighted the theory's idealistic portrayal of harmonious groups, potentially enabling subtle managerial manipulation under the guise of benevolence while underemphasizing conflict or material interests.^[11]^[12] Despite these limitations, its emphasis on human elements endures in contemporary management discourse, though re-evaluated through empirical lenses that balance social insights with quantifiable performance metrics.^[13]

Historical Origins

Precursors in Scientific Management

Scientific management, pioneered by Frederick Winslow Taylor in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, emphasized optimizing worker efficiency through systematic analysis rather than rule-of-thumb methods. Taylor, working at Midvale Steel Company starting in the 1880s, developed time and motion studies to break down tasks into elemental components, standardizing tools, methods, and worker training to eliminate inefficiency.^[14]^[15] In his 1911 book The Principles of Scientific Management, he advocated for selecting scientifically the "first-class man" for each job, training him intensively, and cooperating with him to ensure work proceeded at maximum pace, with managers handling planning and workers execution, all incentivized by differential piece-rate pay to align individual output with organizational goals.^[14]^[15] This approach treated labor as a quantifiable input, prioritizing economic motivations and measurable productivity over subjective human factors. Henry Ford's implementation of assembly line production in 1913 exemplified these principles on a mass scale at his Highland Park plant, where Model T automobiles were produced. The moving conveyor belt system subdivided assembly into repetitive, specialized tasks, reducing the time to build a chassis from approximately 12 hours to 93 minutes and enabling output of over 1,000 vehicles per day by 1914.^[16]^[17] Standardization of parts and worker roles, inspired by Taylorism, dramatically lowered costs and made automobiles affordable to the middle class, with Ford's market share reaching 50% by 1921.^[17] However, the monotonous pace and lack of autonomy fostered worker dissatisfaction, as evidenced by acute labor instability. Empirical indicators of these mechanistic approaches' shortcomings included exorbitant turnover rates; at Ford's plant, annual turnover exceeded 370% by late 1913, necessitating the recruitment of thousands of replacements monthly.^[16]^[18] Daily absenteeism was similarly severe, requiring over 1,000 extra hires daily to maintain 13,000 positions amid the line's rigid demands.^[19] Such data underscored how focusing solely on economic incentives and task optimization overlooked non-financial drivers like social needs and job satisfaction, contributing to workforce resistance that prompted Ford to introduce the $5 daily wage in 1914 primarily to curb turnover rather than purely as an efficiency measure.^[16]^[20] These patterns in the 1910s highlighted the insufficiency of viewing workers as interchangeable machine components, paving the way for inquiries into psychological and relational dynamics.

Initiation of the Hawthorne Studies

In 1924, management at Western Electric's Hawthorne plant in Cicero, Illinois, commissioned a series of experiments to investigate the relationship between workplace illumination levels and worker productivity, prompted by ongoing debates in industrial engineering about optimal lighting conditions.^[21] These studies were sponsored by the National Research Council, an arm of the National Academy of Sciences, which collaborated with company engineers to conduct controlled tests varying light intensity in manufacturing departments.^[22] The initial phase, known as the illumination experiments, ran from November 1924 to April 1927 and focused exclusively on physical environmental factors, such as adjusting overhead lighting from standard levels down to as low as 3 foot-candles—roughly equivalent to moonlight—while measuring output from small groups of workers compared to unchanged control groups.^[23] Early oversight fell to Western Electric personnel, including industrial engineer George A. Pennock as the primary investigator, who documented output metrics from tasks like mica-splitting and coil-winding under different lighting conditions.^[23] Results from these tests, however, defied expectations: productivity in the test groups rose with increased illumination but continued to climb even as lighting was reduced or returned to baseline, mirroring gains observed in the control groups unaffected by changes.^[24] By 1927, data indicated average daily output per worker in test rooms had increased by approximately 10-15% across variations, uncorrelated with light levels, prompting researchers to question whether mere observation or group attention—rather than physical stimuli—accounted for the gains.^[25] This anomaly, evident in 1927-1928 analyses, shifted focus from isolated physical variables to potential human and social influences, marking the pivot toward broader human relations inquiry.^[26] In response, Western Electric invited external expertise; by 1928, Harvard Business School professor Elton Mayo assumed leadership under a formal research auspices from the university, bringing in collaborators like Fritz J. Roethlisberger, a philosophy-trained assistant who had begun assisting Mayo's industrial research efforts earlier in the decade.^[27] This transition formalized the studies' expansion beyond illumination, hypothesizing that workers' awareness of being studied fostered motivational effects independent of environmental tweaks.^[1]

Key Studies and Findings

Illumination Experiments and Early Phases

The illumination experiments, conducted at the Western Electric Hawthorne Works in Cicero, Illinois, from November 1924 to April 1927, were initiated by the National Research Council’s Committee on Industrial Lighting to empirically test whether variations in artificial lighting levels directly influenced worker productivity in repetitive tasks such as relay assembly, coil winding, and inspection.^[21] Researchers manipulated illuminance from approximately 4 to 36 foot-candles (fc) in initial tests, later extending to lower levels down to 1.4 fc, while measuring output as units produced per unit time in small groups of female workers, with changes announced on Mondays to observe immediate responses.^[21] Control groups maintained constant lighting to isolate the variable, aligning with scientific management principles that emphasized physical environmental optimizations like illumination for efficiency gains.^[28] Empirical data revealed productivity increases in test groups—peaking at around 10% above baseline in the first year and up to 20% in one experimental room—but these gains lacked correlation with lighting alterations, as output rose during both increases and decreases in illuminance, and similar rises (though smaller) occurred in control groups without changes.^[21] For instance, in relay assembly tests, output per hour climbed from baselines like 51.3 units at 5 fc to 55.7 units at higher levels in early sequences, yet statistical regressions across sequences showed no significant lighting effect (p > 0.05 in later analyses), with inconsistencies such as higher productivity at reduced light in some coil-winding trials indicating non-causal relations.^[28] Plant-wide productivity grew modestly at 1.4% annually during the 1920s, underscoring that experimental gains exceeded typical trends but were not systematically tied to illuminance.^[21] These anomalies—where output responded more to the experimental process itself than to physical manipulations—suggested perceptual or motivational influences, such as worker awareness of observation (a novelty or morale "effect"), rather than direct causal links to lighting, as initial probes into worker perceptions hinted at psychological responses overriding isolated variables.^[21] Reanalyses of preserved original data confirm weak evidence for such an observational boost (3-4% elevated output during testing periods), but the lack of illuminance correlation empirically challenged assumptions of physical determinism in productivity.^[21] By 1927, inconclusive results prompted a pivot from singular physical factors to holistic examinations, incorporating variables like rest breaks and work hours in subsequent phases, marking an initial empirical shift toward considering workers' broader contextual experiences.^[28]

Relay Assembly Test Room Experiments

The Relay Assembly Test Room experiments, conducted from 1927 to 1932 at Western Electric's Hawthorne Works in Cicero, Illinois, involved relocating five female workers from the main relay assembly department to a separate test room to evaluate the impact of environmental and incentive changes on productivity.^[26] These workers assembled telephone relays—electromagnetic switches comprising pins, springs, armatures, insulators, coils, and screws—with parts supplied by an operator and completed units recorded via a chute-linked device that punched output data onto paper tape for precise tracking.^[26] The selection emphasized compatible personalities to minimize disruptions, and a supervisor provided close, non-directive oversight, fostering informal discussions about work adjustments.^[24] Researchers systematically varied conditions, including two 5-minute rest breaks daily (later extended to 10 minutes each or combined into longer periods), provision of snacks and refreshments during breaks, reduction of the workday from 10 to 8.5 hours (with a trial Saturday off), and introduction of group piece-rate wage incentives replacing individual rates.^[24] Output rose steadily; by mid-1929, per-worker production exceeded baseline levels by about 30%, even as interventions were modified or reversed, such as eliminating breaks or extending hours back toward originals.^[29] Control groups in the main plant showed no comparable gains under similar physical changes, highlighting deviations from pure incentive models where productivity typically tracks alterations in pay or workload.^[24] Elton Mayo, consulted from 1928 onward, analyzed logs and conducted attitude interviews, attributing the persistent 30%+ increase to social-psychological factors: enhanced group morale from participative supervision, peer reinforcement of effort norms, and the workers' sense of value from being observed and consulted.^[26]^[24] When incentives were withdrawn without reverting output—sustained through internalized group dynamics rather than fear of reverting to factory norms—this evidenced causal primacy of cohesion over material adjustments, as reported in Mayo's 1933 analysis.^[24] Surveys linked higher effort to approval within the small team, where social isolation amplified mutual accountability absent in larger settings.^[24]

Bank Wiring Observation Room

The Bank Wiring Observation Room study examined 14 male workers—comprising nine wiremen, three soldermen, and two inspectors—engaged in assembling telephone bank wiring at Western Electric's Hawthorne Works from November 1931 to May 1932.^[30] Researchers employed unobtrusive observation, positioning a "disinterested spectator" to record interactions, output, and behaviors without deliberate intervention, supplemented by interviews after initial distrust subsided.^[30] This approach uncovered deliberate output restriction, with workers adhering to informal quotas of 6,000 to 6,600 connections per day, well below the company's benchmark of 7,200 to 7,512 connections, to safeguard jobs against potential rate reductions.^[30] Daily wiring records demonstrated this restriction empirically: group averages hovered in the 6,000-connection range despite individual capacities for 7,000 to 8,000, with discrepancies like one wireman claiming 877 connections per hour against an observed 860 highlighting underreporting.^[30] Two cliques formed along spatial lines (front and back benches) and social ties, transcending formal roles to enforce "bargaining" norms, such as capping effort at a "day's work" of roughly two equipments and negotiating job trades (e.g., 33 to 49 instances recorded).^[30] These groups imposed sanctions on deviants, including physical "binging" and verbal ridicule labeling high producers as "Slaves" or "Speed Kings," or ostracizing "squealers" who aligned with management.^[30] The data revealed persistent tensions between official hierarchies, which tied pay to output via piece rates, and unofficial structures prioritizing collective security over incentives.^[30] Workers' resistance to exceeding norms, even when formal rewards suggested otherwise, indicated that informal controls—rooted in fears of workload escalation—exerted greater sway on actual productivity than top-down directives.^[30]

Core Theoretical Principles

The human relations movement advanced the principle that employee productivity and morale are primarily driven by social satisfaction and psychological needs rather than physical work conditions or economic incentives alone. This core tenet emerged from empirical observations in the Hawthorne studies, where extensive worker interviews—totaling over 21,000 between 1928 and 1930—revealed that attitudes toward supervision and the workplace environment directly influenced output levels.^[31]^[32] Recognition through these consultations alone elevated workers' sense of value, correlating with measurable gains in performance independent of material changes.^[33] Proponents, led by Elton Mayo, argued from first-hand industrial data that humans function as inherently social entities whose motivation derives from non-economic elements such as esteem and approval, directly countering Frederick Taylor's early 20th-century emphasis on wage-based efficiency. Mayo's analysis, drawn from pre-Hawthorne textile mill interventions in the 1920s, showed that addressing psychological dissatisfaction—such as feelings of isolation—reduced turnover more effectively than competing salary offers, establishing non-monetary social rewards as potent drivers of sustained engagement.^[34]^[5] This shift underscored that mechanistic optimization overlooks the causal role of interpersonal validation in human behavior at work.^[35] Managerial attention emerged as a key causal mechanism for morale enhancement, with study data indicating that workers' responsiveness to observation and involvement produced enduring productivity effects, persisting after experimental variables were removed. This psychological responsiveness—termed the Hawthorne effect—demonstrated that mere awareness of being valued by overseers could independently elevate output, prioritizing relational dynamics over isolated incentives.^[36]^[37] Such findings repositioned management as a facilitator of emotional and social fulfillment, essential for realizing workers' full productive potential.^[38]

Group Dynamics and Informal Organization

In the Bank Wiring Observation Room experiment, conducted from November 1931 to May 1932 at Western Electric's Hawthorne Works, researchers observed 14 male workers—9 wiremen, 3 soldermen, and 2 inspectors—who formed informal cliques based on spatial proximity, occupational roles, and social status, independent of the formal supervisory hierarchy.^[30] These groups established output norms capping production at approximately 6,600 terminal connections per day under a group piece-rate system, well below the workers' demonstrated capacity of over 7,000 connections, to prevent management from using high productivity as grounds for reducing payment rates or imposing stricter workloads.^[30] Enforcement relied on peer mechanisms, including verbal ridicule with nicknames like "Mary Lou" or "Runt" for nonconformists, ostracism from group activities, and physical sanctions such as "binging"—light strikes with soldered wires or tools—to coerce adherence and maintain internal equilibrium.^[30] The informal organization's regulatory function superseded formal incentives, as group loyalty and mutual protection against external threats prioritized collective stability over individual maximization of earnings; workers who violated norms as "rate-busters" were sanctioned to preserve solidarity, even when it meant forgoing potential pay.^[30] ^[39] Researchers documented this dynamic through ethnographic records, noting that "the group had set for itself a level of output which it would not exceed" and that social pressures, not aversion to work, drove restriction to align with the "day's work" standard.^[30] Such patterns revealed a de facto power distribution where unofficial leaders and consensus dictated behavior, rendering top-down directives ineffective without accommodation of these emergent structures.^[40] This empirical evidence highlighted the causal primacy of group-enforced norms in shaping workplace conduct, as isolated incentives failed against the cohesive pull of peer accountability and fear of reprisal, compelling management to integrate rather than disregard informal realities to avoid entrenched opposition.^[30] ^[39]

Major Figures and Their Roles

Elton Mayo's Contributions and Influence

Elton Mayo, an Australian psychologist appointed professor of industrial research at Harvard Business School in 1926, joined the Hawthorne studies in 1928 at the invitation of Western Electric management seeking academic expertise on worker productivity.^[27] His primary contribution involved directing the interviewing program from 1928 to 1930, during which over 21,000 semi-structured interviews with employees revealed recurring themes of social dissatisfaction and emotional complaints rather than purely economic grievances.^[41] These interviews informed Mayo's interpretive framework, culminating in his 1933 book The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization, where he argued that modern industrial work fostered "industrial neurosis"—a form of psychological malaise stemming from the breakdown of traditional social bonds and the individual's isolation in rationalized production systems.^[42] Drawing empirical support from the Relay Assembly Test Room data, Mayo posited that productivity gains were causally linked to enhanced group morale and workers' sense of being valued, rather than solely to physical conditions like lighting or rest periods, advocating remedial measures such as non-directive counseling to restore social integration.^[6] Mayo's influence extended through his writings and public lectures in the 1930s, which disseminated these ideas to academics and practitioners, framing the human relations approach as a corrective to scientific management's overemphasis on mechanistic efficiency.^[27] This helped propel the behavioral sciences into management curricula, though debates persist regarding the degree of Mayo's hands-on role versus his role as synthesizer and popularizer of the studies' findings.^[43]

Roles of Other Researchers

Fritz Roethlisberger served as Elton Mayo's graduate assistant during the Hawthorne studies, conducting fieldwork and contributing to the interpretation of social dynamics among workers, while William J. Dickson, as head of Western Electric's employee relations department, facilitated access to plant operations and co-authored key publications drawing from internal records.^[44]^[45] In 1939, Roethlisberger and Dickson published Management and the Worker, a comprehensive volume that compiled raw observational data, productivity metrics, and interview transcripts from the experiments, presenting empirical evidence on worker responses without heavy reliance on Mayo's theoretical overlays.^[46] This work emphasized the factual basis of group influences on output, including detailed accounts of the relay assembly and bank wiring phases, and has been credited with preserving the studies' primary data for subsequent analysis.^[27] Henry S. Dennison, a Boston-based manufacturer and president of Dennison Manufacturing Company from 1917, advanced pre-Hawthorne ideas on personnel management in the 1920s by integrating social welfare practices into industrial operations, such as employee suggestion systems and participatory decision-making, which challenged purely mechanistic views of labor.^[13] Dennison's writings, including his 1920 book Management's Responsibilities in Industrial Employment, argued that worker motivation stemmed from non-economic factors like recognition and group cohesion, influencing early advocates of human-centered approaches in American manufacturing before the formal human relations framework emerged.^[47] His Taylorist background combined with progressive reforms positioned him as a bridge between efficiency engineering and relational management, predating the Hawthorne findings by emphasizing empirical observation of employee attitudes in real factory settings.^[48] L.J. Henderson, a Harvard physiologist and director of the Fatigue Laboratory, provided methodological guidance to the Hawthorne team by applying systems thinking to analyze group interactions, focusing on equilibrium in social structures to explain observed productivity variations.^[49] Henderson's involvement ensured statistical scrutiny of data on informal norms and cohesion, as detailed in internal reports, helping to frame the studies' results in terms of stable social units rather than isolated variables.^[50] His emphasis on verifiable patterns in worker behavior contributed to the rigor of interpreting empirical outcomes, influencing how group effects were quantified and reported in subsequent publications.^[51]

Criticisms and Methodological Debates

Challenges to Empirical Validity

The Hawthorne studies suffered from methodological limitations, including small and non-random samples that undermined their generalizability. For instance, the Relay Assembly Test Room experiments involved only five female volunteers selected by supervisors, with subsequent phases expanding minimally to groups of 13-14 workers, introducing selection bias and precluding robust statistical inference. ^[9] Similarly, the Bank Wiring Observation Room observed just 14 male workers, a group unrepresentative of the broader 29,000-employee workforce at Western Electric's Hawthorne plant. ^[52] These choices prioritized convenience over randomization, rendering extrapolations to larger populations empirically tenuous. ^[53] Causal claims linking productivity gains to social or psychological interventions faced scrutiny due to inadequate controls and confounding variables. Reanalyses of the original illumination experiments, which initiated the studies in 1924-1927, revealed no systematic correlation between lighting changes—whether increases or decreases—and output variations; productivity rose and fell independently of manipulations, suggesting external factors like the era's economic expansion or pre-existing trends rather than experimental variables drove results. ^[52] ^[54] Critics, including Alex Carey, highlighted that financial incentives, such as piece-rate payments introduced in later phases, produced rapid productivity spikes—equivalent to nine months of gains in just five weeks—contradicting attributions to group dynamics or attention alone. ^[9] The absence of blinded conditions or parallel control groups further allowed observation itself to confound outcomes, with post-hoc interpretations retrofitting data to fit preconceived social theories without falsifiable testing. ^[55] Efforts to replicate the purported Hawthorne effect yielded inconsistent or null results, eroding its empirical standing. Post-1930s industrial psychology investigations in the 1940s and 1950s, including controlled field experiments on worker motivation, frequently failed to isolate social factors as primary drivers of productivity absent monetary rewards, aligning instead with incentive-based models. ^[9] The studies' heavy reliance on qualitative interviews—over 20,000 conducted without standardized protocols—lacked quantitative rigor, producing anecdotal insights prone to researcher bias rather than hypothesis-driven evidence. ^[56] Comprehensive reviews have since characterized the effect as a methodological artifact exaggerated beyond the data, with original records showing no sustained, intervention-specific boosts attributable to attention or morale. ^[57] ^[10]

Ideological and Practical Critiques

Critics have argued that the Human Relations Movement exhibited a pro-management ideological bias by promoting the notion of inherent harmony between workers and employers, thereby co-opting social and psychological insights to enhance productivity without challenging underlying power imbalances or economic exploitation.^[58] This perspective posits that the movement's emphasis on morale and group cohesion served elite managerial interests, fostering subtle forms of control—such as selective attention and pseudo-participation—that reinforced hierarchical structures rather than empowering workers structurally.^[11] For instance, Alex Carey's 1967 analysis of the Hawthorne Studies contended that researchers ideologically minimized evidence of financial incentives as the primary driver of output gains, interpreting data through a lens that prioritized social factors to align with management goals of output maximization over wage redistribution.^[9] Practically, the approach has been faulted for oversimplifying worker motivation by downplaying economic incentives, such as pay, in favor of relational factors, leading to incomplete prescriptions that fail to address material grievances.^[58] In the 1930s context, union organizing under the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 focused on securing higher wages amid Depression-era low pay and unemployment, indicating workers' prioritization of economic security over social harmony promoted by Human Relations advocates.^[59] Postwar empirical investigations, including those reinforcing incentive-based theories, demonstrated that compensation remained a dominant motivator, with studies showing direct correlations between pay structures and productivity that the movement's framework inadequately incorporated.^[60] This neglect of individual economic variance and structural incentives risked creating illusory satisfaction, as interventions like team-building could boost short-term output while perpetuating unaddressed exploitation and discouraging collective action for systemic change.^[11]

Long-Term Impact and Evolution

Influence on Management Practices

The human relations movement prompted a shift in management practices during the 1940s and 1950s, emphasizing employee morale and social factors over purely mechanistic efficiency. Following the Hawthorne studies, firms increasingly established dedicated personnel departments to address training, group dynamics, and worker satisfaction, reflecting a recognition that attention to social needs could enhance productivity. A survey in the early 1950s indicated that approximately 70 percent of responding companies viewed the personnel and industrial relations function as equally important to production and finance, underscoring the institutionalization of these practices.^[61] Wartime productivity efforts during World War II further integrated human relations principles, with managers applying Hawthorne-derived insights on group cohesion to boost output amid labor shortages, though empirical gains often combined social interventions with material incentives.^[6] Key theoretical advancements built directly on these foundations. Abraham Maslow's 1943 hierarchy of needs theory extended human relations emphasis on social motivations by positing that workers progress from basic physiological requirements to higher-level social, esteem, and self-actualization needs once lower ones are met, informing management strategies for sustained engagement.^[62] Similarly, Douglas McGregor's Theory Y, introduced in 1960, assumed employees inherently seek responsibility and fulfillment through social integration, contrasting with authoritarian models and aligning with Elton Mayo's findings on informal group influences, thereby advocating participative management techniques.^[63] Empirical evidence from the era linked these practices to tangible outcomes, such as moderated employee turnover in firms adopting morale-focused interventions. Post-1950 implementations of human relations approaches correlated with stabilized retention rates in surveys of industrial settings, particularly when paired with performance incentives, though causal attribution required controlling for economic variables like post-war growth.^[64] By the mid-1950s, the movement's integration into standard personnel policies had become widespread, with over half of large U.S. manufacturers reporting structured programs for employee relations training derived from Hawthorne-inspired research.^[65]

Integration with Contemporary Theories

The human relations movement's principles have been integrated into post-1980s management frameworks through synthesis with contingency theory, which posits that social and motivational factors must align with contextual variables like organizational structure and external economics rather than serving as standalone solutions. This hybrid model, emerging prominently in the mid-1980s via strategic HRM developments, incorporates human relations' focus on interpersonal dynamics alongside performance contingencies and incentive structures, avoiding the earlier overreliance on relational harmony alone.^[66]^[67] In agile teams, for example, group cohesion derived from human relations insights facilitates collaboration, but empirical evidence shows it supplements rather than supplants quantitative metrics such as sprint velocity and output targets, with agility's success hinging on adaptive contingencies over pure social bonding.^[68]^[69] Studies from the 2020s on remote work further illustrate this bounded integration, where virtual platforms emulate informal group dynamics to support productivity, yet gains are empirically linked to individual incentives and tools rather than relational factors in isolation. A 2024 BLS analysis of post-pandemic data found remote arrangements increased output by 5-10% in knowledge sectors through reduced commutes and autonomy, but attributed sustained benefits to economic efficiencies like cost savings over social cohesion alone.^[70] Similarly, Gallup's 2023 global survey reported 31% engagement among fully remote workers—higher than hybrid (28%) or on-site (21%)—via asynchronous tools like Slack enabling relational ties, though productivity plateaus without aligned incentives such as performance bonuses.^[71] A 2025 NIH study on virtual environments confirmed that non-immersive videoconferencing boosts collaboration dynamics akin to human relations experiments, yet immersive metaverses yielded only marginal gains (under 3%) without task-specific metrics, underscoring contingency limits.^[72] Critiques of human relations in the gig economy emphasize its diminished applicability, where market-driven forces eclipse social relations, prioritizing individual agency and economic realism over group-oriented harmony. Gig platforms, comprising 36% of U.S. workers by 2023 per Upwork data, rely on algorithmic ratings and per-task pay that incentivize solitary performance, rendering traditional relational emphases secondary as workers navigate autonomy amid precarious contracts.^[73] A 2021 systematic review highlighted psychosocial risks like isolation in gig work, but causal analysis showed market competition—evident in 70% of platforms enforcing rating-based access—dominates outcomes, with social ties forming only opportunistically via client relations rather than core drivers.^[74] This integration demands tempering human relations with economic contingencies, as overemphasis on collective dynamics fails against evidence of gig workers' preference for independent agency, yielding higher retention (up to 15% in incentivized models) when aligned with competitive markets.^[75]^[76]

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Mar 20, 2019 · How did Elton Mayo influence management theory ... relations theory recognized that social factors were a source of power in the workplace.
[37]
The Hawthorne Effect - The Decision Lab
Instead, the researchers found that as they increased the brightness in the experiment room, the workers' productivity improved in both rooms. Even more ...History · Start Your Behavior Change... · Impacts
[38]
https://zimbardo.com/the-hawthorne-effect-study-setup-results-and-psychological-insights/
[39]
Informal Organizational Structure The Hawthorne Studies
An informal group is more than just a collection of people. Groups have internal social structure based on dominance and friendship relations.Missing: empirical findings
[40]
The Hawthorne Studies | Research & Practice
Oct 1, 2014 · The researchers discovered an unexpected culture, revealed through group norms and activities such as informal leadership patterns, restriction ...
[41]
The Interview Process – The Human Relations Movement
1925 Assisting Mayo was his research assistant, Fritz Roethlisberger. Unassuming, bookish, and disciplined, Roethlisberger had studied philosophy at Harvard. He ...Missing: joining | Show results with:joining
[42]
The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization | Elton Mayo | Taylor
Mar 1, 2004 · Elton Mayo. Edition 1st Edition. First Published 2003. eBook Published 1 March ... The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization (1st ed.).
[43]
The "Hawthorne effect" is a myth, but what keeps the story going?
Aug 7, 2025 · Elton Mayo, a Harward business professor, was not the director of the studies ... Fourteen peer-reviewed reports fully meeting the inclusion ...
[44]
119: Management & the Worker - Roethlisberger & Dickson
Nov 12, 2024 · Roethlisberger and Dickson chronicled the five years of study in the 1939 book Management and the Worker which contained five parts.
[45]
9: Hawthorne Studies - Elton Mayo
Apr 19, 2016 · ... Human relations movement (predecessor of HRM) which aim to understand employee dynamics in light of (informal) group dynamics. With this, Mayo ...<|separator|>
[46]
Hawthorne revisited: The legend and the legacy - ScienceDirect.com
The book on Hawthorne is, of course, Fritz Roethlisberger's and W. J. Dickson's Management and the Worker (Harvard University Press, 1939).
[47]
(PDF) Henry S. Dennison, Elton Mayo, and Human Relations ...
Aug 7, 2025 · This article questions these sentiments and explores the contribution to Human Relations thinking made by Boston businessman and Taylorist Henry S. Dennison.
[48]
Henry S. Dennison, Elton Mayo, and Human Relations historiography
This article questions these sentiments and explores the contribution to Human Relations thinking made by Boston businessman and Taylorist Henry S. Dennison.
[49]
[PDF] Lawrence Joseph Henderson: Bridging Laboratory ... - Harvard DASH
Hawthorne Studies will serve as an example of how Henderson's concept of the social system was applied to the study of the workplace. The second example ...
[50]
ELTON MAYO AND THE HIDDEN HAWTHORNE - jstor
Harvard colleagues, such as Fritz Roethlisberger, T. North Whitehead and L.J.. Henderson. An examination of these letters provides further grounds for ...
[51]
Hawthorne studies—a fable for our times? | QJM - Oxford Academic
Jul 1, 2004 · The story relates to the first of many experiments performed at the Hawthorne works of the Western Electric Company in Chicago from November 1924 onwards.
[52]
Was there Really a Hawthorne Effect at the Hawthorne Plant? An ...
May 28, 2009 · The Hawthorne effect is named after a landmark set of studies conducted at the Hawthorne plant in the 1920s. The first and most influential of ...Missing: boom | Show results with:boom
[53]
Defining and evaluating the Hawthorne effect in primary care ... - NIH
Nov 8, 2022 · Indeed, the internal validity of the Hawthorn experiments was biased by the selection of a small number of volunteer participants, attrition due ...Missing: criticism | Show results with:criticism
[54]
Was There Really a Hawthorne Effect at the Hawthorne Plant? An ...
Was There Really a Hawthorne Effect at the Hawthorne Plant? An Analysis of the Original Illumination Experiments by Steven D. Levitt and John A. List.Missing: reanalysis | Show results with:reanalysis
[55]
[PDF] The “Hawthorne effect” is a myth, but what keeps the story going?
The Hawthorne effect, a supposed increase in production related to social treatment, is a myth. The studies showed no such effect, and the myth is kept going ...Missing: snacks | Show results with:snacks
[56]
The Hawthorne studies: an analysis of critical perspectives, 1936-1958
Aug 9, 2025 · Hawthorne's study has been criticized by researchers in various fields of the human sciences for its methodological errors and results (Muldoon, ...<|separator|>
[57]
[PDF] what did the original Hawthorne studies actually show?
This paper aims to clarify how far the general con- ception of the "Hawthorne effect" agrees with the results of the Hawthorne studies and how useful it is when ...
[58]
Evaluating the Human Relations Approach: Benefits and Criticisms
Dec 27, 2023 · The Human Relations approach established a direct link between employee satisfaction and productivity. ... social satisfaction can lead to ...Missing: evidence | Show results with:evidence
[59]
The Rise and Fall of Labor Unions in the U.S. - Who Rules America
The heart of this document focuses on the unlikely set of events leading to the passage of the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (NLRA).
[60]
Relationship between Compensation and Employee Productivity
Aug 6, 2025 · Pearson chi square was used to test the significance of relationship between employee compensation and productivity. The results indicated a ...
[61]
[PDF] PERSONNEL AND HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
A survey done in the early 1950s found that about 70 percent of the responding firms considered the personnel/in- dustrial relations function to be as important ...<|separator|>
[62]
Maslow and the theories of management - PMI
Psychologist Abraham Maslow created a five-step model to describe the way that people's needs and desires are prioritized. Once people have had their ...
[63]
How the Human Relations Movement Changed Management
Dec 12, 2023 · Who started the human relations movement? The first management theory, Frederick Taylor's scientific management theory, dates back to 1911.
[64]
THE LEGACY OF THE HAWTHORNE EXPERIMENTS: A CRITICAL ...
Jan 4, 2023 · gence of George Elton Mayo, as the Hawthorne experiments' key spokesman, changed the early focus of the experiments, we argue that he ...<|separator|>
[65]
https://www.openstax.org/books/principles-management/pages/3-6-human-relations-movement
[66]
From Personnel Management to Strategic HRM - Psychology Town
Jun 29, 2024 · In the mid-1980s, the Harvard School of Business introduced a framework that further integrated HRM into the overall management strategy. The ...
[67]
Key Frameworks for Enhancing Organizational Efficiency, Adapting ...
Key frameworks include Human Relations Theory Elton Mayo's theory, derived ... Key frameworks include Contingency Theory Fred Fiedler's theory suggests ...
[68]
a comprehensive review of agile approaches adopting contingency ...
Mar 9, 2024 · In short, change should be supported by considering the people involved in the processes. Agility here became the ability to bring people ...
[69]
Agile human resource management: A systematic mapping study
Jan 22, 2024 · The aim of this paper is to map the current state of agile HR research. We conducted a systematic mapping study and found 86 relevant primary studies.
[70]
The rise in remote work since the pandemic and its impact on ...
Oct 31, 2024 · If remote work increases productivity, some gains may be passed down from employers to workers as compensation. At the detailed industry level ...
[71]
Remote Work Productivity Study: Surprising Findings From a 4-Year ...
May 20, 2025 · Gallup's latest “State of the Global Workplace” report found that fully remote workers report the highest engagement (31%) compared to hybrid ( ...
[72]
Assessing the impact of virtual workplaces on collaboration ... - NIH
Jun 19, 2025 · This study investigated the impact of four workplace environments—physical presence, videoconferencing, non-immersive Metaverse, and immersive ...
[73]
Good Gig, Bad Gig: Autonomy and Algorithmic Control in the Global ...
Aug 8, 2018 · This article evaluates the job quality of work in the remote gig economy. Such work consists of the remote provision of a wide variety of digital services.
[74]
[PDF] Exposure to psychosocial risk factors in the gig economy
The 'gig economy' refers to a market system in which companies or individual requesters hire workers to perform short assignments. These transactions.
[75]
[PDF] Exploring the Evolution of Human Resource Management in the Gig ...
Abstract. The rise of the gig economy has disrupted traditional employment paradigms, prompting a fundamental reevaluation of human resource management (HRM).
[76]
(PDF) Human Resource Management and the Gig Economy
This work examines the intersection between traditional human resource management and the novel employment arrangements of the expanding gig economy.