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Hummock

A hummock is a small mound, hillock, or knoll of earth or other material that rises above the surrounding terrain, typically not exceeding 15 meters (49 feet) in height and often occurring in clusters to form irregular surfaces.^[1] These landforms are imprecise in geomorphology but generally describe rounded or conical elevations composed of unstratified glacial drift, till, or similar deposits.^[2] Hummocks form through diverse processes depending on environmental context. In glacial settings, they arise from the deposition of till in irregular mounds during ice retreat, creating hummocky terrain characterized by rolling hills and closed depressions.^[3] Cryogenic hummocks, also known as earth hummocks or thúfur, develop in permafrost regions via frost heave and cryoexpulsion, where repeated freeze-thaw cycles push soil upward into low, vegetated mounds less than 1 meter high, separated by wet hollows.^[1] In volcanic or landslide contexts, hummocks consist of rounded or conical mounds of rock debris within avalanche deposits, reflecting the fragmented material from the event's source.^[4] In wetland and bog environments, hummocks represent dry, elevated peat or moss ridges amid saturated lowlands, supporting specialized vegetation like sphagnum moss and shrubs; these are interspersed with flarks (shallow pools) and contribute to the microtopography of peatlands.^[1] Swamp hummocks, sometimes called hammocks in the southeastern United States, form from accumulated organic matter on fallen logs or as isolated wooded rises above marshy flats, fostering hardwood forests in otherwise flooded areas.^[1] Ice hummocks, meanwhile, emerge on frozen surfaces due to differential pressure or thermal contraction, producing ridges in sea ice or glaciers.^[1] These features play key ecological roles, such as enhancing biodiversity in wetlands by providing drier habitats for plants and animals, and they serve as indicators of past climatic or geological events in landform studies.^[5] Hummocky landscapes are common in northern latitudes, coastal plains, and post-glacial regions, influencing soil drainage, hydrology, and human land use.^[6]

General Characteristics

Definition

A hummock is a small, rounded knoll or mound of earth, peat, or ice that rises above the surrounding terrain, with heights generally ranging from less than 1 meter to about 15 meters (50 feet), though larger examples up to 50 meters or more occur in certain geomorphic contexts such as debris avalanches. These landforms develop under particular environmental conditions, such as in wetlands, permafrost regions, or glacial deposits, and often appear in clusters forming hummocky topography.^[7]^[8] The word "hummock" entered English in the 1550s, initially as a nautical term for a conical small hill along a seacoast, with its origin obscure but likely involving a diminutive form combining an element akin to "hump" (denoting a rounded mass) and the suffix "-ock."^[9] By the 19th century, the term was applied in geographical descriptions to small vegetated mounds in wetlands, as noted in accounts of boggy terrains.^[10] Hummocks differ from related features like larger hills, which exceed several meters in scale, or drumlins, which are elongated, streamlined glacial deposits often tens to hundreds of meters long with a teardrop shape aligned to ice flow.^[11] They are also distinct from tumuli, which are artificial burial mounds constructed by humans, whereas hummocks form naturally and tend to cluster in micro-relief patterns.

Morphological Features

Hummocks exhibit a range of morphological features depending on their environmental context, but typically consist of small, elevated mounds with rounded or oval tops and steeper sides. In wetland settings, they are often 20-60 cm high and 50 cm to 2 m wide, formed by accumulations that create dome-like or elliptical shapes, while cryogenic hummocks are similarly dome-shaped but may reach up to 80 cm in height and 1-2 m in diameter.^[12]^[13] Geomorphic hummocks, such as those from debris avalanches, can be larger and more irregular, with heights varying from 1 m to over 50 m and widths exceeding 2 m in some cases. These mounds frequently support vegetation on their summits, such as mosses or grasses, while their bases may show signs of erosion due to water flow or instability.^[14]^[15]^[16]^[17] The composition of hummocks varies significantly across contexts, reflecting their formation substrates. In wetlands, they are primarily composed of peat, consisting of layered organic matter from Sphagnum mosses and other plant detritus, with high soil organic content often exceeding 400 g/kg in healthy systems. Cryogenic hummocks, in contrast, are built from mineral soils rich in fine-grained, frost-susceptible materials interspersed with ice lenses, featuring a bowl-shaped frost table beneath the surface that influences moisture distribution. In geomorphic environments, hummocks comprise rocky debris and unconsolidated sediments, often with internal layering from avalanche dynamics. These internal structures, including sediment layers or permafrost tables, typically extend to depths of 30-100 cm.^[18]^[19]^[16]^[20] Surface characteristics of hummocks contribute to distinct microtopographic patterns, particularly the hummock-hollow system that alternates dry, elevated zones with wetter depressions, promoting varied hydrological and ecological conditions. In cryogenic types, the bowl-shaped frost table creates a concave permafrost surface that traps water and enhances insulation. For assessing depth and internal layering, techniques such as coring provide direct samples of sediment profiles, while ground-penetrating radar offers non-invasive imaging of subsurface structures, revealing variations in ice content or peat stratification.^[21]^[22]^[23]

Global Distribution

Hummocks are most abundant in boreal and subarctic zones, particularly across Canada, Siberia, and Scandinavia, where they form prominent microrelief features in extensive peatland complexes such as aapa mires and palsa bogs. In these regions, hummock-hollow patterns dominate landscapes influenced by cold climates and permafrost, with examples including the Hudson Bay Lowlands in Canada and the vast West Siberian peatlands in Russia. Temperate wetlands in North America and Europe, such as those in the Great Lakes region and the Netherlands, also host significant hummock formations, often in fens and raised bogs. Sporadically, hummocks appear in tropical swamps, like the tree-dominated peat swamps of the Everglades in Florida and the várzea forests of the Amazon Basin, as well as in arid dune environments, including nebkha-like sandy hummocks in the Thar Desert of India and coastal dunes in Australia.^[24]^[25]^[26] These landforms are closely associated with key biomes, including peatlands that cover approximately 3-4% of the global land surface, permafrost regions spanning about 24% of the Northern Hemisphere's exposed land, and coastal marshes where saline conditions foster hummock development. In peatlands, hummocks contribute to the structural complexity of ombrotrophic systems, while in permafrost areas, cryogenic hummocks like earth hummocks and thufurs are integral to tundra and taiga ecosystems. Coastal marshes, such as those along the Gulf of Mexico and North Sea, feature hummocky microtopography that supports salt-tolerant vegetation.^[24]^[27]^[28] Hummocks concentrate in zonal patterns tied to environmental drivers, predominantly in areas with persistently high water tables that promote peat accumulation or intense freeze-thaw cycles that drive cryogenic upheaval. Such conditions prevail in circumpolar latitudes and humid temperate zones, fostering widespread occurrence. In contrast, they are rare in arid interiors due to low moisture, except for wind-deposited sandy hummocks stabilized by vegetation in desert fringes.^[29]^[12]^[30] Satellite imagery from sources like Landsat has enabled estimation of hummock coverage, revealing that these features occupy 10-20% of wetland surfaces in affected boreal and subarctic regions, with higher densities in undisturbed peatlands where microrelief enhances habitat diversity.^[31]^[32]

Wetland Hummocks

Bog Hummocks

Bog hummocks form in ombrotrophic, rain-fed peat bogs primarily through the vertical accumulation of peat driven by the growth of Sphagnum mosses, which create elevated, relatively dry islands amidst surrounding waterlogged surfaces. This process begins with Sphagnum establishing on slightly raised substrates, such as vascular plant roots or initial moss carpets, leading to gradual upward expansion as undecomposed organic matter builds up. Typical hummock heights range from 20 to 60 cm above adjacent hollows, depending on local conditions like moisture and species composition.^[33]^[34] These hummocks are characterized by acidic, nutrient-poor peat and support specialized vegetation dominated by Sphagnum mosses (e.g., Sphagnum fuscum and S. imbricatum) alongside ericaceous shrubs such as leatherleaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata), bog laurel (Kalmia polifolia), and heather (Calluna vulgaris). This plant cover stabilizes the structure while contributing to further peat formation, resulting in a pronounced hummock-hollow microtopography that promotes heterogeneous water retention—hummocks remain aerated and drier, while hollows hold standing water. The patterning enhances overall bog hydrology by facilitating nutrient-poor, rainwater-dominated conditions essential for ombrotrophic systems.^[33]^[35]^[36] Bog hummocks are prevalent in raised bogs across Ireland, Scotland, and the Canadian Shield, where they often cover 40-50% of the bog surface in undisturbed areas, interspersed with hollows and pools. For instance, in northern Wisconsin's kettle bogs—analogous to Canadian Shield sites—they dominate open bog communities with low nutrient inputs, while in the UK's Central Belt and [Northern Ireland](/page/Northern Ireland), they form key features of active raised bogs supporting diverse Sphagnum assemblages.^[37]^[33]^[35] Their dynamics reflect slow net peat accumulation rates of 1-3 mm per year, primarily limited by Sphagnum productivity balanced against decomposition in the upper layers. Hydrology plays a central role, with stable high water tables in hollows promoting lateral expansion, while drier hummock tops favor shrub establishment; fluctuations can shift microtopography over decades. Fire regimes also influence development, as low-severity burns during droughts can scorch surface vegetation, temporarily lower water tables, and reset hummock succession, though resilient Sphagnum often recolonizes rapidly.^[38]^[39]^[40]

Swamp Hummocks

Swamp hummocks in minerotrophic wetlands, which receive nutrients from groundwater and surface flow, primarily form through the accumulation of tree root mats, organic debris from fallen litter and branches, and mineral sediments deposited during flood events.^[41] These processes create elevated mounds that rise 20-50 cm above the surrounding water levels, providing stable platforms amid periodic inundation.^[41] In contrast to the Sphagnum-dominated peat of bog hummocks, swamp variants incorporate more mineral content due to their groundwater influence.^[41] These hummocks typically develop around the bases of hardwood trees, such as bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) in North American swamps, where adventitious roots and cypress knees contribute to the structural buildup.^[42] The elevated surfaces support a diverse understory vegetation, including ferns like royal fern (Osmunda regalis) and cinnamon fern (Osmundastrum cinnamomeum), as well as sedges such as maidencane (Panicum hemitomon) and beaksedge (Rhynchospora spp.), which thrive in the aerated microsites above standing water.^[42]^[43] This microtopography enhances habitat heterogeneity, allowing for greater plant and microbial diversity compared to adjacent hollows.^[41] Swamp hummocks are prevalent in the southeastern United States, particularly in cypress dome swamps of the Everglades and Big Cypress regions, where root fiber and peat mats form around pond cypress (Taxodium ascendens) and facilitate seedling establishment.^[42] In Amazonian floodplains, such as those in Ecuadorian swamp forests, hummocks arise from similar root-organic-mineral accumulations under tree canopies, supporting flood-tolerant species in seasonally inundated varzea ecosystems.^[44] European alder swamps, dominated by black alder (Alnus glutinosa), feature analogous hummocks formed by extensive root systems, often exceeding 40 cm in height and hosting sedges like Carex spp. and ferns such as marsh fern (Thelypteris palustris).^[45] The persistence of swamp hummocks is shaped by seasonal flooding cycles, which deposit sediments to maintain elevation while also promoting organic matter decomposition in hollows.^[41] Over decades, erosion from prolonged high water or vegetative die-off can gradually flatten these features, though autogenic feedbacks—such as root expansion—often counteract subsidence to preserve the relief.^[41]^[42]

Cryogenic Hummocks

Earth Hummocks

Earth hummocks are small, dome-shaped mounds composed primarily of silt or clay mineral soils, typically measuring 20-50 cm in height and 20-300 cm in diameter, with a sparse to moderate cover of grasses and lichens that contribute to their formation as part of nonsorted circle patterned ground in tundra landscapes.^[8] These features develop through cryoturbation processes in frost-susceptible fine-grained sediments, resulting in closely spaced, circular to oval elevations that disrupt the surrounding flat terrain and influence local hydrology by elevating the surface above waterlogged interhummock areas.^[16] In vegetated forms, the grass cover stabilizes the mounds and insulates the underlying permafrost, while the mineral core distinguishes them from organic-dominated features.^[46] These hummocks are prevalent in Arctic and subarctic regions underlain by continuous permafrost, such as the Alaskan North Slope and the Russian tundra along the Yamal Peninsula, where they occupy significant portions of upland tundra surfaces and contribute to the microtopography of permafrost-affected ecosystems.^[47]^[48] They form exclusively in areas with ice-rich permafrost and fine-textured soils prone to frost heaving, typically on level to gently sloping terrain where seasonal freeze-thaw cycles promote their development without the influence of coarse materials or excessive drainage.^[46] Internally, earth hummocks feature a bowl-shaped permafrost table beneath the mound crest, formed by segregated ice lenses that accumulate parallel to the surface and create a concave configuration up to 20-30 cm deep relative to the surrounding table. The active layer above this permafrost thaws seasonally to depths of 30-50 cm, allowing limited soil mixing and water percolation during summer, while refreezing in winter reinforces the ice lenses and maintains structural integrity.^[16] This cryostructure results in differential thaw patterns, with thinner active layers in vegetated troughs due to insulating snow accumulation, enhancing the mound's relief over time.^[46] A variant known as mud hummocks occurs in unvegetated or sparsely covered areas, where bare mineral surfaces expose silt-clay cores without stabilizing grass, leading to more rapid erosion and collapse under freeze-thaw stresses.^[16] These features grade continuously from fully vegetated earth hummocks to those with central bare patches, often in disturbed or early-successional sites within the same permafrost environments, and exhibit similar bowl-shaped ice structures but with heightened susceptibility to degradation.^[46]

Thufurs

Thufurs are dome-shaped, turf-covered cryogenic hummocks consisting of vegetated mounds of soil and organic material, typically measuring 30-60 cm in height and 50-100 cm in diameter, often occurring in closely spaced fields that create distinctive microtopographic patterns.^[49] These features are characterized by a dense cover of grass or moss on their summits and sides, distinguishing them as vegetated structures in periglacial environments.^[50] Thufurs are similar to earth hummocks but emphasize turf-based formations in grassy terrains rather than bare or sparsely vegetated mineral mounds.^[51] These hummocks are primarily located in high-latitude grasslands and subarctic regions with discontinuous permafrost, such as Iceland's lowlands and highlands, parts of Patagonia including Tierra del Fuego, and the Scottish Highlands where seasonal freezing occurs.^[52] In Iceland, they form on fine-grained, pelit-rich sediments like loess-like móhella with closed vegetation cover, thriving in water-saturated but well-drained soils without requiring continuous permafrost.^[53] Their distribution reflects maritime or continental climates prone to repeated freeze-thaw cycles in the active layer of permafrost or seasonally frozen ground.^[50] The composition of thufurs features a thick organic turf layer, approximately 10-20 cm deep, overlying mineral soil, which supports persistent vegetation and contributes to localized microclimate variations through differential insulation and moisture retention.^[54] The term "thufur" derives from the Icelandic word for "turf hummocks" (singular: þúfa), reflecting their prominence in Icelandic landscapes, and these features have been documented in scientific literature since the 19th century as key indicators of periglacial activity.^[55] Early studies, such as those referenced in Washburn's classifications, highlighted their role in non-sorted patterned ground across northern regions.^[53]

Formation Mechanisms

The formation of cryogenic earth hummocks is primarily driven by cyclic freeze-thaw processes in permafrost environments, where repeated oscillations lead to the sorting of soil particles into mound-like structures through solifluction-like movements. In oscillating cryogenic earth hummocks, seasonal freezing and thawing cause vertical and lateral soil displacement, with finer particles rising to the surface while coarser materials settle, promoting mound development over time. This mechanism is particularly evident in fine-grained, frost-susceptible soils underlain by permafrost, where the active layer expands and contracts annually, facilitating gradual soil agitation and mound stabilization.^[56] Another key hypothesis involves cellular circulation within the active layer of permafrost, resembling convection cells where density differences during thawing drive upward and downward soil movements. During summer thaw, warmer, less dense saturated soils rise toward the surface, while cooler, denser materials descend, creating rotational flows that build central mounds and surrounding depressions over multiple cycles. This process is supported by observations of grain-size gradients in hummock profiles, with coarser particles concentrated at the mound centers and fines in the inter-hummock areas, indicating persistent circulation patterns.^[16] The differential frost heave, or cryostatic pressure, hypothesis posits that uneven ice lens formation during freezing lifts mound centers more than edges, due to variations in soil moisture and temperature across the microtopography. As freezing progresses downward from the surface, water migrates via cryosuction to form segregated ice lenses, generating localized heave pressures that are higher in mound interiors where moisture convergence occurs. This differential uplift reinforces mound morphology, with repeated cycles amplifying the features until equilibrium with surrounding terrain is reached. This model is widely accepted as a primary driver for non-sorted patterned ground, including earth hummocks, based on field evidence from Arctic and subarctic sites.^[57]^[51] Recent research from 2020 to 2025 highlights how climate warming influences these mechanisms by deepening the seasonal thaw layer, potentially accelerating hummock formation through intensified frost heave and circulation in permafrost regions. Studies indicate that increased active layer thickness enhances moisture availability for ice segregation, leading to more dynamic cryogenic processes and altered hummock distributions in permafrost landscapes. For instance, observations in Alaskan tundra sites reveal heightened cryogenic activity correlated with warmer summers, contributing to evolving microtopography under ongoing permafrost thaw.^[58]

Hummocks from Geomorphic Processes

Debris Avalanches

Debris avalanches, often triggered by sector collapses of volcanic edifices or large-scale landslides, produce hummocks through the chaotic deposition of fragmented material as flows decelerate in runout zones. These irregular mounds form primarily via extensional faulting and spreading of the debris mass, where large blocks and fragments are isolated and uplifted above basal shear zones during the avalanche's hyper-mobile phase. Typical heights range from 1 to 5 m, though larger examples can exceed 10 m, with compositions dominated by angular rock clasts, unconsolidated soil, and occasionally entrained vegetation from the source slope.^[59] Hummocks in debris avalanche deposits are characteristically clustered in the distal runout zones, where flow velocities decrease and material piles up unevenly, creating a hummocky topography interspersed with depressions and ridges. Initially unstable due to loose, poorly sorted sediments prone to secondary collapses, these features gradually stabilize over years through compaction, weathering, and vegetative colonization that binds surface soils with root systems. This evolution transforms the fresh, blocky deposits into more subdued landforms, with internal structures revealing normal faults that merge into low-angle detachments.^[59]^[61] Notable examples include the hummocky deposits from the Osceola Mudflow lahar at Mount Rainier, Washington, USA, around 5,600 years ago, where irregular mounds of volcanic debris up to 30 m high formed across a 330 km² area in the Puyallup River valley. In Alpine settings, the prehistoric Flims rockslide in eastern Switzerland produced prominent hummocks known as Toma hills, clustered amid the massive deposit and illustrating similar depositional patterns from non-volcanic collapses. Such hummocks often cover 5-10% of the total deposit surface, contributing to the rugged, uneven morphology observed in these events.^[62] Recent studies from 2020-2025 have advanced understanding through hyper-mobility models, demonstrating that hummock formation occurs prominently in extensional regimes as avalanches spread, with faulting and block rotation driven by reduced basal friction and dynamic disintegration. For instance, analyses of Tibetan Plateau landslides highlight how pore-water pressures enhance mobility, leading to clustered hummocks in distal zones, while analog modeling confirms the role of shear zone interactions in their genesis. These models emphasize the transition from coherent sliding to fragmented flow as key to hummock development.^[63]^[59]

Sandy and Dune Hummocks

Sandy and dune hummocks, often manifesting as nebkha or coppice dunes, are small-scale aeolian landforms prevalent in arid, semi-arid, and coastal environments where wind-driven erosion and deposition dominate. These features arise when prevailing winds transport loose sand particles, which accumulate around sparse vegetation such as grasses or shrubs that act as natural traps, reducing wind velocity and promoting sediment buildup. Typically forming on grassland fringes or desert margins, the mounds reach heights of 0.5–2 m, with diameters ranging from 5–20 m, and develop through iterative cycles of sand entrainment during dry periods and stabilization by plant roots.^[64]^[65] The composition of these hummocks consists primarily of loose, well-sorted fine to medium sands, often with textural asymmetry reflecting dominant wind directions—coarser grains on windward flanks and finer on leeward sides. Vegetation plays a crucial role in their structure, with burial-tolerant species like drought-resistant grasses or halophytic shrubs anchoring the sand and preventing complete dispersal, thereby creating nebkha-like mounds that enhance local soil fertility through nutrient trapping. In overgrazed or disturbed landscapes, reduced plant cover exacerbates sand mobility, leading to denser hummock fields that signal ongoing land degradation.^[66]^[67] Prominent examples occur in the Great Plains of the United States, where relict pimple mounds—small nebkhas—dot south-central regions like the Ozark Plateau and Arkansas River Valley, formed by wind deposition around vegetation during prolonged Holocene droughts. In the Sahel region of West Africa, particularly Burkina Faso, nebkhas proliferate in semi-arid savannas as indicators of wind erosion in overgrazed pastoral lands, where livestock pressure diminishes grass cover and mobilizes surface sands. Similarly, in the Australian outback, nebkhas develop in arid coastal zones and inland sandplains, such as those in southern Australia, where sparse shrubs trap aeolian sediments amid low-rainfall conditions.^[64]^[66]^[65] These hummocks exhibit dynamic behavior, migrating leeward at rates of several centimeters per year under sustained winds, particularly when anchoring vegetation weakens due to burial or desiccation. Recent research from the 2020s highlights accelerated formation in response to intensifying droughts, as multi-year extreme dry spells—simulating 1-in-100-year events—reduce grassland productivity by over twofold after four years, stripping protective cover and promoting widespread sand mobilization akin to Dust Bowl conditions in regions like the Great Plains. Such trends underscore their sensitivity to climate variability, with global studies across continents revealing diminished ecosystem resilience and heightened aeolian activity.^[68]^[69]

Ecological and Environmental Aspects

Role in Ecosystems

Hummocks in wetland ecosystems serve as elevated, drier microhabitats that support specialized plant species intolerant of prolonged flooding, such as various orchids in peat bogs. For instance, species like the bog adder's-mouth orchid (Hammarbya paludosa) thrive on sphagnum moss hummocks, where the raised structure provides better aeration and reduced waterlogging for root development.^[70] Similarly, the southern twayblade (Listera australis) is often found on mossy hummocks near dwarf black spruce in bog settings. These elevated sites create niches for drought-tolerant vascular plants and mosses, fostering greater overall plant diversity compared to surrounding hollows. Studies indicate that hummock-dominated microtopography can enhance plant species richness by 30-40%, as artificial hummocks have been shown to increase richness 1.3 to 1.4 times relative to adjacent low areas in restored wetlands.^[71] Additionally, hummocks offer varied substrates and moisture gradients that support invertebrate communities, including ants and detrital decomposers, which differ in abundance and composition from those in hollows due to improved drainage and organic matter availability.^[72] This microhabitat heterogeneity contributes to elevated biodiversity across trophic levels, with hummocks acting as "fertile islands" for both flora and fauna.^[73] In terms of hydrology, hummock-hollow systems form a patterned microtopography that regulates water flow, storage, and retention within wetlands. Hummocks elevate vegetation above fluctuating water tables, while adjacent hollows capture and hold surface water, creating a mosaic that slows runoff and promotes infiltration during high-precipitation events. This configuration modulates wetland hydrology by increasing storage capacity and reducing peak surface flows, thereby mitigating flood risks in surrounding areas. In peatlands, for example, hummocks maintain drier conditions that prevent excessive saturation, while hollows act as reservoirs, stabilizing overall water dynamics and supporting seasonal recharge. Such systems enhance resilience to hydrological variability, ensuring sustained wetland functionality without the homogenization seen in flatter landscapes. Hummocks influence soil processes by improving aeration in otherwise water-saturated environments, which accelerates nutrient cycling and decomposition. The elevated structure allows oxygen diffusion into the soil profile, stimulating microbial activity and breaking down organic matter more efficiently than in anaerobic hollows. Recent research from 2021 in sedge-dominated peatlands demonstrates that hummocks exhibit significantly higher activities of key enzymes, such as β-glucosidase, N-acetyl-β-glucosaminidase, acid phosphatase, and alkaline phosphatase, due to altered moisture regimes and warmer temperatures.^[74] This enhancement promotes faster release of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, supporting plant growth on the hummocks while contributing to broader ecosystem fertility. In boreal peatlands, these processes differ markedly across microtopography, with hummocks facilitating higher rates of litter decomposition and nutrient turnover compared to waterlogged hollows.^[74] As carbon sinks, peat hummocks play a vital role in long-term sequestration, accumulating organic matter in elevated, aerated zones that resist full decomposition. In sedge peatlands, hummocks store a disproportionate share of soil organic carbon (SOC), accounting for about 56% of total stocks to 0.3 m depth despite covering only 30% of the area, with concentrations reaching 421-525 g/kg.^[75] Overall SOC in such systems averages around 190 t C/ha, underscoring hummocks' efficiency in building carbon pools through Sphagnum and vascular plant inputs. This storage function is enhanced by the drier conditions that limit methanogenesis while promoting stable peat accumulation, making hummocks key contributors to wetland carbon budgets.^[75]

Response to Climate Change

Climate change is accelerating the degradation of cryogenic hummocks through permafrost thaw, which destabilizes these ice-rich soil mounds and promotes the formation of thermokarst features such as ponds and lakes. In Arctic regions, warming temperatures increase the active layer thickness, leading to subsidence and collapse of hummock structures as ground ice melts. This process has been observed in areas like the Mackenzie Delta, where mineral-earth hummocks in forested zones show heightened vulnerability to thaw-induced erosion. Projections from climate models indicate that near-surface permafrost, integral to cryogenic hummock stability, could experience 16-24% volume loss in boreal and Arctic Alaska by 2100 under moderate emissions scenarios, with broader Arctic estimates ranging from 15-25% depending on warming pathways.^[76]^[77]^[78] In boreal wetland ecosystems, warming drives fen-to-bog transitions that alter hummock dynamics, often increasing their density as peat accumulation raises microtopography and favors Sphagnum-dominated hummocks over open flarks. These shifts are evidenced in subarctic aapa mires, where recent establishment of hummocks at fen margins reflects ongoing succession accelerated by drier conditions and elevated temperatures. Additionally, permafrost thaw contributes to "drunken forests," where leaning trees create new soil mounds through root exposure and cryoturbation, as documented in 2020s tree-ring studies from northern Canada showing rapid acceleration since the 1990s. Such changes enhance hummock formation in transitional zones but risk long-term instability if thaw outpaces vegetation adaptation.^[79]^[80]^[58] Restoration initiatives are addressing hummock vulnerability in coastal environments, particularly through nature-based solutions to bolster resilience against sea-level rise and erosion. A notable example is the 2025 project on Sapelo Island, Georgia, where federal funding supports marsh and oyster reef restoration around the Hogg Hummock community to stabilize hummock-like elevations in Gullah Geechee salt marshes and mitigate subsidence. These efforts aim to preserve elevated microtopography that protects against inundation, drawing on Indigenous shell midden practices for sustainable elevation building.^[81]^[82] The collapse of hummocks in thawing permafrost peatlands triggers positive feedback loops by releasing stored carbon, exacerbating global warming. Degraded hummocks expose organic matter to decomposition, increasing emissions of CO2 and CH4; experimental warming studies show peatland carbon losses accelerating 4.5 to 18 times historical accumulation rates. Models project that such dynamics could impact 10-20% of global peatland carbon stocks by 2100 under high-emissions scenarios, amplifying climate forcing through enhanced greenhouse gas fluxes from these ecosystems.^[83]^[84]

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Magnitude-Frequency Distribution of Hummocks on Rockslide ...
Hummocks, also occasionally called molards, are conical mound-like landforms that protrude from the surface of debris avalanche deposits associated with the ...
[21]
Do peatland microforms move through time? Examining the ...
Sep 18, 2012 · Within the conceptual model, the peatland is composed of two different microforms (hummocks and hollows;Figure 8). At each time step (t), each ...
[22]
Investigating the internal structure of four Azorean Sphagnum bogs ...
Aug 22, 2017 · This study evaluates the applicability of ground penetrating radar (GPR) as a technique for determining the thickness and internal structure of ...
[23]
[PDF] Application of ground-penetrating radar to the identification of ...
Traditional point-measurement techniques, such as soil coring or pit excavation are destructive and provide an incomplete characterisation of the subsurface ...
[24]
Global Peatlands Assessment: The State of the World's ... - UNEP
Nov 17, 2022 · Peatlands are unique and rare ecosystems that, despite only covering around 3-4% of the planet's land surface, they contain up to one-third ...
[25]
[PDF] Global Peatland Hotspot Atlas
May 15, 2025 · Global peatland distribution is shaped by atmosphe- ric circulation patterns and varying climatic conditions, resulting in a high diversity of ...
[26]
Permafrost Thaw in a Warming World - The Arctic Institute
Oct 1, 2020 · Permafrost covers 24 percent of the surface of land masses in the northern hemisphere and accounts for nearly half of all organic carbon ...Missing: coverage | Show results with:coverage
[27]
Permafrost and the Global Carbon Cycle - NOAA Arctic
Nov 22, 2019 · Northern permafrost region soils contain 1,460-1,600 billion metric tons of organic carbon, about twice as much as currently contained in the ...
[28]
Use of hummocks and hollows by trees in tidal freshwater forested ...
These vegetation-propagated hummocks create drier microhabitats where plants that are less tolerant of flooding can germinate and grow (Schlesinger, 1978; Titus ...
[29]
The evolution of hummock–depression micro‐topography in an ...
Mar 25, 2021 · The present study aimed to determine the sizes and shapes of hummocks and depressions in an alpine marshy wetland in Sanjiangyuan in western ...
[30]
Patterns of development and succession of vegetated hummocks in ...
Dune hummocks (small aeolian dunes formed by sand deposition in and around pioneer plants) are the smallest vegetated dune unit; they occur along the entire ...Missing: global | Show results with:global
[31]
[PDF] Mapping of West Siberian taiga wetland complexes using Landsat ...
Aug 16, 2016 · This study maps West Siberian taiga wetlands using Landsat imagery to understand climate change risks, including methane emissions, and to ...
[32]
Detecting Forest‐Wetland Changes in Northwestern Canada's ...
Jan 23, 2025 · This study uses a dense near-annual resolution of mosaicked Landsat imagery to determine if changes can be detected to peatland landscapes over a 37-year ...
[33]
Open Bog - Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
Hummocks formed by accumulating Sphagnum moss and leatherleaf often reach two feet or more in height relative to the adjacent hollows.
[34]
[PDF] Assessing the peatland hummock–hollow classification framework ...
Sep 17, 2019 · Hummocks and hollows occur at a spatial scale of 1 to 10 m (S2; Belyea and Baird, 2006), with hummocks typically covering an area of up to a ...Missing: landform | Show results with:landform
[35]
7110 Active raised bogs - Special Areas of Conservation - JNCC
The peatland flora typically supports a high cover of bog-mosses, including the hummock-forming species Sphagnum imbricatum and S.Missing: Canadian Shield
[36]
Peatland vascular plants facilitate Sphagnum moss microtopography
Ericaceous shrubs, or ericoids, in peat bogs are largely associated with drier hummock microhabitats and their extensive long-lived root system and branched ...
[37]
Characterizing Peatland Microtopography Using Gradient and ...
Feb 10, 2020 · This is supported by the results in Lovitt and others (2018) who report 51.8% percent cover for hollows (48.2% hummock) in undisturbed ...
[38]
https://www.nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.13311
[39]
Blanket bog vegetation response to wildfire and drainage suggests ...
Mar 14, 2024 · The study found that the 2019 wildfire caused mostly superficial burning, and blanket bog vegetation was largely resilient to low severity ...
[40]
[PDF] Community Abstract Bog - Michigan Natural Features Inventory
Fire occurs naturally during drought periods and can alter the hydrology, mat surface, and flora. Beaver-induced flooding also influences bogs. Global and State ...
[41]
https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1493
[42]
[PDF] Dome swamp is an isolated, forested, depression wetland occurring ...
The characteristic dome shape is created by smaller trees that grow in the shallower waters of the outer edge, while taller trees grow in the deeper water in ...
[43]
Types of Wetlands - Carolina Wetlands Association
Lizard tail and various species of ferns and sedges can commonly occur during drier time periods or in drier areas of the swamp on hummocks or closer to the ...
[44]
(PDF) Distribution and abundance of tree species in swamp forests ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Distribution and abundance of tree species in swamp forests of Amazonian Ecuador ... hummocks of. roots, organic matter, and mineral soil at ...
[45]
[PDF] Alder Carrs in Central Europe - Conservation of swamp wetland ...
A particular characteristic of the alder stands is an apparent micro-topography of hummocks, sometimes over a metre high, formed by alder roots. These elevated ...
[46]
The Structure and Dynamics of Earth Hummocks in the Subarctic ...
Aug 10, 2025 · Mineral earth hummocks are common microtopographical features in permafrost ... bowl-shaped permafrost table below hummock centers. Ice enrichment ...
[47]
Arctic Vegetation Plots at Frost Boil Sites, North Slope, Alaska, 2000 ...
Dec 19, 2016 · This data set describes the environment, soil, and vegetation on nonsorted circles and earth hummocks at seven study sites along a ...Missing: Russian | Show results with:Russian
[48]
Cryogenesis and soil formation along a bioclimate gradient in Arctic ...
Aug 2, 2008 · On the lower terrace next to the colluvial fan, earth hummocks occur in clay-rich marine sediment with poor drainage. [10] Our soils ...
[49]
What are these bumps on the moor? - A Dartmoor blog
Dec 16, 2014 · A special form of cryoturbation is represented by earth hummocks or thufur, they are vegetated oval mounds with heights of 30 to 50 cm.
[50]
Science of Frozen Ground | National Snow and Ice Data Center
Water on the surface, from melting snow and summer rains, cannot get through permafrost. The top layer (or active layer) of soil may thaw and let water through.
[51]
Aspects of the geomorphology, genesis and environmental ...
This review summarizes the current knowledge of earth hummocks, highlighting aspects on the external and internal morphology, and thermal characteristics, which ...
[52]
5 - Terrestrial Environments and Surface Types of the Polar Regions
Jul 27, 2018 · Earth hummocks (thufur, an Icelandic name) are a dome-shaped, non-sorted net or circle feature widely distributed in the Arctic and sub-Arctic.
[53]
[PDF] The Significance of Periglacial Phenomena in Ieeland - CORE
Turf hummocks (thufurs), often c1assified as phenomena of non-sorted patterned ground (cf. WASH-. BURN, 1956: 830), are the most common periglacial features ...
[54]
[PDF] distribution, morphology and carbon stock of earth - uO Research
Jun 19, 2017 · Earth hummocks are typically meter-scale dome-shaped circular or oval mounds ... morphological differences: i.e. shape and size) were identified, ...
[55]
View of THUFUR MORPHOLOGY WITHIN THE PONOR ...
The term thufur comes from the Icelandic language (singular: thufa; plural: thufur). ... (2008) who gave the average height and diameter values (d = 60 –90 cm and ...
[56]
(PDF) Cryogenic earth hummocks - ResearchGate
Feb 5, 2022 · Cryogenic earth hummocks are formed by cryosuction producing minor ice segregation forming small mounds in frost-susceptible mineral substrates.Missing: solifluction | Show results with:solifluction
[57]
Differential frost heave, load casting and convection
This paper reviews and discusses the main mechanisms involved in cryoturbation processes and patterned ground. The arguments are based upon field, thermal, ...
[58]
Cryogenic land surface processes shape vegetation biomass ...
Oct 19, 2021 · Recent studies suggest a widespread loss of active LSP (i.e., stabilization of soil surface and/or disappearance of snow beds) due to climate ...
[59]
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01280-x
[60]
[PDF] Appendix C. Introduction to Landslide Stabilization and Mitigation
Planting with shrubs adds vegetative cover and stronger root systems, which in turn will enhance slope stability.
[61]
Significant Lahars at Mount Rainier - USGS.gov
The lahar descended the Puyallup River drainage at least 30 km (19 mi), where it left hummocky-surfaced deposits as much as 30 m (98 ft) thick. It also ...
[62]
https://www.usgs.gov/volcanoes/mount-rainier/science/significant-lahars-mount-rainier
[63]
https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2025.1548465
[64]
Environmental variables affecting an arid coastal nebkha
Apr 1, 2022 · Foredunes in arid coastal dune systems comprise nebkhas, which originate by interactions between vegetation and aeolian sedimentation.
[65]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004896972107947X
[66]
Nebkhas: An essay in aeolian biogeomorphology - ScienceDirect.com
Nebkhas are formed through the interception of wind-blown sand by shrubs or other vegetation. The plants that give rise to nebkha dunes are typically well- ...
[67]
Effects of Wind Velocity and Nebkha Geometry on Shadow Dune ...
Oct 24, 2019 · There are a large number of shadow dunes that have formed on the leeside of nebkhas in the Taitema Dry Lake, in the eastern Taklimakan Desert, ...
[68]
Prolonged, extreme drought in grassland and shrubland risks Dust ...
Oct 24, 2025 · The loss of grasslands and shrublands due to prolonged drought could have wide-ranging impacts on global planetary dynamics, according to the ...
[69]
Hammarbya paludosa (Bog Adder's-mouth) - Minnesota Wildflowers
Family: Orchidaceae (Orchid) ; Life cycle: perennial ; Origin: native ; Status: State Endangered ; Habitat: part shade, shade; sphagnum hummocks in conifer swamps.
[70]
Cause of decade's stagnation of plant communities through16-years ...
The 0.1 m high artificial hummocks enhanced species richness 1.3 to 1.4 times more than the surrounding hollows and increased variety within species assemblages ...
[71]
Drivers of decomposition and the detrital invertebrate community ...
Drivers of decomposition and the detrital invertebrate community differ across a hummock-hollow microtopology in Boreal peatlands · Full Article · Figures & data ...
[72]
Landscape gradients in Sphagnum peatlands: Nutrients, trace ...
Sphagnum peatlands have the characteristic micro-topography of hummocks and pools (hallows), which influences plant and invertebrate biodiversity as well as ...
[73]
Hummock-hollow microtopography affects soil enzyme activity by ...
Because of drier environments, hummocks in fens typically have faster nutrient cycling (Chapin et al., 1979), higher litter decomposition rates (Moore et al., ...
[74]
The effects of hummock-hollow microtopography on soil organic ...
The hummocks in sedge peatlands, also termed “tussocks”, are mainly formed through accumulation of soil, roots, rhizomes, and detrital products, and composed of ...
[75]
Long-Term Permafrost Degradation and Thermokarst Subsidence in ...
Consequently, permafrost thaw has been observed in the region, leading to the degradation of mineral-earth hummocks in forested and fire-affected areas (Kokelj ...
[76]
USGS Projects Large Loss of Alaska Permafrost by 2100
Nov 30, 2015 · The near-surface permafrost that presently underlies 38 percent of boreal and arctic Alaska would be reduced by 16 to 24 percent by the end of the 21st century.Missing: hummocks volume
[77]
Chapter 3: Polar regions
By 2050, 70% of Arctic infrastructure is located in regions at risk from permafrost thaw and subsidence; adaptation measures taken in advance could reduce costs ...
[78]
Ongoing Fen–Bog Transition in a Boreal Aapa Mire Inferred from ...
Oct 20, 2021 · The fen-bog transition involves a decrease in flark area and an increase in Sphagnum moss, indicating an ongoing fen-bog transition.
[79]
Recent hummock establishment in the margin of a subarctic fen ...
Feb 2, 2024 · A transition from a fen into a bog is a result of peat accumulation and vertical growth, and it is part of autogenic peatland succession (e.g. ...
[80]
Tree ring evidence of rapid development of drunken forest induced ...
Apr 7, 2022 · In northern permafrost areas, drunken black spruce forests tend to grow in thin active layers underlain by a hummocky microrelief of permafrost‐ ...
[81]
Feds propose $2.8 million to restore marsh, reefs around Sapelo's ...
Jul 25, 2024 · Federal officials have recommended $2.8 million in funding for a proposed project to make Hogg Hammock more resilent in the face of rising ...Missing: hummock | Show results with:hummock
[82]
Saving Sapelo: Can a historic Black community stay above the waves?
May 23, 2025 · As rising seas threaten one of the country's last Gullah Geechee communities, a new nature-based resilience project offers hope.
[83]
Rapid Net Carbon Loss From a Whole‐Ecosystem Warmed Peatland
Jul 27, 2020 · Results indicate a range of C losses from boreal peatlands 4.5 to 18 times faster than historical rates of accumulation, with substantial ...
[84]
Non-growing season carbon emissions in a northern peatland are ...
Jun 7, 2021 · We project a 103% increase in peatland carbon loss by 2100 under a high emissions scenario. We suggest that peatland carbon losses constitute a strong positive ...