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ICE 3

The ICE 3 is a family of high-speed electric multiple unit trains developed for Deutsche Bahn, Germany's national railway operator, featuring distributed power across eight-car sets and designed for domestic and international services with a top operational speed of 300 km/h in Germany and up to 320 km/h on French high-speed lines.^[1] Introduced as Germany's first 300 km/h trains, the ICE 3 series includes several subclasses tailored for specific routes and power systems, manufactured primarily by Siemens Mobility.^[2] The trains emphasize passenger comfort, accessibility, and efficiency, with features like modernized seating, onboard dining, and multi-voltage capabilities for cross-border travel.^[1] The ICE 3 family currently comprises Class 403 for domestic German operations, Class 407 for routes into France, and Class 408 for international services to Belgium, the Netherlands, and beyond; the original Class 406 for services to Belgium and the Netherlands was retired in 2025, with a total fleet of approximately 95 units accommodating 419 to 460 passengers each depending on the configuration.^[1]^[3]^[4] Class 407 entered service in 2013 and Class 408 in 2024, while Class 403 units underwent significant modernization starting in 2017 to enhance comfort and accessibility, including wheelchair lifts and updated interiors, with upgrades completed by 2024.^[1]^[5] These trains operate on key high-speed corridors such as Cologne–Frankfurt, where they achieve their maximum speeds, and extend to international destinations like Paris, Brussels, and Amsterdam, forming a cornerstone of Europe's interconnected rail network.^[6] Built on Siemens' Velaro platform, the ICE 3 incorporates advanced under-floor drive systems for smooth acceleration and energy efficiency, setting technical benchmarks for subsequent high-speed designs.^[7]

Overview

History and Development

The development of the ICE 3 family began in the 1990s amid Deutsche Bahn's ambitious high-speed rail expansion following German reunification, aiming to modernize the network with advanced distributed traction technology. In 1993–1994, DB opted for this approach over traditional locomotive-hauled designs, leading to initial orders in 1994 for the domestic Class 403 and international Class 406 variants; contracts were formalized in 1995 with Siemens and AEG for a total of 67 trainsets, comprising 50 units of Class 403 and 17 units of Class 406 (including 13 for DB and 4 for Nederlandse Spoorwegen).^[8]^[9] Key milestones included prototype testing starting in 1999 at Siemens' Wildenrath test center and on sections of the Cologne–Frankfurt high-speed line under construction, achieving speeds up to 368 km/h during trials. The trains entered revenue service in June 2000 for EXPO 2000 in Hanover, initially operating on domestic routes before expanding to the fully operational Cologne–Frankfurt line in December 2002. The ICE 3 design directly influenced Siemens' Velaro platform, enabling adaptations for European Technical Specifications for Interoperability (TSI) standards, multi-system electrification, and crashworthiness requirements for both German domestic use and cross-border operations.^[10]^[8]^[11] Subsequent procurement expanded the family with 17 units of Class 407 ordered in December 2008 for enhanced international compatibility, entering service in 2015 after certification delays. In July 2020, DB placed an initial order for 30 units of the updated Class 408 (ICE 3neo) based on the Velaro MS, which was increased to 73 in 2022 and further to 90 in May 2023 amid growing demand for sustainable high-speed capacity. As of late 2025, 39 units have been delivered, with the remainder scheduled through 2029. Production of the Class 408 encountered post-2020 delays due to global supply chain disruptions from the COVID-19 pandemic, though deliveries commenced on schedule in December 2022.^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]

General Technical Specifications

The ICE 3 series, part of Deutsche Bahn's InterCity Express high-speed rail fleet, is built on the Siemens Velaro platform, which consists of electric multiple units (EMUs) designed for distributed power across eight cars, utilizing asynchronous AC motors for propulsion. These trains employ pantograph systems to draw power from overhead catenary wires, primarily operating on the German standard of 15 kV 16.7 Hz AC electrification, with multisystem variants in Classes 406 and 407 equipped for additional voltages such as 25 kV 50 Hz AC and 1.5 kV DC to support international routes. Shared specifications across the ICE 3 family include a total length of approximately 200–201 meters and a service weight of around 400 tons, enabling efficient high-speed performance with a continuous power output of 8,000 kW. Operational top speeds range from 300 to 320 km/h depending on the class and route, while trial runs have achieved speeds up to 368 km/h, demonstrating the platform's capabilities for future expansions. Safety is integrated through crashworthy end cars compliant with European standard EN 15227, which specifies energy absorption requirements to protect passengers in collisions, and compatibility with the European Train Control System (ETCS) Level 2 for automated train protection and signaling. Energy efficiency features include regenerative braking systems that feed recovered energy back into the overhead line to improve efficiency. Accessibility is standardized with dedicated wheelchair spaces in each car and low-floor designs that facilitate level boarding at platforms, ensuring compliance with European regulations for persons with reduced mobility.

Class 403

Design and Production

The Class 403 trains, part of the ICE 3 family based on the Velaro platform, were ordered by Deutsche Bahn in 1994 for 49 units at an approximate cost of DM 2.5 billion. These trains were constructed by a consortium in which Siemens handled 70% of the work and Adtranz 30%, with assembly occurring from 1997 to 2001 at Siemens' Krefeld plant in Germany.^[11] Key design goals for the Class 403 emphasized enhanced efficiency and performance for domestic high-speed operations, including a lighter overall weight achieved through an aluminum double-skin body structure that also reduced fuel consumption. The trains feature distributed traction across 16 powered axles in an eight-car configuration, and a passenger capacity of 441 seats.^[11]^[16] The first prototype unit, 403 001, was completed and began testing in 1998 on Siemens' test track and various German lines. After initial revenue service during the Expo 2000 in Hanover, modifications were implemented to address reliability issues, such as improvements to the braking system and door mechanisms. Production units for the Class 403 omitted multisystem electrical capabilities, focusing instead on compatibility with Germany's domestic 15 kV 16.7 Hz AC network.^[16]^[17]

Operations and Modernization

The Class 403 ICE 3 multiple units entered regular passenger service in late 2000, initially operating on the Cologne–Frankfurt high-speed line with services running every two hours.^[18] By 2002, following the full commissioning of the high-speed infrastructure, these trains had expanded to serve a broader range of nationwide ICE routes within Germany.^[9] These units primarily operate on key domestic high-speed corridors, such as the Cologne–Frankfurt and Erfurt–Nuremberg lines, where they achieve maximum speeds of 300 km/h.^[19] They also played a prominent role in special services, including shuttle operations for Expo 2000 in Hanover until November 2000.^[9] Early operations encountered minor technical challenges, such as signaling integration issues on new high-speed sections in 2001, which were resolved through system upgrades by 2005.^[18] To extend service life and enhance passenger experience, Deutsche Bahn launched the ICE 3 Redesign program in 2017, targeting the 49 Class 403 units among a total fleet of 66 ICE 3 trains (including Class 406).^[20] The program, completed in early 2024 after a phased rollout from 2017, included interior refreshes with harmonized seating layouts allowing approximately 450 passengers per unit (incorporating standing room), replacement of halogen lighting with energy-efficient LEDs and accent strips, installation of high-bandwidth Wi-Fi via a new LAN network, and over 2,500 real-time touchscreen monitors integrated with the onboard information system.^[20] The total cost for the fleet-wide modernization exceeded €200 million.^[20] The redesign has contributed to improved reliability, with the Class 403 fleet demonstrating high operational availability and supporting Deutsche Bahn's long-distance network demands.^[21] As of 2025, all 49 units remain fully active in domestic service, with the upgrades enabling continued operations through at least 2035.^[1]

Class 406

Development and Introduction

The Class 406, also known as ICE 3M, was developed as a multisystem variant of the ICE 3 family specifically for international high-speed services to neighboring countries with differing electrification systems. In 1997, Deutsche Bahn ordered 14 units, while Nederlandse Spoorwegen (NS) ordered 3 additional sets, all manufactured by a consortium of Siemens and Bombardier between 1999 and 2000. These eight-car trains were designed for compatibility with German, Dutch, Belgian, and later French networks, incorporating advanced features like distributed traction and ETCS signaling. The first units entered revenue service in December 2000, initially on the Amsterdam–Cologne–Frankfurt route, marking the start of cross-border ICE operations.^[9]

International Operations

The primary international routes operated by Class 406 ICE 3 trains were the Amsterdam–Cologne–Frankfurt line, which began service in December 2000 and operated until retirement from international duties in 2024–2025. This route was extended to include Brussels starting in December 2002, providing up to four daily pairs of services each way. Additionally, from 2007 to 2010, select trains extended to Paris via a partnership with Thalys, marking an early effort in cross-border high-speed integration between Germany and France.^[22]^[23] Operational highlights during the active period included achieving maximum speeds of 320 km/h on the French LGV Est high-speed line, enabling journey times of around 3 hours 45 minutes from Frankfurt to Paris on extended services. At peak utilization, these international routes carried approximately 10 million passengers annually, reflecting strong demand for sustainable cross-border travel. The trains were fully integrated into the timetables of Nederlandse Spoorwegen (NS) in the Netherlands and Société Nationale des Chemins de fer Belges (SNCB) in Belgium, ensuring synchronized departures and connections at key border stations like Cologne.^[1] Technically, the Class 406 units offered a seating capacity of 430 passengers across eight cars, supported by a total power output of 8,000 kW from distributed traction motors, which facilitated efficient performance on routes with steep gradients such as those approaching the Ardennes. The multisystem design allowed operation under 15 kV 16.7 Hz AC in Germany, 25 kV 50 Hz AC in the Netherlands, 3 kV DC in Belgium, and 25 kV 50 Hz AC in France. However, after 2015, reliability declined due to aging transformers and multi-system electrical components, leading to increased maintenance downtimes and occasional service disruptions.^[24]^[25] Collaborations were central to operations, with Deutsche Bahn and NS maintaining a joint venture for shared maintenance and crew training on the Amsterdam–Cologne–Frankfurt route until 2018, when DB assumed full operational control to streamline processes. Similar coordination with SNCB ensured compliant border operations and unified ticketing under the ICE International brand, enhancing passenger accessibility across the Benelux region.^[20]

Retirement

The retirement of the Class 406 (ICE 3M) was primarily driven by escalating maintenance costs stemming from the complexity of its multisystem electrical design, which enabled operations across different voltage and signaling systems in Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, and Switzerland but resulted in frequent reliability problems.^[25] These issues, particularly with the DC sections and pantograph systems, led to reduced availability and higher operational disruptions, making continued international use uneconomical.^[25] By the mid-2020s, Deutsche Bahn prioritized fleet modernization, replacing the aging Class 406 with more reliable Class 407 and Class 408 trains equipped with updated technology for both domestic and cross-border services.^[3] The phase-out began with the Dutch operator NS International withdrawing its ICE 3M units in June 2024, shifting Amsterdam–Frankfurt and other routes to the newer Class 408 ICE 3neo.^[6] Deutsche Bahn retired the Class 406 from international duties in April 2025, with the final international revenue service running on April 12, 2025, along the Amsterdam–Frankfurt line; the 14 DB units were reassigned for potential domestic operations or offered for sale on the used rolling stock market, while NS's 3 units were fully withdrawn.^[25] To commemorate the end of international service after 25 years, Deutsche Bahn and NS organized a special farewell train on April 12, 2025, using sets 4601 "Europa" and 4651 "Amsterdam" in commemorative livery for a public round trip from Hannover Messe/Laatzen to Amsterdam, The Hague, Rotterdam, Aachen, and Frankfurt, with enthusiast events along the route.^[25]

Class 407

Design Features

The Class 407 ICE 3, developed by Siemens as the Velaro D platform, incorporates advanced engineering focused on interoperability, energy efficiency, and passenger comfort for high-speed rail operations across multiple European networks. In December 2008, Deutsche Bahn placed an initial order for 15 eight-car units valued at €375 million, with an option for two additional trains that was exercised in 2010, resulting in a total of 17 units and a contract value of €500 million.^[12] Designed for a maximum operational speed of 320 km/h, the train features optimized aerodynamics, including a streamlined nose and roof profile that reduces aerodynamic drag by approximately 20% compared to previous ICE 3 models, contributing to 10% overall energy savings through intelligent power management.^[26] Safety innovations include a crash energy management system with deformable end sections that absorb collision forces via controlled deformation, providing anti-climbing protection and enhanced occupant survivability in line with European standards.^[8] The design also integrates distributed traction with eight asynchronous motors delivering 8 MW of power, ensuring stability and rapid acceleration while referencing baseline electrical systems from earlier Velaro variants for reliable high-speed performance.^[27] With a total length of 200 meters and an aluminum body for weight reduction, the Class 407 accommodates 444 passengers, including 111 seats in first class with premium configurations and 333 in second class.^[27] Production of the fleet took place from 2010 to 2012 at Siemens' Krefeld-Uerdingen facility in Germany, where the modular construction enabled streamlined assembly of the interoperable design.^[12] As a multisystem train, the Class 407 supports 15 kV 16.7 Hz AC, 25 kV 50 Hz AC, and 1.5 kV DC electrification, enabling seamless cross-border service in Germany and France, with integrated compatibility for TVM signaling on French lines and ETCS for broader European interoperability.^[28] The first pre-production unit, 407 001, underwent dynamic testing in 2011, validating its performance up to the certified speed of 330 km/h prior to certification.^[29]

Deployment and Routes

The Class 407 trains entered commercial service on December 21, 2013, initially operating on the Frankfurt–Paris high-speed route as part of the DB-SNCF joint venture known as Alleo.^[7] This marked the introduction of the Velaro D platform to international operations, with regular services to Paris commencing fully in June 2015 following certification for French infrastructure.^[7] As of 2025, Class 407 trains primarily serve France-Germany high-speed corridors, including the Paris–Frankfurt route with approximately 13 daily round-trips operated by Deutsche Bahn in cooperation with SNCF, providing direct high-speed links at speeds up to 320 km/h on the LGV Est line.^[30] Since December 2024, Class 407 trains operate a daily direct service from Paris to Berlin via Frankfurt (Main) Süd, Karlsruhe, and Strasbourg, taking approximately 8 hours.^[31] Initial plans for extension to London via the Channel Tunnel, announced in the early 2010s, were shelved in 2018 due to economic challenges and uncertainties surrounding Brexit, remaining unrealized to date.^[32] These international assignments have collectively transported approximately 24 million passengers on cross-border long-distance services as of 2024.^[33] The Class 407 demonstrates high operational reliability, achieving around 99% availability in service, which supports seamless integration with SNCF's TGV fleet under the Alleo alliance.^[26] In 2023, route adjustments, including optimized scheduling on the Paris–Frankfurt axis, were implemented to enhance energy efficiency amid rising operational costs and sustainability goals.^[34]

Class 408

Ordering and Production

In July 2020, Deutsche Bahn placed an initial order with Siemens Mobility for 30 ICE 3neo high-speed trains, valued at approximately €1 billion, as part of efforts to modernize and expand its long-distance fleet.^[35] This procurement was based on the Siemens Velaro MS platform, designed for multisystem operation across European electrification standards including Germany's 15 kV 16.7 Hz AC, France's 25 kV 50 Hz AC and 1.5 kV DC, and Italy's and Spain's 3 kV and 25 kV systems, respectively.^[36] The trains feature a maximum operating speed of 320 km/h and provide seating for 439 passengers in an eight-car configuration.^[37] The order was expanded in February 2022 with an additional 43 units for around €1.5 billion, aimed at supporting network growth and increasing daily capacity by approximately 32,000 seats across the fleet.^[38] Further expansion occurred in May 2023, when Deutsche Bahn ordered 17 more trains worth €600 million, raising the total to 90 units to address rising passenger demand.^[13] Production commenced in 2021 at Siemens Mobility's primary assembly plant in Krefeld, Germany, with key components such as bogies manufactured at the company's facility in Graz, Austria; over 230 German suppliers contributed to the supply chain.^[39] The first pre-production unit, numbered 408 001, was unveiled at the Krefeld plant in December 2022 ahead of testing.^[40] Deliveries to Deutsche Bahn began in 2023, with the complete fleet of 90 units scheduled for handover by 2029 despite industry-wide supply chain disruptions, including semiconductor shortages that affected rail manufacturing timelines in 2022. As of July 2025, 29 trains have been delivered, with further deliveries ongoing.^[41]^[42]

Entry into Service

The first ICE 3neo train of Class 408 entered passenger service on 5 December 2022, operating an inaugural journey between Frankfurt/Main and Cologne on the high-speed line through the Rhine/Main Valley.^[40] This marked the start of regular operations for the new fleet, with four units deployed by 11 December 2022, initially focused on domestic routes connecting North Rhine-Westphalia to southern Germany.^[43] The train's assembly was completed at Siemens Mobility's facility in Krefeld, Germany, and it underwent extensive testing prior to certification by the Federal Railway Authority (Eisenbahn-Bundesamt) in November 2022.^[44] Deutsche Bahn's initial order for 30 Class 408 trains, placed in July 2020 and valued at approximately €1 billion, began delivery in late 2022, with the fleet expansion planned to reach 90 units by 2029 through additional contracts for 43 trains in February 2022 and 17 more in May 2023.^[35] By the end of 2023, 16 trains were in operation, primarily enhancing capacity on key intercity corridors amid ongoing fleet modernization efforts to replace older ICE models.^[5] The trains demonstrated high reliability from the outset, contributing to improved punctuality on busy routes.^[45] Multi-system variants of the Class 408, capable of operating under four electrification standards (15 kV 16.7 Hz AC, 25 kV 50 Hz AC, 1.5 kV DC, and 3 kV DC), received European Union Agency for Railways (ERA) authorization on 29 May 2024, enabling cross-border services.^[46] These entered service in mid-June 2024 on international routes from Frankfurt and Cologne to Brussels Midi (in cooperation with SNCB) and Amsterdam Centraal (with NS), replacing older ICE 3M units and expanding high-speed connectivity to the Benelux countries.^[46] Further deployments, including adaptations for services to France and Poland announced in July 2025, are anticipated as authorizations progress, with up to 32 trains to be modified for 25 kV 50 Hz AC, 1.5 kV DC, and 3 kV DC operations, enabling direct routes such as Berlin–Warsaw from 2031.^[4]^[47]

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