Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

ISO basic Latin alphabet

The ISO basic Latin alphabet is an international standard defining a core set of 26 uppercase letters (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z) and 26 corresponding lowercase letters (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z) for the Latin script, without diacritics or additional symbols.^[1] These 52 letters form the alphabetic portion of the invariant graphic character subset of the ISO/IEC 646:1991 standard, a 7-bit coded character set designed for information interchange in data processing and communication systems.^[2] It ensures compatibility across computing environments by providing a minimal, universally recognized set of letters applicable to alphabets of the Latin type. The development of the ISO basic Latin alphabet stemmed from mid-20th-century efforts to standardize character encoding amid growing international data exchange needs. Originating from the U.S. ASCII standard established in 1963, it was adapted through collaboration between the American Standards Association and ISO/TC97/SC2, leading to the publication of ISO Recommendation 646 in 1967.^[3] This evolved into a full international standard in 1972, with revisions in 1983 and the current edition, ISO/IEC 646:1991, recognizing ASCII as the International Reference Version while allowing national variants to substitute certain positions for locale-specific characters like currency symbols or additional punctuation.^[2] The standard's design prioritized 94 positions for graphic characters (of which 82 are fixed/invariant, including the 52 letters, 10 digits, space, and basic symbols) within the 128-position 7-bit structure, reserving space for 34 control functions (including DEL) to support early computing and telegraphy compatibility.^[3] In modern usage, the ISO basic Latin alphabet underpins text encoding in systems worldwide, serving as the foundation for the English alphabet and the base for many other languages such as French, German, Spanish, and Portuguese in their undiacritized forms.^[4] It aligns directly with the printable letter portions of ASCII and occupies the Unicode Basic Latin block, specifically code points U+0041 to U+005A for uppercase and U+0061 to U+007A for lowercase, facilitating seamless integration in digital text processing, web standards, and internationalization protocols like ISO/IEC 2022 for code extension.^[5] This standardization has enabled broad interoperability, though it excludes accented letters found in extended Latin sets like ISO/IEC 8859 series, which build upon it for multilingual support.^[2]

Introduction and Definition

Core Letters and Scope

The ISO basic Latin alphabet comprises 26 uppercase letters—A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z—and their 26 lowercase counterparts—a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z—all presented in their standard forms without any diacritical marks or modifications.^[2] This set defines the core, unaccented characters essential for Latin-based writing systems, particularly those of English and similar languages, while deliberately excluding digraphs (such as "æ" treated as a single unit), ligatures, and any extended symbols or accented variants to maintain simplicity and universality.^[2] Established in the initial edition of ISO/IEC 646 in 1973, the alphabet forms the invariant subset of graphic characters intended for reliable international data interchange across diverse computing environments, totaling 52 characters when accounting for uppercase and lowercase distinctions.^[2] Characters like the ligature Æ (ash) or the German ß (sharp s) are explicitly omitted from this basic repertoire, as they belong to supplementary sets in standards such as ISO/IEC 8859-1 for handling additional European languages.

Relation to Latin Script Standards

The ISO basic Latin alphabet serves as the foundational invariant character set within ISO/IEC 646:1991, a 7-bit coded character set designed for information interchange in data processing and communication systems using Latin script alphabets.^[2] Specifically, it comprises the 82 unique graphic characters in the International Reference Version (IRV) of this standard, including the 52 core letters (26 uppercase A–Z and 26 lowercase a–z), digits, and basic symbols that remain fixed across all conforming implementations.^[6] This IRV structure ensures international compatibility by mandating these invariant allocations, while allowing limited options for national or application-specific characters in non-invariant positions to accommodate regional needs without altering the basic Latin core.^[7] By standardizing the basic Latin letters in this manner, ISO/IEC 646 addresses compatibility challenges between 7-bit and 8-bit systems, preventing national variations—such as substitutions for symbols like # or £—from disrupting the interchange of core alphabetic data.^[6] The invariant set thus promotes a universal baseline for Latin-based encoding, facilitating seamless data exchange in early computing environments where diverse national standards could otherwise lead to interoperability issues.^[7] In the broader Unicode standard, the ISO basic Latin alphabet maps directly to the Basic Latin block (U+0000–U+007F), which encodes these 52 letters alongside 33 control codes and 43 other graphic characters from ASCII, preserving the 7-bit heritage for modern multilingual text processing.^[5] This block's design maintains backward compatibility with ISO/IEC 646, ensuring that systems handling Unicode can reliably process legacy 7-bit data without loss of the basic Latin characters.^[5] The ISO basic Latin alphabet is differentiated from the extended Latin script standards, such as those in ISO/IEC 8859-1 (Latin-1), by excluding diacritics and supplementary letters; for instance, accented characters like á or ç appear in Unicode's Latin-1 Supplement block (U+0080–U+00FF) rather than the core Basic Latin range.^[8] This distinction positions the ISO basic set as a minimal, unadorned foundation, while fuller standards build upon it for languages requiring modified letters.^[8]

Historical Development

Origins in Early Computing Standards

The origins of the ISO basic Latin alphabet can be traced to mid-19th-century advancements in telegraphy, where the need for efficient transmission of textual data led to the development of binary-like codes prioritizing a core set of Latin letters. Émile Baudot's 5-bit code, patented in 1874, was a pioneering system for encoding letters, numerals, and symbols in uniform-length sequences suitable for mechanical telegraphs, focusing on the 26 uppercase Latin letters of the English alphabet alongside essential punctuation to accommodate limited bandwidth.^[9] This code supplanted earlier Morse code systems by enabling faster, automated printing telegraphs, though it omitted lowercase letters due to hardware constraints.^[9] Building on Baudot's foundation, the International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2), standardized by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in 1930, refined the 5-bit encoding to support a subset of Latin characters, including both uppercase and a shiftable set of lowercase letters, while maintaining compatibility with telegraphic equipment across nations.^[10] ITA2's repertoire emphasized the invariant ASCII-compatible letters—A through Z and a through z—as a stable core for international communication, influencing subsequent digital standards by establishing a minimal Latin subset for error-resistant transmission.^[9] In the 1950s, early computing systems further entrenched this Latin-focused approach through punch-card technologies, which served as the primary medium for data entry and program input on machines like the UNIVAC I. These systems, developed by companies such as IBM and Remington Rand, utilized 6- or 12-row punch cards with hole patterns representing the 26 uppercase English letters, numerals, and basic symbols, prioritizing the basic Latin alphabet to streamline census and business data processing.^[11] Later UNIVAC systems, such as the 1100 series, employed the FIELDATA 6-bit code for internal representation, which included the full 26-letter Latin set to support alphanumeric data handling in military and commercial applications.^[12] The culmination of these developments arrived with the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), published as ANSI X3.4-1963, which formalized the 26 uppercase Latin letters in decimal positions 65–90 (A–Z) and lowercase in 97–122 (a–z) within a 7-bit framework, providing a unified encoding for telecommunications and computing interoperability.^[13] This standard directly built on telegraphy precedents by reserving the basic Latin characters as invariant positions, ensuring backward compatibility with existing hardware. In 1965, the European Computer Manufacturers Association (ECMA) adopted ASCII as ECMA-6, with a revision in 1967, marking a key step toward international harmonization by endorsing the same Latin core for data processing across continents.^[9]^[14]

Standardization by ISO

The development of the ISO basic Latin alphabet occurred through the International Organization for Standardization's (ISO) efforts to create a unified 7-bit character code for international data interchange, culminating in ISO 646 published in 1973. This built upon the ISO Recommendation 646 published in 1967, which had established initial guidelines for 7-bit codes.^[3] Drafted by ISO Technical Committee 97 (Computers and information processing), the standard was circulated to member bodies in May 1972 and approved in July 1973, establishing a common core character set to harmonize national variants previously used in early computing.^[15] This core included the 52 basic Latin letters—A through Z (hexadecimal positions 0x41 to 0x5A) and a through z (0x61 to 0x7A)—as invariant positions to ensure compatibility across systems, replacing diverse national symbols in those slots while allowing flexibility elsewhere for locale-specific needs.^[15]^[7] ISO/IEC 646:1973 defined the basic Latin alphabet as the invariant reference version (IRV) within its 128-character framework, serving as the foundational subset for all derived national standards and promoting interoperability in telegraphic and computing applications. The 1983 revision (second edition) refined the specification for greater clarity, particularly in control character definitions and graphic symbol allocations, without altering the core Latin letters.^[16] The 1983 edition, ISO 646:1983, reaffirmed the basic set amid the transition to 8-bit encodings, influencing adaptations in systems like EBCDIC variants and other international codes by emphasizing the invariant Latin positions as a stable base.^[16]^[7] The third edition, ISO/IEC 646:1991, further stabilized the standard by incorporating prior revisions and confirming the basic Latin alphabet's role as the unchanging core for 7-bit interchange, even as broader 16-bit universal sets emerged.^[2] This edition replaced the generic currency symbol with the dollar sign in the IRV for practicality, but preserved the 52 Latin letters intact.^[2] In the Unicode era, ISO/IEC 646 remains relevant as a subset of ISO/IEC 10646, with its last systematic review in 2020 confirming no major changes to the basic Latin definitions, underscoring its enduring utility in legacy and compatible systems.^[2]

Terminology and Nomenclature

Key Terms and Definitions

The ISO basic Latin alphabet is defined as the collection of 52 characters comprising the 26 uppercase letters A–Z and their 26 lowercase equivalents a–z, excluding any diacritics, ligatures, or other modifications, as established in the international standard ISO/IEC 646 for 7-bit coded character sets applicable to Latin alphabets.^[2] This set represents the core graphic characters intended for universal compatibility in information interchange, forming the foundation for text processing in computing environments. The term "ISO basic Latin alphabet" is commonly used to describe the 26 uppercase and 26 lowercase letters defined as the invariant graphic characters in ISO/IEC 646. A key associated term is the "invariant subset," which denotes the fixed portion of characters common to all national variants of ISO/IEC 646, including the basic Latin letters, digits 0–9, and select punctuation marks that remain unchanged regardless of regional adaptations.^[17] This invariant subset ensures interoperability by avoiding conflicts in code positions that might differ between countries, such as substitutions for national symbols in non-invariant areas. The "7-bit repertoire" refers to the overall limitation of ISO/IEC 646 to 128 possible code points (2^7), of which the invariant subset occupies a defined range to support basic Latin script transmission without requiring additional bytes.^[2] Unlike the broader "Latin alphabet," which historically includes variants and evolutions such as the differentiation of I into J or U from V during the medieval and Renaissance periods, the ISO basic Latin alphabet confines itself to the contemporary 26-letter inventory without such historical accretions or extensions.^[18] Subsequently, the related designation "Basic Latin" was popularized through Unicode version 1.0, released in 1991, where it designates the initial block encoding these characters alongside control codes for compatibility with legacy 7-bit systems.^[5] The ISO basic Latin alphabet consists of the same 26 uppercase and 26 lowercase letters (A–Z and a–z) as the English alphabet, providing a standardized repertoire for Latin-script based languages in computing and data processing. While the English alphabet is primarily a linguistic construct tied to the phonology and orthography of the English language, the ISO version emphasizes a neutral, case-distinct encoding suitable for international interchange, without assumptions about keyboard layouts such as QWERTY or language-specific pronunciations.^[5] This distinction ensures portability across systems, where the focus is on character representation rather than input methods or phonetic values. In contrast to the NATO phonetic alphabet (also known as the International Radiotelephony Spelling Alphabet), which assigns pronounceable words (e.g., "Alpha" for A, "Bravo" for B) to each of the 26 letters for unambiguous oral transmission in military, aviation, and telecommunications contexts, the ISO basic Latin alphabet pertains exclusively to written and digital encoding of the letters themselves.^[19] The NATO system builds upon the ISO letters as its foundation but serves spoken communication to mitigate errors from similar-sounding letters, without altering the visual or coded forms of the alphabet. Unlike ISO/IEC 8859-1 (Latin-1), which expands the 7-bit basic set into an 8-bit encoding with 128 additional graphic characters—including accented letters like á, é, and ñ for Western European languages—the ISO basic Latin alphabet deliberately excludes diacritics and remains confined to the 52 unaccented letters for minimal, diacritic-free interoperability in early computing standards. This core set forms the invariant portion of ISO/IEC 646, prioritizing simplicity for basic text exchange over support for linguistic variations. Within the Unicode standard, the ISO basic Latin alphabet occupies specific positions in the Basic Latin block (U+0041–U+005A for uppercase and U+0061–U+007A for lowercase), representing a foundational subset of the Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP, plane 0 from U+0000 to U+FFFF).^[5] The BMP itself accommodates over 65,000 characters across diverse scripts and symbols, far exceeding the basic letters, and notably omits the C1 control codes (U+0080–U+009F) that appear in the adjacent Latin-1 Supplement block, thereby distinguishing the minimal alphabetic core from the plane's comprehensive multilingual scope.

Encoding and Representation

Character Encoding Standards

The ISO basic Latin alphabet is encoded in the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) and the international variant ISO/IEC 646 (International Reference Version, or IRV), where the 26 uppercase letters A–Z are assigned code points 65–90 in decimal (hexadecimal 41–5A) and the 26 lowercase letters a–z are assigned 97–122 in decimal (hexadecimal 61–7A).^[5] These positions ensure compatibility with early 7-bit data transmission standards, reserving the upper bits for control characters and basic punctuation.^[5] In the Unicode Standard, the ISO basic Latin alphabet occupies the initial positions of the Basic Latin block, with uppercase A–Z at U+0041–U+005A and lowercase a–z at U+0061–U+007A, directly mirroring the ASCII/ISO 646 assignments to maintain backward compatibility with legacy systems.^[5] This alignment allows seamless migration from 7-bit encodings to Unicode's 16-bit (or higher) framework without altering the numerical values for these core characters.^[5] While the ISO standards emphasize ASCII-like uniformity, variants such as IBM's Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) employ different mappings; for instance, uppercase A is at hexadecimal C1 in standard EBCDIC code pages like 037 and 1047, with the full uppercase range spanning C1–C9, D1–D9, and E2–E9 to accommodate mainframe processing needs.^[20] By 2025, UTF-8 has achieved dominance as the predominant encoding for web content, representing 98.8% of surveyed websites, wherein the ISO basic Latin characters remain encoded as single bytes identical to their ASCII values for efficiency.^[21]

Visual and Typographic Representation

The visual representation of the ISO basic Latin alphabet relies on glyph designs that depict its 26 uppercase (A–Z) and 26 lowercase (a–z) letters, with shapes standardized across font families but varying by style to ensure legibility and aesthetic consistency. In sans-serif fonts such as Arial, glyphs feature clean, unadorned strokes without decorative extensions, resulting in uniform, block-like forms for uppercase letters like A (a triangular structure with a horizontal crossbar) and B (two stacked semicircles on a vertical stem), while lowercase letters like a exhibit simple enclosed loops and stems. In contrast, serif fonts like Times New Roman incorporate subtle terminal strokes or brackets at stroke ends, adding elegance; for instance, the uppercase S curves with inward serifs at the top and bottom, and the lowercase g includes a descending loop with a serifed base, maintaining overall uniformity in uppercase height and proportion across the set. These conventions prioritize readability in print and digital media, with uppercase letters designed for even baselines and x-heights to facilitate consistent text flow.^[22] Typographic features for the ISO basic Latin alphabet focus on spacing and alignment adjustments to optimize visual harmony, as the set excludes diacritics and thus avoids complex accent positioning. Kerning, the process of fine-tuning space between specific letter pairs, addresses optical illusions in combinations where standard spacing appears uneven; common examples include tightening the gap in "AV" (where the V's diagonal encroaches on A's right side) and "Ta" (adjusting the T's crossbar proximity to a's curve) to create balanced word shapes.^[23] Such pairs are predefined in font metrics files, ensuring professional rendering without manual intervention in most applications.^[24] ISO/IEC 10646, which forms the basis for Unicode and includes the basic Latin repertoire, defines these letters as abstract characters without prescribing specific glyph forms or an official typeface, leaving rendering entirely to the discretion of font designers and families.^[25] This abstraction allows flexibility across sans-serif, serif, and other styles while preserving semantic identity. Case mapping rules provide a standardized method for converting between uppercase and lowercase forms, essential for text processing and display uniformity. In implementations aligned with Unicode (and thus ISO 10646), functions like toUppercase or toLowercase apply direct one-to-one mappings—such as transforming 'a' to 'A' or vice versa—based on normative properties in the character database, akin to the toupper() function in the C programming language standard.^[26] These rules ensure predictable behavior for the basic Latin letters, supporting operations like normalization without altering the abstract character identity.^[25]

Usage and Applications

Adoption in Computing and Data Processing

The ISO basic Latin alphabet, consisting of the 26 uppercase and 26 lowercase letters A–Z and a–z, forms the foundation for character input in standard computer keyboards. The QWERTY layout, the predominant keyboard arrangement for Latin-script languages, positions these letters as the primary alphanumeric keys, enabling efficient text entry in English and other compatible languages across hardware from manufacturers like IBM and Apple since the 1970s.^[27] In programming languages such as C++, identifiers like variable names are restricted to these basic Latin letters, digits, and underscores, ensuring portability and compatibility in source code across compilers and platforms as defined in the ISO/IEC 14882 standard.^[28] File systems, including FAT32 and NTFS used in Windows environments, traditionally support filenames composed solely of these letters without encoding, facilitating legacy data storage and retrieval in billions of devices worldwide.^[29] By the 1980s, ASCII-compatible character sets incorporating the ISO basic Latin alphabet had been adopted by nearly all U.S. computer manufacturers except IBM's mainframes, which used EBCDIC but still mapped to the same letters, establishing it as the de facto standard for data processing in personal computers, terminals, and early networks.^[30] This dominance persisted into 2025, particularly in legacy systems like COBOL applications running on mainframes and midrange servers, where the basic Latin letters remain essential for report generation and transaction processing in financial and governmental sectors, supporting over 80% of global financial transactions and more than 220 billion lines of code in active use as of 2025.^[31]^[32] In network applications, the alphabet underpins email transmission via SMTP, which defaults to 7-bit ASCII encoding for message headers and bodies, limiting content to these unaccented letters to ensure interoperability across global servers as specified in RFC 5321.^[33] Similarly, web URLs employ the basic Latin letters as unreserved characters that require no percent-encoding, allowing direct use in domain names, paths, and queries per RFC 3986, which supports seamless navigation in HTTP-based systems.^[34] As of 2025, with an estimated 21.1 billion connected IoT devices, many protocols like MQTT and CoAP favor 7-bit ASCII subsets for device identifiers and simple commands, reducing transmission overhead and power consumption in battery-limited sensors by minimizing byte usage compared to full Unicode encodings.^[35]^[36]

Integration in International Alphabets

The ISO basic Latin alphabet provides the essential 26-letter core (A–Z and a–z) that underpins the writing systems of over 1,500 languages globally, allowing for extensions via diacritics or additional symbols to capture unique phonetics while preserving a standardized base for interoperability.^[37] A prominent example is the Vietnamese alphabet (Quốc ngữ), which employs 22 letters from the ISO basic set—omitting F, J, W, and Z except in loanwords—and augments them with diacritics for tones and vowel distinctions, ensuring the core remains unchanged for broad textual compatibility. In post-colonial Africa and the Pacific, the adoption of Latin script has been widespread, with the ISO basic letters recommended as the foundational elements by international bodies to promote literacy, education, and cross-border communication in newly independent nations. For sub-Saharan African languages, this base is extended with specific characters outlined in ISO 6438, which addresses phonetic needs beyond the 26 core letters while adhering to the invariant ISO framework.^[38] European Romance languages like Portuguese and Spanish exemplify this integration, incorporating supplementary letters such as ñ (in Spanish) and ç (in Portuguese) for nasal and sibilant sounds, yet retaining the full ISO basic core to maintain digital encoding consistency in global systems.^[4] This role extends to localization frameworks like POSIX, where the ISO basic Latin letters are designated as part of the portable character set, remaining invariant across locales to support reliable software behavior in multilingual environments.

Extensions and Variations

Inclusion in Broader Unicode Ranges

The ISO basic Latin alphabet, consisting of the 26 uppercase letters A–Z and 26 lowercase letters a–z, was directly mapped into the Unicode Standard version 1.0, released in 1991, within the Basic Latin block spanning code points U+0000 to U+007F. Specifically, the uppercase letters occupy U+0041 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A) through U+005A (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z), while the lowercase letters are at U+0061 (LATIN SMALL LETTER A) through U+007A (LATIN SMALL LETTER Z); this block also incorporates the C0 control codes and printable ASCII characters for compatibility with earlier standards like ISO/IEC 646.^[5] For these unaccented letters, Unicode normalization forms such as NFC and NFD are irrelevant, as the characters are atomic and lack decompositions or combining equivalents. In Unicode 15.0, released in 2022, the Basic Latin block is reaffirmed as the foundational Basic Latin core, providing the essential 26 basic letter pairs that underpin all Latin-script alphabets without any alterations to its repertoire.^[39] This stability persists despite the prevalence of multi-byte encodings like UTF-16 and UTF-32, as the block's characters remain integral to universal text processing and backward compatibility. No deprecation has occurred, ensuring seamless integration across Unicode versions. The Basic Latin block serves as the starting point in Plane 0 (the Basic Multilingual Plane) of the Unicode repertoire, forming the base for extensions such as the Latin Extended-A block (U+0100–U+017F) and Latin Extended-B block (U+0180–U+024F), which add accented and additional Latin characters for broader language support.^[40] Under the Unicode Consortium's character encoding stability policies, updated as of January 2024 and applicable through 2025 with Unicode 17.0, changes to this block—including reallocation, removal, or property modifications for its core letters—are explicitly prohibited to maintain global interoperability and text integrity.^[41]^[42]

Column Numbering Systems

The ISO basic Latin alphabet employs a standard positional numbering system where uppercase letters are assigned values from A=1 to Z=26, a convention that extends to lowercase letters as a=1 to z=26 in parallel sequence. This one-based indexing facilitates organized referencing in tabular formats, avoiding overlap with numeric row labels. In spreadsheet applications like Microsoft Excel, this system underpins the A1 notation for cell addressing, with column A designated as position 1, progressing sequentially to Z at position 26 before extending to two-letter combinations such as AA.^[43] Within character encoding frameworks, such as the 7-bit ISO/IEC 646 standard, the uppercase letters occupy specific positions in the code table, spanning decimal values 65 (A) through 90 (Z), immediately following positions 0–31 for control characters and 32–64 for symbols and space, which include gaps for non-printable or specialized codes. Lowercase letters follow suit at decimal 97 (a) to 122 (z), maintaining the alphabetic order but separated by additional symbols in positions 91–96. This arrangement in the 128-position table, structured as 8 rows by 16 columns, ensures efficient binary representation and sequential retrieval in data processing.^[15] These numbering conventions support practical applications in fields requiring alphabetic sequencing, including phonetics and cryptography. In cryptographic tools like the Vigenère cipher, the alphabet is typically mapped to a 26×26 tableau with rows and columns labeled A to Z, where letters are indexed from 0 (A) to 25 (Z) for performing modular additions and subtractions to encrypt or decrypt text.^[44] Programming environments introduce variations between zero-based and one-based indexing when handling the alphabet for tasks like string manipulation or lookups. For example, while the ASCII-derived ordinal value ord('A') yields 65 in languages such as Python, developers often subtract this base to achieve zero-based indexing (0 for A, 25 for Z) in arrays or modular operations, promoting computational efficiency; one-based schemes (1–26) appear in user-facing or mathematical contexts but are less common for internal array offsets.

References

[1]
A.6.1 Portable Character Set
The portable character set is listed in full so there is no dependency on the ISO/IEC 646:1991 standard (or historically ASCII) encoded character set, although ...
[2]
ISO/IEC 646:1991 - Information technology — ISO 7-bit coded ...
In stockSpecifies a set of 128 control and graphic characters such as letters, digits and symbols with their coded representation. Applies to alphabets of the Latin ...
[3]
Guide to the use of Character Sets in Europe - Open Standards
Annex B deals in more detail with the Universal Multi-octet Coded Character Set (UCS) specified in ISO/IEC 10646-1. The need to represent characters by bit ...
[4]
ISO Basic Latin Alphabet / English Alphabet - Charset.org
The ISO basic Latin alphabet has 26 letters. It is identical to the English alphabet and also used in Portuguese, French, German and many other languages.
[5]
[PDF] C0 Controls and Basic Latin - The Unicode Standard, Version 17.0
These charts are provided as the online reference to the character contents of the Unicode Standard, Version 17.0 but do not provide all the information needed ...
[6]
[PDF] ISO-IEC-646-1991.pdf - iTeh Standards
Dec 15, 1991 · ISO/IEC 646:1991 specifies a 7-bit coded character set of 128 characters for information interchange among data processing and communication ...Missing: list | Show results with:list
[7]
[PDF] Standard ECMA-6
Jun 15, 2017 · This 6th Edition corresponds to the 3rd edition of ISO 646 issued in 1991, a revision of the 1983 issue prepared by WG-7 of. ISO/IEC/JTC1/SC2 ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[8]
[PDF] Latin-1 Supplement - The Unicode Standard, Version 17.0
Latin-1 punctuation and symbols. Based on ISO/IEC 8859-1 (aka Latin-1) from here. 00A0 ș NO-BREAK SPACE. • commonly abbreviated as NBSP. • should be the same ...
[9]
[PDF] The Evolution of Character Codes, 1874-1968
Émile Baudot's printing telegraph was the first widely adopted device to encode letters, numbers, and symbols as uniform-length binary sequences.
[10]
https://www.itu.int/rec/dologin_pub.asp?lang=e&id=T-REC-S.1-199303-I!!PDF-E&type=items
[11]
The IBM punched card
Data was assigned to the card by punching holes, each one representing a character, in each column. When writing a program, one card represented a line of code ...Missing: alphabet | Show results with:alphabet
[12]
UNIVAC 1100 Series FIELDATA Character Code - Fourmilab
FIELDATA was developed by the United States Army as a character code for military communications. · The punch card codes given corresponded, in cases where ...Missing: 1950s Latin
[13]
Milestones:American Standard Code for Information Interchange ...
May 23, 2025 · The American Standards Association X3.2 subcommittee published the first edition of the ASCII standard in 1963. Its first widespread commercial ...
[14]
[PDF] ISO 646:1973 - iTeh Standards
Jul 1, 1973 · International Standard I S 0 646 was drawn up by Technical Committee ISO/TC 97, Computers and information processing, and circulated to the ...
[15]
ISO 646:1983 - Information processing — ISO 7-bit coded character ...
ISO 7-bit coded character set for information interchange. Withdrawn (Edition 2, 1983). New version available: ISO/IEC 646:1991.
[16]
RFC 1345 - Character Mnemonics and Character Sets
4.1 Charset Naming The coded character set names are given in ISO 646 invariant subset (83 characters, where a space in the name is replaced with an ...
[17]
The Latin Alphabet - World History Edu
Feb 10, 2025 · The Latin alphabet's standardized modern version is recognized as the ISO basic Latin alphabet. American archaeologist, Heinrich Dressel's ...
[18]
[PDF] AD 278 396 - DTIC
discussions of limitations and communication efficiency of the alphabet, and lists 200 word spelling alphabets compiled from international sources. 4. Voice ...
[19]
Character Tables - IBM
Table 1. Invalid delimiters. Symbol or Range, Description, EBCDIC Byte Value or Range. A – Z, Uppercase letters from A to Z, x'C1' to x'E9'.
[20]
Usage statistics of UTF-8 for websites - W3Techs
UTF-8 is used by 98.8% of all the websites whose character encoding we know. Historical trend. This diagram shows the historical trend in the percentage of ...Missing: dominance | Show results with:dominance
[21]
UniversiTTy: Lesson 6. Designing Basic Latin Characters. Introduction
Mar 1, 2024 · Characters from the basic Latin alphabet can be subdivided into three groups: straight or rectangular (for example, H or n), rounded (O, o), and ...Missing: ISO | Show results with:ISO
[22]
The Differences between Kerning, Tracking, Leading | TypeType®
Aug 19, 2024 · What is kerning in typography? Kerning is the process of selectively adjusting the space between two individual letters or characters in a word.What Is Spacing? · Kerning Definition And... · What Is Kerning In...<|separator|>
[23]
B: How to kern type - Understanding Kerning & Tracking
Jul 6, 2021 · Letters with diagonal strokes like A, V, W, Y, K, X, y, v, w. examples: LV, AV, KO, WA, Ay, Av … · Top-heavy or bottom-heavy letters: T, L, F, P, ...
[24]
None
Summary of each segment:
[25]
Superseded Unicode Standard Annex
### Summary of Case Mapping Rules for Basic Latin Alphabet Letters
[26]
https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr21/
[27]
Identifiers - cppreference.com - C++ Reference
Dec 21, 2024 · An identifier is an arbitrarily long sequence of digits, underscores, lowercase and uppercase Latin letters, and most Unicode characters.
[28]
Filename - Wikipedia
The characters allowed in filenames depend on the file system. The letters A–Z and digits 0–9 are allowed by most file systems; many file systems support ...
[29]
A Brief History of Character Codes
Aug 6, 2004 · ASCII code was adopted by all U.S. computer manufacturers except IBM, which developed a proprietary character code for its mainframe computers ( ...
[30]
What is the most common use of COBOL in modern times ... - Quora
Feb 18, 2025 · COBOL's strengths are leveraged in back-end applications, mainly in operations involving large amounts of usage measurements and financial data ...
[31]
RFC 5321 - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol - IETF Datatracker
The SMTP data is 7-bit ASCII characters. Each character is transmitted as an 8-bit byte with the high-order bit cleared to zero. Service extensions may ...
[32]
RFC 3986: Uniform Resource Identifier (URI): Generic Syntax
This specification defines the generic URI syntax and a process for resolving URI references that might be in relative form, along with guidelines and security ...Missing: az
[33]
Number of connected IoT devices growing 14% to 21.1 billion globally
Oct 28, 2025 · Based on H1 2025 IoT connection data, the number of connected IoT devices is expected to grow 14% year-over-year to 21.1 billion by the end of ...
[34]
[PDF] Technical Report ITU-T YSTR.Ambient IoT (01/2025)
This Technical Report conducts an analysis on potential requirements and use cases of ambient power- enabled IoT. Keywords. Ambient power-enabled IoT, energy ...
[35]
How many writing systems are there? - Rubric
Jun 27, 2024 · Over 1500 languages use the Latin script. After Latin, the most used writing systems (by the number of languages that use them) are Chinese ...
[36]
Alphabet - Vietnamese Typography
The official Latin-based Vietnamese alphabet consists of twenty-nine letters: seventeen consonants and twelve vowels. Twenty-two letters come from the Roman ...
[37]
[PDF] International Standard 6438
Most African languages are written in Latin script. For many of them the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet are, however, not sufficient for the ...
[38]
Unicode 15.0.0
### Summary of Basic Latin Reaffirmation and Stability Policies in Unicode 15.0
[39]
Chapter 7 – Unicode 17.0.0
The Latin Extended-A block contains a collection of letters that, when added to the letters contained in the Basic Latin and Latin-1 Supplement blocks, allow ...
[40]
Unicode® Character Encoding Stability Policies
Jan 9, 2024 · This page lists the policies of the Unicode Consortium regarding character encoding stability. These policies are intended to ensure that text encoded in one ...Missing: 2025 | Show results with:2025
[41]
Unicode 17.0.0
Sep 9, 2025 · This page summarizes the important changes for the Unicode Standard, Version 17.0.0. This version supersedes all previous versions of the Unicode Standard.
[42]
Columns and rows are labeled numerically in Excel - Microsoft Learn
Jun 25, 2025 · By default, Excel uses the A1 reference style, which refers to columns as letters (A through IV, for a total of 256 columns), and refers to ...
[43]
The Vigenère Cipher Encryption and Decryption
The Vigenère cipher uses a 26×26 table with A to Z as the row heading and column heading This table is usually referred to as the Vigenère Tableau, Vigenère ...