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É

É, or é (e-acute), is a letter of the Latin alphabet formed by adding an acute accent to the letter E, serving primarily to indicate specific vowel pronunciations, stress patterns, or historical etymologies in various languages.^[1] In Unicode, the uppercase É is encoded as U+00C9 and the lowercase é as U+00E9, both within the Latin-1 Supplement block, introduced in Unicode version 1.1 in 1993.^[1]^[2] In French, é is the only vowel modified by the acute accent (accent aigu), pronounced as a closed /e/ sound, akin to the "e" in "hey" but shorter, and it appears exclusively in open syllables to mark words derived from Latin or Old French forms beginning with "s" or "es," such as été (summer) from Latin aestās.^[3]^[4] It is common in past participles of -er verbs (e.g., mangé, eaten) and helps distinguish pronunciation from unaccented e, which can be mute or schwa-like.^[3] Beyond French, é features in several other languages with distinct roles: in Czech and Slovak, it represents a long /eː/ vowel sound, the ninth letter in their alphabets and pronounced longer than plain e, as in péče (care).^[5] In Spanish, the acute accent on é primarily signals syllabic stress, especially on final vowels or to break diphthongs, and distinguishes homographs like sé (I know) from se (reflexive pronoun), while maintaining the standard /e/ pronunciation.^[6] Similar stress-indicating functions appear in Portuguese (e.g., café) and Italian (e.g., perché, why), and in English, é is retained in loanwords from French or other languages, such as café or Pokémon (from Japanese romanization), without altering native pronunciation rules.^[2]

Historical Development

Origins and Early Forms

The letter E traces its origins to the Phoenician alphabet, where it derived from the letter he (𐤄), a consonantal sign representing /h/ that emerged around 1050 BCE as part of the Proto-Canaanite script adapted for trade and inscriptions.^[7] By the late 9th or early 8th century BCE, Greek traders and colonists adopted and modified the Phoenician system, transforming he into epsilon (Ε for uppercase, ε for lowercase) to represent the vowel /e/, reversing its orientation and innovating the inclusion of vowels in an alphabetic script.^[8] This adaptation marked a pivotal shift, as epsilon became a core element of the Greek alphabet used for literature and records from the Archaic period onward.^[9] The Latin E evolved directly from Greek epsilon via Etruscan intermediaries, entering the Roman alphabet by the 7th century BCE as Italic communities in central Italy borrowed and simplified Greek forms for their inscriptions and documents.^[10] In Roman square capitals—the monumental script of imperial inscriptions—E appeared as a distinctive open, right-angled form with a vertical stem and three equal horizontal bars extending to the right, embodying the geometric precision of stone carving from the 1st century BCE.^[11] As writing shifted to parchment in the early Middle Ages, E adapted in uncial script (ca. 4th–8th centuries CE) to a rounded, partially enclosed shape for faster production in codices, and later in Carolingian minuscule (9th century onward) to a compact, closed loop with a ligature-friendly design, standardizing its legibility across European monasteries.^[11] As a vowel inherited from Proto-Indo-European *e, the most prototypical short vowel in the family's reconstructed phonology, E ranked among the highest in frequency in Latin texts, comprising about 11.4% of letters and underscoring its utility in morphology and syntax throughout the Roman Empire.^[12]^[13] This prominence is evident in Vulgar Latin inscriptions, such as Pompeii graffiti from the 1st century CE, where E features heavily in casual expressions like "Tu, pupa, sic valeas, sic habeas / Venere Pompeanam / propytia" (CIL IV.4007), translated as "May you always be in good health, my doll, and may you have the Pompeian Venus propitious," a well-wish invoking health and divine favor in everyday scrawls on walls.^[14] Similarly, in the Codex Amiatinus, an 8th-century Northumbrian manuscript of the Vulgate Bible, E permeates the Insular uncial script across its 1,040 folios, as seen in passages like the opening of Genesis ("In principio creavit Deus caelum et terram"), highlighting its enduring role in sacred Latin transmission.^[15]

Introduction of the Acute Accent

The acute accent on the letter E, forming É, emerged in the 16th century as an innovation in French printing to denote the closed /e/ sound in etymologically Latin-derived words, aiding phonetic clarity during a period of evolving pronunciation. French printers, notably Robert Estienne, pioneered its use in the 1530s, applying it particularly to word-final instances where the vowel retained a tense quality distinct from open variants, as seen in forms like fête versus fete.^[16] This diacritic addressed ambiguities arising from Old French vowel shifts, where unstressed e's often reduced or altered, by visually signaling preserved closed articulations rooted in classical sources.^[17] A pivotal milestone came with the 1539 publication of Robert Estienne's Dictionnaire francois-latin, the first major French lexicon to systematically incorporate accents, thereby embedding É within standardized typography and scholarly reference works. Estienne's efforts, as a key figure in Renaissance humanism, reflected broader intellectual pursuits to align orthography with etymological accuracy and spoken norms, countering the inconsistencies of medieval scripts.^[18] The Académie Française, established in 1635 under Cardinal Richelieu's patronage, reinforced this development by advocating for uniform spelling conventions in the 17th century, integrating É to safeguard linguistic heritage against further phonetic erosion.^[19] Through the proliferation of printing presses across Europe, the acute accent on E gradually disseminated to other Romance languages for analogous phonetic distinctions; in Portuguese, it appeared by the mid-16th century in literary texts to indicate stress and vowel quality.^[20] Similarly, Spanish orthography adopted it more formally in the 18th century, with the Real Academia Española's 1726 guidelines establishing rules for its application to mark tonic syllables.^[21]

Orthographic and Phonetic Role

Pronunciation and Sound Values

The letter é primarily represents the close-mid front unrounded vowel in French, where it occurs in open syllables and contrasts with the open-mid [ɛ] marked by è.^[22] This sound is akin to the initial portion of the English diphthong in "name" but without the gliding [ɪ] element.^[22] In French orthography, this differentiation avoids ambiguity between é and è. In Uralic languages like Hungarian, é denotes a long close-mid front unrounded vowel [eː], emphasizing duration over quality contrast.^[23] In Slavic languages using the Latin script, such as Czech and Slovak, é typically transcribes the long close-mid front unrounded vowel [eː]. Additionally, é functions as a tonal marker in Vietnamese, indicating the sắc (rising) tone with a high rising pitch contour on the base vowel /e/.^[24] In Portuguese, the acute accent on é signals primary stress on the syllable while prescribing an open-mid pronunciation [ɛ].^[25]

Distinctions from Other E Diacritics

The acute accent (´) on É visually consists of a slanted diacritic rising from left to right, setting it apart from the grave accent (`) on è, which descends from left to right; the circumflex (^) on ê, a peaked arch spanning the letter; and the diaeresis (¨) on ë, two horizontal dots placed above.^[26] These marks arose in the development of French orthography to denote specific phonetic or historical features, with the acute's upward slant emphasizing closure in pronunciation, unlike the horizontal macron (¯) over ē in Latvian, which straightforwardly indicates vowel length without slant.^[27] Similarly, the ogonek (˛) under ę in Polish, a small tail-like hook, differs entirely in form and function, signaling nasalization rather than tonal height or separation.^[28] Functionally, É in French orthography signals a closed mid-front vowel sound and often prevents liaison with a following vowel, as in café, where it maintains syllable integrity.^[29] In contrast, è with the grave accent typically marks an open mid-front vowel or appears in words where the e is followed by a mute e in the next syllable, such as événement, to guide syllable division.^[30] The circumflex on ê primarily indicates historical elision of a consonant, most commonly an 's', as in fête derived from Latin festum, preserving etymological traces without altering modern pronunciation significantly.^[31] Meanwhile, ë employs the diaeresis to enforce separate pronunciation of the e from an adjacent vowel, avoiding diphthongization in words like Noël, where it distinguishes from potential fusion with the following 'o'.^[32] In typographic evolution, the acute accent's distinctive slant on É evolved from 16th-century French printing conventions to differentiate it from length-marking macrons like ē in Baltic languages such as Latvian, where the horizontal bar denotes prolonged duration (e.g., short e in mēness 'moon' vs. long ē).^[33] This contrasts with the ogonek on ę in Polish, introduced in the 19th century for nasal vowels (e.g., ręka 'hand'), emphasizing a hooked form below the letter for phonetic nasality rather than supralinear height adjustment.^[34] Common errors in English loanwords from French often involve omitting or confusing accents, such as rendering café without the acute or hypothetically with a grave (as cafè), which would incorrectly suggest an open vowel quality absent in the original closed /e/ sound; proper retention of É preserves the intended phonetics and avoids ambiguity.

Usage in Romance Languages

French

In French orthography, the letter é serves primarily as a diacritic to mark the closed vowel sound /e/, especially at the end of words or in closed syllables, distinguishing it from the unaccented e, which typically represents the schwa /ə/ or open /ɛ/.^[35] This function ensures precise pronunciation in common words such as café (pronounced /ka.fe/) and été (/e.te/), where the absence of the accent would alter the sound to /ɛ/ or mute it entirely.^[36] The introduction of the acute accent on e followed a phonetic evolution in the language, where the open /ɛ/ in Old and Middle French closed to /e/ in certain contexts by the 17th century; printers like Robert Estienne began using é around 1530 to denote this closed sound in final positions, with standardization occurring after 1550.^[37] This graphical innovation reflected and reinforced the ongoing sound shift, aiding readability and etymological clarity in printed texts.^[38] The Académie Française mandates the use of é in specific grammatical constructions to maintain orthographic consistency and historical ties, including verb infinitives like parler (to speak) versus past participles like parlé (spoken), feminine forms such as aimée (loved), and words preserving Latin etymologies, exemplified by fête from Latin festum (festival).^[35] These rules underscore é's role in morphological distinctions and lexical heritage. É appears in approximately 2% of letter occurrences in French texts, highlighting its prevalence and critical importance for accurate spelling in dictionaries, literature, and educational contexts like spelling bees.^[39]

Portuguese

In Portuguese orthography, the acute accent on e (é) primarily marks the stressed syllable while indicating an open mid vowel pronunciation /ɛ/, distinguishing it from the unaccented e (which may reduce to schwa /ə/ or close /e/ depending on position and dialect). It appears in oxytone words ending in -e, such as café (/kaˈfɛ/, "coffee"), to signal both stress on the final syllable—preventing misreadings as paroxytone /ˈka.fe/—and the open vowel quality, as well as in certain words to indicate the open /ɛ/ in stressed syllables, like médico (/ˈmɛ.diku/, "doctor").^[25]^[40] The system was formalized in Portugal's 1911 Orthographic Reform, which established the acute accent for open stressed vowels like /ɛ/ to reflect phonetic distinctions among the seven oral vowels in Portuguese, and it was largely retained in the 1945 Bilateral Orthographic Agreement between Portugal and Brazil, which focused on unifying spelling without altering core diacritics. The 1990 Orthographic Agreement further standardized these rules across Lusophone nations, eliminating some redundant accents but preserving é for stress and openness in the specified contexts, affecting only about 0.5% of vocabulary while maintaining compatibility between variants.^[41]^[20] Historically, the acute accent entered Portuguese through 16th-century printing practices, influenced by French innovations in diacritics for vowel quality; grammarian João de Barros adopted it in his 1540 Gramática da Língua Portuguesa to denote stress and open-close vowel contrasts, initially for a and o but extending to e by the late 1500s under Duarte Nunes do Leão's influence. This aligned Portuguese with contemporaneous European trends, where French printers like Robert Estienne had popularized accents since the 1520s to clarify prosody in print.^[20]^[42] Dialectal variations affect é's realization: in European Portuguese, it consistently denotes a clear open /ɛ/ under stress, often with reduction of unstressed vowels nearby, while Brazilian Portuguese treats é as /ɛ/ in formal speech but allows regional shifts toward close /e/ or slight nasalization in casual contexts, particularly when adjacent to nasal elements like the tilde-marked ã (e.g., in compounds or phrases like café amanhecido, where proximity influences vowel timbre). These differences stem from broader phonetic divergences, with Brazilian variants emphasizing fuller vowel articulation overall.^[43]^[41]

Spanish

In Spanish orthography, the acute accent on é is primarily used to mark stress on the final syllable of agudas (words stressed on the last syllable) that end in a vowel, n, or s, as established by the Real Academia Española (RAE) in its foundational guidelines from 1741.^[44] This rule ensures clarity in pronunciation, with representative examples including café (stressed as /kaˈfe/) and bebé (stressed as /beˈβe/), where the accent distinguishes the tonic syllable from the default penultimate stress pattern in such endings.^[45] The RAE's Ortografía de la lengua española (2010) reaffirms this usage, emphasizing that the tilde (acute accent) applies only to vowels and serves to resolve exceptions to natural stress rules.^[45] Phonetically, é denotes the mid-close vowel /e/ in a stressed position, often preventing potential ambiguity in vowel sequences by enforcing a hiatus rather than a diphthong, as in ésta (/ˈes.ta/, "this one," with separate syllables) versus esta (/ˈes.ta/, "this" as adjective, but contextually distinguished orthographically).^[44] This diacritical function highlights é's role in differentiating homophones or near-homophones, maintaining the language's phonological integrity without altering the core sound value of /e/, which remains consistent across dialects.^[46] In loanwords borrowed from French or Portuguese, é is typically retained when the word is not fully adapted to Spanish norms, preserving the original stress and etymology, such as in café (from French café) or menú (from French menu).^[44] However, in anglicized or further integrated forms, the accent may be omitted for simplification, though the RAE recommends consistency with source orthography in formal contexts.^[45] The 2010 orthographic update by the RAE simplified accent usage on certain elements, making the tilde optional for demonstrative pronouns like ésta to avoid ambiguity, but é continues to be mandatory for stress marking and clarity in proper names, such as José or México, to align with international standards and prevent mispronunciation.^[47] This reform reduced orthographic complexity while upholding é's essential function in the language's phonetic and lexical precision.^[45]

Catalan

In Catalan, the acute accent on e (é) primarily denotes a stressed close-mid front vowel sound /e/, distinguishing it from the open-mid /ɛ/ marked by the grave accent (è) and the unstressed or reduced /ə/ represented by plain e in many dialects, particularly Eastern Catalan where vowel reduction is prevalent.^[48]^[49] This phonetic role is essential for clarity in words like café (/kaˈfe/, close /e/) versus cafè (in some variants, open /ɛ/), or més (/mes/, more) versus mes (/məs/, month).^[48] Orthographic rules for é, as standardized by the Institut d'Estudis Catalans (IEC) since 1913, apply it to stressed syllables in central dialects to indicate the /e/ quality, especially in oxytone words ending in a vowel, vowel + s, or suffixes like -en or -in, and it is obligatory in verb forms such as the first-person singular future (cantaré), third-person past simple (digué), and certain presents or imperatives (conté, sé).^[48] It also resolves homographs, as in té (he has, /te/) versus te (tea, /tə/), ensuring semantic precision in accordance with IEC norms that prioritize central Catalan pronunciation while accommodating regional variations like Valencian preferences for é over è in loanwords.^[48] The use of é emerged during the 19th-century Renaixença revival, when intellectuals reintroduced diacritics to recapture medieval pronunciations lost in earlier orthographic simplifications, with Pompeu Fabra formalizing its role in his 1913 Normes ortogràfiques to create a unified standard reflecting historical phonetics.^[50]^[48] É frequently appears in French loanwords like café and pené (from verb forms), integrated to maintain etymological fidelity.^[48] É is common in Catalan toponyms, such as Énguera, Cadaqués, and variants of Girona in historical texts, as well as in literature and verb-heavy prose, where it underscores stress and vowel quality in up to a significant portion of accented e instances per IEC guidelines.^[48]

Italian

In Italian, the acute accent on é plays a limited role, primarily in literary and poetic contexts to denote a stressed closed mid vowel /e/, distinguishing it from the open /ɛ/ marked by the grave accent è. This usage helps indicate prosody or resolve ambiguities, such as in the reflexive pronoun sé (oneself), which contrasts with the conjunction se (if). The Accademia della Crusca specifies that the acute accent signals the closed pronunciation of final e in words like perché (why/because), finché (until), and né (nor), while emphasizing its rarity outside such cases.^[51]^[52] In loanwords borrowed from French, é is occasionally retained to preserve original orthography and pronunciation, as in résumé (summary) or protégé (protected), though standard Italian often omits diacritics in adaptation, rendering them as resume or protege. This practice aligns with Italian orthographic norms, which permit but do not require acute accents on e in foreign terms, prioritizing readability over etymological fidelity.^[53] Historically, diacritics including the acute accent appeared sporadically in 16th-century Tuscan texts influenced by French printing conventions, but their application faded with 20th-century standardization efforts that simplified accent usage to essential disambiguations. In regional dialects, é is more prevalent for marking vowel closure; for instance, in Emilian, it represents /e/ as in récc (rich). Similarly, Sicilian varieties employ it to denote stressed closed e sounds, enhancing phonetic distinction in local speech.^[54]

Occitan

In Occitan, the letter é with the acute accent primarily denotes a stressed closed mid-front vowel /e/, contrasting with the open mid-front vowel /ɛ/ marked by è with the grave accent. This distinction is crucial for lexical differentiation, as in fèsta (party, pronounced with an open /ɛ/) versus forms like féta (a variant or related term implying closed /e/). The accents reflect the language's prosodic system, where stress and vowel quality vary across dialects, helping to preserve semantic clarity in spoken and written forms.^[55] Dialectal variations in the use of é highlight Occitan's fragmented standardization. In the Provençal dialect, é consistently marks the closed /e/ sound in stressed positions, often appearing in loanwords and native terms to indicate precise articulation, such as in adaptations of French café retaining the closed quality. In Gascon, a more divergent dialect, é contributes to nuanced intonation patterns, sometimes signaling rising tones in interrogative or emphatic contexts, though its application remains less uniform due to the dialect's distinct phonological inventory. These variations underscore Occitan's regional diversity, with no single orthographic authority historically imposing uniformity until modern efforts.^[56] Standardization initiatives have sought to harmonize é's role across dialects. The Institut d'Estudis Occitans (IEO), founded in 1945, promotes the "classical norm" of orthography, which employs é to denote stressed closed vowels, adapting medieval conventions from troubadour poetry to contemporary usage while accommodating dialectal differences. This norm, first systematically outlined in Louis Alibert's 1935 Gramatica occitana, gained broader institutional support in the late 20th century, including educational integrations in the 1990s, to foster a unified yet flexible writing system.^[57]^[58] É plays an essential cultural role in Occitan literature, particularly in 19th-century Provençal revival works by Frédéric Mistral, whose epic poems like Mirèio (1859) employ diacritics including é to evoke the rhythmic and phonetic authenticity of spoken Occitan, contributing to the Félibrige movement's preservation of the language. Mistral's use of such orthographic features helped elevate Occitan as a literary medium, influencing subsequent generations despite competing norms.^[59]

Usage in Germanic and Nordic Languages

English

In English, the letter É (e-acute) is employed almost exclusively in loanwords and proper names borrowed from French to maintain the original pronunciation and orthographic authenticity. Common examples include café (a coffeehouse or its beverage), résumé (a summary of employment history), and cliché (a trite expression). These terms entered English following the Norman Conquest of 1066, which facilitated extensive French lexical influence, but the acute accent on e to denote the close /e/ sound began to appear in English texts during the 16th and 17th centuries, as seen in Renaissance-era publications, with further standardization in printing during the 18th century.^[60]^[61] Major style guides advocate retaining É in formal writing for precision. The Chicago Manual of Style recommends preserving diacritics in loanwords that remain somewhat foreign, such as café and cliché, while allowing omission for fully assimilated terms like role. In informal or digital contexts, however, the accent is often dropped—yielding "cafe" or "resume"—to simplify typing, though this can alter perceived authenticity.^[62] Phonetically, É in English loanwords is typically adapted to /eɪ/, reflecting the diphthong common at word ends, though some American English speakers approximate it as /ɛ/ in casual speech. In British English, it consistently aligns with /eɪ/, as in café (/ˈkæfeɪ/). This adaptation stems from English phonology treating the French close /e/ as an allophone of broader front vowels.^[63]^[64]^[65] Early instances of É appear in 17th- and 18th-century English publications, marking the integration of French diacritics amid growing cultural exchange. Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) includes French-derived entries but largely omits accents, prioritizing anglicized forms; subsequent dictionaries, such as those in the late 18th century, increasingly adopted É to reflect evolving conventions for foreign terms.^[66]^[67]

Dutch

In Dutch orthography, the letter é (e with acute accent) serves primarily as a diacritic to mark vowel length in loanwords borrowed from French, indicating the long /eː/ sound, especially in final syllables such as in café and bureau. This function distinguishes it from the unaccented e, which typically represents a schwa /ə/ or short /ɛ/. According to the official spelling guidelines of the Nederlandse Taalunie, as outlined in the Groene Boekje, é is retained in such words only when necessary for accurate pronunciation, a rule formalized in the 1995 spelling reform to balance assimilation with etymological fidelity.^[68]^[69] The adoption of é in Dutch dates back to the 17th century, when extensive trade and cultural exchanges with France introduced numerous Gallicisms into the language, particularly among the elite and in commercial contexts. These influences were further entrenched during the 18th and 19th centuries, as French served as a lingua franca in European courts and diplomacy, leading to the integration of accented forms in written Dutch. Standardization efforts in the 19th-century spelling reforms, culminating in broader unification across the Netherlands and Flanders, helped preserve é in select loanwords while simplifying native vocabulary.^[70]^[71] In proper names, particularly Flemish surnames, é is commonly retained to preserve etymological origins, often reflecting French or Walloon influences in regions like Flanders. For instance, variants of names like De Vries may appear with é (e.g., De Vriès) in historical or regional contexts to denote long vowel pronunciation or historical spelling. The Taalunie permits such diacritics in names derived from foreign sources, ensuring consistency in official documents and personal identification.^[69]

Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish

In Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish, the letter É primarily appears in loanwords from French, where it serves to mark stress or preserve etymological pronunciation, often rendered as /eː/ in these languages. Common examples include café (coffeehouse) and résumé (summary), which entered Scandinavian vocabulary through 19th-century cultural exchanges and literature, reflecting French influence on elite and urban speech. This usage aligns with É's role in distinguishing stressed syllables, contrasting with native vowels like å and æ, while in composite words it maintains clarity without altering core orthography.^[72] Danish employs É sparingly following the 1948 orthographic reform, which standardized native spellings but retained the accent in select foreign terms to indicate emphasis, such as in imperatives or proper nouns; it is optional and not part of the core alphabet. In Norwegian Bokmål, É is retained more consistently for stress indication, as in én (one, stressed form), a holdover from Dano-Norwegian orthography used until the 1917 spelling reform that introduced å and aligned writing closer to spoken forms. Swedish limits É largely to names and loanwords, where it signals the close /eː/ sound, as seen in surnames like Rosén, introduced via literary and diplomatic ties in the 19th century.^[73]^[72]^[74]

Afrikaans

In Afrikaans, the accented letter É is retained primarily in loanwords derived from French and Dutch, reflecting the language's colonial heritage. Common examples include café (coffeehouse) and déjà vu (a feeling of having already experienced something), where the acute accent preserves the original etymology. According to the standardized orthography, these are pronounced with the diphthong /eə/, aligning with the close-mid front vowel sound in Standard Afrikaans as established in the 1925 official recognition of the language.^[75]^[76] The role of É in modern Afrikaans orthography is optional, especially in everyday usage, where it is frequently simplified to unaccented e to conform to the simplified spelling conventions of the language. However, it is maintained in formal writing, academic texts, and proper nouns to ensure clarity and fidelity to source languages. This approach stems from the Afrikaanse Woordelys en Spelreëls (Afrikaans Word List and Spelling Rules), which permits retention of foreign diacritics in loanwords while prioritizing phonetic adaptation.^[75] Historically, the use of É in Afrikaans traces back to its development from 17th-century Cape Dutch, the Dutch dialect spoken by European settlers in the Cape Colony, which incorporated elements from French Huguenot refugees and other influences. The first complete Bible translation into Afrikaans, published in 1933, adhered to these emerging orthographic norms and included diacritics like É where applicable in loan terms or emphatic contexts.^[76]^[77] Culturally, É appears in Afrikaans place names influenced by Portuguese colonial legacies, such as adaptations of Évora, underscoring the layered European impacts on South African toponymy during the Dutch era.^[76]

Luxembourgish

In Luxembourgish orthography, the letter É functions as a diacritic-modified variant of E, primarily representing the long close-mid front unrounded vowel /eː/, which contrasts with the short /e/ or /ɛ/ to denote phonological length distinctions essential for meaning. This usage is mandatory in the standardized spelling to clarify vowel duration, particularly in positions like before a single final consonant, where long /eː/ is spelled <é> rather than used elsewhere. For example, the plural definite article déi is pronounced /deː/, while a short counterpart like den (masculine singular "the") features /e/ or /ɛ/.^[78]^[79] The orthography's emphasis on length with É appears prominently in cultural and idiomatic expressions, such as the historical form of the national motto Mir wëllen réign bleiwe ("We want to remain rulers"), where réign incorporates /eː/ to reflect the original pronunciation. In verbal forms, É aids in maintaining distinctions tied to length, as seen in infinitives and conjugations where open syllables or specific endings preserve the long vowel, contrasting with doubled consonants that shorten preceding vowels (e.g., hëllefen "to help" with contextual length markers versus forms like hëlleft "helps," where the e remains short before the cluster).^[80] Historically, É was integrated into Luxembourgish writing in the 19th century, drawing from French influences for diacritics to mark long vowels amid growing metalinguistic efforts to codify the language as distinct from German dialects. Early texts like those by Meyer and Gloden (1845) employed <é> for this purpose, and post-World War II reforms, including the 1946 Margue-Feltes system, reinforced its use to symbolize cultural independence from German orthographic norms. The modern standard, devised by linguists including Joseph Tockert, Hélène Palgen, and Robert Bruch for the official dictionary, was adopted in 1976, establishing É as a core element of the 29-letter alphabet (the 26 Latin letters plus Ä, É, Ë).^[81]

Usage in Slavic and Uralic Languages

Czech and Slovak

In Czech and Slovak, é functions as a distinct letter in the Latin-based alphabets, representing the long close-mid front unrounded vowel /eː/. In the Czech alphabet, it occupies the ninth position, immediately following e. In Slovak, it follows e as the eleventh letter, after the addition of ä and digraphs dz and dž earlier in the sequence.^[82]^[83] The primary role of é is to denote vowel length within the phonemic quantity system of both languages, where duration contrasts can alter word meaning. For instance, in Czech, the word pel (/pɛl/, meaning "pollen") contrasts with pél (/peːl/, meaning "he baked"), highlighting how é distinguishes long from short /e/ or /ɛ/. Similarly, in Slovak, é appears in words like mél (/meːl/, "he painted") versus mel (/mɛl/, "flour"), ensuring clarity in minimal pairs essential to West Slavic prosody. This length-marking system aligns with broader patterns in Slavic languages, where prosodic features like quantity play a key grammatical role.^[82]^[84]^[85]^[86] The use of the acute accent (čárka) on é stems from 19th-century orthographic reforms that standardized diacritics for phonetic accuracy. In Czech, Josef Jungmann's comprehensive Czech-German dictionary (1835–1839) promoted this system, building on Josef Dobrovský's 1809 proposals to distinguish long vowels without digraphs or grave accents like è, which are absent in modern Czech orthography. Slovak orthography, codified by Ľudovít Štúr in 1843, adopted the same diacritic conventions from Czech models, ensuring consistency. Following Czechoslovakia's dissolution in 1993, é retains identical pronunciation, positioning, and grammatical function in both languages, reflecting their close mutual intelligibility.^[86]^[87]

Polish

In historical Polish orthography, the letter é was used during the 16th century to denote the closed mid-front unrounded vowel, known as e pochylone, which contrasted phonetically with the nasal vowel ę by representing a non-nasalized, higher articulation of /e/.^[88] This usage appeared in early printed texts, such as the 1599 Bible translation by Jakub Wujek, where é marked distinctions in vowel quality to reflect contemporary pronunciation. Orthographic reforms in the 19th century gradually phased out é to standardize spelling and simplify printing processes, replacing it with the plain letter e as vowel length and quality distinctions diminished in the language.^[89] A pivotal moment came in 1891 when the Academy of Learning (Akademia Umiejętności) approved resolutions eliminating é from native words, as documented in their official Uchwały w sprawie pisowni polskiej. Today, é holds no place in the standard Polish alphabet, which consists of 32 letters without it, and occurs only in loanwords from other languages or in archaic poetic contexts to evoke historical forms.^[90]

Hungarian

In Hungarian, the letter É represents the long close-mid front unrounded vowel /eː/, serving as the lengthened counterpart to the short /ɛ/ denoted by E. It occupies the 10th position in the 44-letter Hungarian alphabet, following immediately after E. This distinction is phonemically significant, as vowel length can alter word meanings in minimal pairs, such as el (/ɛl/, "away" or "off") versus él (/eːl/, third-person singular of "to live").^[91]^[92] Hungarian's agglutinative structure relies heavily on vowel quantity to maintain clarity in suffixation and derivation, where length distinctions prevent ambiguity in complex word forms. For instance, in the quantity system, short and long vowels like e and É interact with the language's stem-based morphology, ensuring precise grammatical encoding. É frequently appears in suffixes, such as the noun-forming -ék, which derives results of actions (e.g., fest "to paint" → festék "paint") or marks associative plurals indicating a person and their group (e.g., baráték "the friend and company"). This usage underscores É's role in everyday vocabulary and grammatical productivity.^[93]^[94] The orthographic convention for É emerged during the 19th-century language revival, a reform movement led by linguists like Ferenc Kazinczy, who standardized diacritics to denote length, influenced by Latin scribal traditions to better reflect spoken Hungarian phonology. Prior to this, vowel length was inconsistently marked, often through digraphs or context, but the acute accent on É became fixed by the mid-19th century as part of broader efforts to elevate Hungarian as a literary and official language. As a front vowel, É participates in Uralic vowel harmony, guiding suffix selection toward front-vowel forms.^[93]^[95]

Kashubian

In Kashubian, a West Slavic language recognized as Poland's only official regional language since 2005, the Latin-based orthography incorporates the letter é alongside other diacritics such as ę and ą to represent distinct phonemes. This standardization, formalized through efforts by the Kashubian Language Council following legal recognition, supports the language's use in education, media, and official contexts in Pomerania.^[96]^[97] The letter é primarily marks the mid-front tense vowel /e/ or indicates historical vowel length derived from Proto-Slavic long *ē, distinguishing it from the lax /ɛ/ represented by plain e. It often appears in stressed positions or to denote alternations in inflectional paradigms, such as in the verb form -bjér-ô (finite) contrasting with -bjer-ac (infinitive). For instance, the neuter form piãkné ("beautiful") uses é to convey the close /e/ quality, reflecting Kashubian-specific vowel shifts not found in standard Polish.^[98]^[96]^[99] Historically, é has been retained in Kashubian texts since the 16th century, as seen in early Lutheran religious writings like Szymon Krofey's Duchowne pieśni (1586), where acute accents on e helped capture dialectal pronunciations and differentiate from Polish orthographic norms. This feature underscores Kashubian's evolution as a distinct lect amid Polish linguistic influences. In Pomeranian dialects, particularly northern and central variants, é contributes to a softer, more palatalized realization of /e/, enhancing regional phonetic identity.^[100]^[101]

Usage in Other Languages

Vietnamese

In Vietnamese orthography, known as quốc ngữ, the letter é (lowercase) and É (uppercase) denotes the open-mid front unrounded vowel /ɛ/ bearing the sắc tone, characterized by a high rising pitch contour starting mid and rising sharply, often transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet as /ɛ˧˥/. This acute accent (´) is crucial for lexical differentiation in Vietnamese, a tonal language where pitch changes can alter word meanings entirely; for example, "bé" with the sắc tone means "baby" or "small," contrasting with "bê" (to carry on a pole) or other tonal variants. The sắc tone on é is one of six primary tones in standard Northern Vietnamese, essential for conveying precise semantics in the predominantly monosyllabic vocabulary.^[102] The use of é emerged as part of the Latin-based script developed in the 17th century by Portuguese Jesuit missionaries, including figures like Francisco de Pina and later refined by Alexandre de Rhodes, who adapted European diacritics to represent Vietnamese tones and phonemes for translating religious texts. These early efforts, influenced by Portuguese orthographic conventions, introduced the acute accent to mark rising tones, distinguishing them from level or falling contours. By the early 20th century, under French colonial administration, quốc ngữ was standardized and promoted through education reforms around 1910, replacing classical Chinese characters (chữ Hán) and the indigenous logographic script chữ Nôm as the official writing system, thereby embedding é firmly in modern Vietnamese literacy.^[103]^[104] É contrasts with other realizations of the /ɛ/ vowel: plain "e" carries the mid-level ngang tone (/ɛ˧/), as in "me" (noodle soup); "è" marks the low falling huyền tone (/ɛ˨˩/), as in "mè" (sesame); while "ê" represents a distinct close-mid front unrounded vowel /e/, a narrower variant often without tone marking in base form but combinable with diacritics like ế for sắc (/e˧˥/), as in "mế" (rare, but illustrative of phonetic distinction). These contrasts highlight the orthography's precision in encoding both vowel quality and tone, preventing homophony in a language where tones arose from historical register splits in its Austroasiatic origins. É appears frequently in everyday vocabulary, underscoring its role in about 15-20% of tonally marked syllables across common word corpora.^[105]^[106]

Navajo

In Navajo orthography, the letter É represents the mid front unrounded vowel /e/ marked with a high tone, essential for distinguishing lexical and grammatical meanings in this tonal Athabaskan language.^[107] The acute accent (´) over the vowel indicates high pitch, contrasting with unmarked low tone vowels, while length is shown by doubling (e.g., éé for long high-tone /eː/).^[108] This system, part of a practical Latin-based alphabet, aids in representing the language's complex verb morphology where tone shifts can alter tense, aspect, or person.^[107] É can also combine with nasalization, denoted by an ogonek (˛) beneath the vowel as ę́, to indicate a nasal high-tone /ẽ́/, though this variant is relatively rare compared to more common nasal vowels like ą́ or į́.^[108] For example, in the word łééchąąʼí ("dog"), the initial łéé features a long high-tone /eː/, distinguishing it from low-tone forms and contributing to the word's phonetic profile as [ɬʰéːtʃʰąąʔí].^[109] Such markings are crucial in practical writing, including educational materials and literature, to capture the language's phonological contrasts without relying on indigenous pictographic traditions.^[107] The orthography incorporating É was developed in the late 1930s by linguist Robert W. Young and Navajo collaborator William Morgan Sr., building on earlier missionary efforts and Bureau of Indian Affairs initiatives to promote literacy.^[108] Influenced by English-based systems from Protestant and Catholic missionaries active since the early 20th century, it was refined and published in works like The Navajo Language (1943 and 1987 editions). Adoption accelerated post-World War II amid expanded bilingual education programs on the Navajo Nation, with formal standardization occurring at language conferences in 1969 and 1976, enabling widespread use in schools and publishing despite limited initial community consultation.^[108]

Indonesian

In Indonesian, the letter É appears occasionally in loanwords borrowed from French and Dutch, where it is pronounced as the close-mid front vowel /e/, as opposed to the schwa /ə/ typically represented by plain e.^[110] Under the 1972 Enhanced Spelling System (Ejaan Yang Disempurnakan, or EYD), diacritics like the acute accent are generally omitted in native vocabulary to simplify orthography, but É is retained in foreign terms, proper names, and dictionaries to maintain phonetic accuracy.^[111] Examples include café (coffeehouse) and déjà vu (the sensation of having experienced something before), which preserve the accent to signal the /e/ sound and distinguish them from adapted forms using plain e.^[112] This usage aligns with Indonesian's phonological system, which lacks native diacritics but accommodates them for clarity in international borrowings. Historically, É entered Indonesian writing through Dutch colonial influence spanning the 17th to 20th centuries, when romanized Malay in the Dutch East Indies incorporated Dutch conventions for spelling European loanwords, including those from French.^[113] The Van Ophuijsen Spelling System, introduced in 1901 and used until 1947, systematically employed É to mark the open-mid front vowel [ɛ] in some contexts, such as énak (delicious), while extending it to loanwords for approximate French /e/ pronunciation; this facilitated the integration of terms like administrative and culinary vocabulary during colonial administration.^[111] Early Malay scripts influenced by Dutch printing and education thus featured É in literature and official texts, reflecting the era's linguistic hybridization before Indonesia's independence. In contemporary usage, É is not part of native Indonesian morphology, as the language prioritizes plain e for its core Austronesian vowel inventory, but it persists in literature and specialized texts for precise emphasis on /e/ in loanwords.^[110] The Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (KBBI), the official dictionary, employs É optionally in entries to guide pronunciation, as seen in loanwords like protéin or retained foreign phrases, ensuring readability for global terms without altering the simplified EYD framework.^[110] This selective retention underscores Indonesian's pragmatic approach to orthographic adaptation, balancing local standardization with international legibility.

Balinese

In the Balinese language, the Latin script employs the letter é as part of its modern orthography to denote the close-mid front unrounded vowel /e/, distinguishing it from the plain e, which typically represents schwa /ə/ or open-mid /ɛ/ in native words. This diacritic became integral to Balinese romanization during the early 20th century under Dutch colonial influence, when the Latin alphabet gradually supplanted the traditional abugida script for everyday and educational purposes, with formal standardization efforts aligning with broader Indonesian linguistic reforms by the 1930s.^[114] The use of é contrasts short e sounds, ensuring accurate representation of phonetic nuances in a language where vowel quality affects meaning, particularly in polysyllabic forms. É plays a key role in adapting loanwords from Sanskrit and Hindi, where it marks the long vowel /eː/ to preserve etymological pronunciation, as seen in déwa ("god" or "deity"), a term central to Balinese Hinduism borrowed via ancient religious texts.^[115] This convention stems from 20th-century romanization systems modeled on ISO 15919 for Indic languages, allowing faithful transliteration of borrowed vocabulary while accommodating Balinese phonotactics.^[114] In Hindu-Balinese literature and rituals, such as temple inscriptions or devotional writings, é aids precise recitation of these loans, maintaining the sacred intonation derived from their origins.^[115] Phonetically, the /e/ sound lengthened to /eː/ in these loanwords reflects historical influences from Old Javanese, which introduced length distinctions through Kawi literature and Majapahit-era migrations, embedding longer vowels in Balinese religious and cultural lexicon despite native words generally lacking phonemic length.^[115] Balinese orthography for é also draws brief influence from Indonesian standards, where similar diacritics appear in regional variants to harmonize national literacy.^[114]

Javanese

In the Javanese language, the acute accent on é denotes the close-mid front vowel /e/, often representing a stressed or lengthened pronunciation in the Latin-based romanization system. This diacritic distinguishes it from the open-mid /ɛ/ marked by è, helping to convey precise phonetic nuances in words where vowel quality affects meaning. For instance, the verb éling ("to remember") employs é to indicate the /e/ sound, ensuring clarity in transcription.^[116]^[117] The incorporation of é into Javanese orthography traces back to the Dutch colonial era in the 19th century, when European missionaries and administrators introduced the Latin script to transcribe the language, drawing on Dutch conventions for diacritics to adapt the earlier pegon system—an Arabic-derived script used for Javanese since the 15th century. This Latin variant, influenced by colonial administrative needs, persisted after Indonesian independence in 1945, evolving through post-colonial standardization to support literacy in regional languages.^[118] In dialectal contexts, particularly within the informal Ngoko register used among peers, é appears more prominently to emphasize stressed vowels in everyday speech patterns, whereas the formal Krama register prioritizes lexical substitutions over such phonetic markings. Overall, the frequency of é remains limited in modern Javanese Latin script, as it is often omitted in informal writing or digital media; the traditional hanacaraka script, by contrast, relies on distinct diacritics like sandhangan to modify inherent vowel sounds without direct equivalents to Latin accents.^[116]^[118]

Sundanese

In the Sundanese language, which employs a Latin-based orthography, the letter É denotes the close-mid front unrounded vowel /e/, distinguishing it from the plain E, which represents the mid-central vowel /ə/ (schwa). This contrast is essential for accurate phonetic representation, particularly in prenasalized contexts where the active voice prefix assimilates as ngé- before stems beginning with /e/, resulting in forms like ngéléh ("to search" or "to look for").^[119] The use of É emerged with the adoption of the Latin script during Dutch colonial rule in the late 19th century, influenced by efforts to standardize indigenous languages for administrative and educational purposes; by 1918, a government decree formalized the orthography, including diacritics for vowel distinctions.^[120] In the 1970s, this system was refined for broader educational use through the Kamus Umum Basa Sunda (General Sundanese Dictionary), published in 1976 by the Lembaga Basa jeung Sastra Sunda, which established É as standard for marking the /e/ sound in native words, loan adaptations, and to indicate stress or nasality in prenasalized sequences.^[121] É appears in loanwords from Dutch and other sources to preserve close-mid vowel qualities, such as in adapted terms for modern concepts. This vowel marking shares similarities with Javanese orthography, where É likewise signals /e/ in comparable phonetic environments.^[122]

Emilian and Romagnol

In Emilian and Romagnol, the letter É serves to denote the closed mid-front vowel /e/, distinguishing it from the open /ɛ/ represented by plain e or è, as in the Emilian word bé meaning "to drink," derived from Latin bibere. ^[123] These Gallo-Italic languages, recognized as a minority language continuum by UNESCO with a "definitely endangered" status and approximately two million speakers, employ É to capture regional phonetic nuances not present in standard Italian orthography. ^[124] In Romagnol dialects, É particularly marks stressed long vowels /eː/ for emphasis and closure, appearing in variants of loanwords such as café to indicate prosodic differences from Italian caffè, where the grave accent prevails on open vowels. ^[125] This usage highlights the dialects' divergence from standard Italian, incorporating acute accents to reflect local vowel shifts while occasionally borrowing Italian spelling conventions for clarity in contemporary texts. The orthographic role of É in Emilian-Romagnol traces to medieval Latin vowel distinctions, where acute marks began signaling closed qualities in evolving Romance vernaculars, a practice preserved in 19th-century folk literature and songs from the Emilia-Romagna region. ^[126] Standardization remains largely informal, lacking a unified system, though efforts since the 1990s—led by institutions like the Friedrich Schürr Institute—have promoted consistent use of É in local poetry, theater, and revitalization projects to foster a shared written identity.

Irish

In Irish, the letter É, marked by an acute accent known as the síneadh fada, denotes the long slender vowel /eː/, which plays a key role in the language's broad-slender consonant system established in the 1947 orthographic reforms. Slender vowels like É palatalize adjacent consonants, producing a lighter, "y"-like quality, as seen in the third-person singular pronoun é ("he"), pronounced approximately as "ay". This distinction ensures precise articulation, with É always functioning as a slender marker unlike broad vowels such as á, ó, or ú.^[127]^[128] The origins of É trace to Old Irish, written from the 6th century onward, where long mid-front vowels were represented and occasionally accented to indicate length, forming part of the Celtic vowel inventory. The acute accent's systematic use for lengthening vowels like é emerged through 20th-century reforms, particularly those from 1947 to 1957, which simplified archaic spellings and standardized diacritics to align with contemporary pronunciation across dialects.^[129]^[130] Grammatically, É appears in various inflections to signal vowel length and semantic differences, such as in the copula tá ("is," present indicative of bí) versus téann ("goes," third-person singular present of téigh), where the accented form alters both sound and meaning. These patterns are integral to verb conjugation and noun declension, reinforcing the orthography's morphological precision.^[131] In Gaeltacht communities, where Irish remains the vernacular, mastery of É and the síneadh fada is vital in education, as their omission can change word meanings and undermine literacy; schools emphasize correct usage to preserve language vitality amid revival efforts.^[132]

Scottish Gaelic

In Scottish Gaelic, the acute accent on é was historically used to denote the long slender vowel /eː/, a close-mid front sound that contrasts with the broader, open-mid /ɛː/ marked by è. This distinction aided in conveying precise phonetic quality and preventing ambiguity in words. Under the 1981 Gaelic Orthographic Conventions, the acute accent was abolished to simplify spelling, with the grave accent now used for all long vowels, including è for /eː/. For example, lèine ("shirt") uses è to indicate the long vowel.^[133]^[130] The employment of é traces back to Middle Irish conventions, where acute accents indicated vowel length and quality in shared Goidelic literary norms, evolving into Scottish Gaelic's distinct system. Standardization advanced with the 1767 New Testament translation, which incorporated accents to align orthography with spoken vernacular and establish foundational rules.^[130] Dialectally, the long /eː/ sound appears more frequently in Hebridean variants, such as those in Skye and the Outer Isles, where it is pronounced more distinctly, reflecting conservative phonetic retention amid broader standardization pressures.^[130] This usage historically mirrored the function of é in Irish for analogous long slender vowels.^[130]

Welsh

In Welsh orthography, the acute accent on e (é) is not a native diacritic but appears rarely in loanwords from French and other languages to preserve original stress and pronunciation, such as in café (pronounced approximately /ˈkafeː/ in adapted Welsh phonology).^[134] This usage aligns with broader conventions for foreign terms, where é typically signals a close-mid front vowel sound /eː/ or stressed /ɛ/, contrasting with native representations of /ɛ/ using plain e or w/y in diphthongs. For example, the French loanword sigarét ("cigarette") employs é to mark the stressed final syllable with a short /ɛ/, ensuring clarity in reading. Historically, é entered Welsh writing in the 19th century through English-mediated borrowings from French, particularly during periods of cultural exchange and industrialization, though it remains minimal in core vocabulary and is absent from traditional Welsh words.^[134] Native Welsh favors the circumflex (^) for long vowels (e.g., ê for /eː/) and plain letters for short ones, with acute accents more commonly applied to other vowels or w for stress deviation.^[134] In proper names, é occasionally appears in anglicized or French-influenced forms, such as surnames adapted from continental sources, but this is exceptional and not standardized.^[135] In modern usage, é is retained primarily in bilingual texts, signage, and unassimilated loanwords to maintain etymological fidelity, especially in contexts like menus or literature where French terms like café are common. This practice reflects Welsh orthography's flexibility with foreign elements while prioritizing phonemic consistency in native speech.^[134]

Yoruba

In Yoruba, a Niger-Congo language spoken primarily in southwestern Nigeria and parts of Benin and Togo, the letter É with the acute accent denotes the high tone on the close-mid front vowel /e/, transcribed phonetically as /é/. This diacritic is crucial in the language's tonal system, where pitch distinguishes lexical meaning; for instance, the unmarked e (mid tone /ē/) contrasts with é (high tone /é/), as in ẹ "crab" (mid tone) versus forms requiring high tone for grammatical or semantic precision. The acute accent was incorporated into the Latin-based orthography to represent this high tone, ensuring accurate conveyance of the language's three-level tone system (high, mid, low).^[136]^[137] The use of É traces back to the introduction of a Latin script for Yoruba by Church Missionary Society (CMS) missionaries in 1843, led by Samuel Ajayi Crowther, who published the first Yoruba vocabulary and grammar using Roman letters to adapt the language for written form. Initially, tone marking was inconsistent, but the acute accent for high tones like /é/ became standardized to capture the oral nature of Yoruba, where tone changes can alter words entirely—such as je (mid tone, "eat") versus a high-tone variant in compounds like jíjẹ "edible." This system was essential for missionary translations, including the Bible, and helped transition Yoruba from earlier Arabic-based scripts (Ajami) to a more accessible Latin orthography.^[138] Further refinement occurred in the 1960s and 1970s through government and academic committees, which formalized the orthography, mandating consistent use of diacritics like the acute on É for high tones while confirming mid tones as unmarked. In modern Yoruba texts, É appears in approximately 20% of vowel instances involving the /e/ phoneme, reflecting the prevalence of high tones in the language's prosody. Examples include verbs like jẹ́ (high tone, "suffice" or "be"), where the tone elevates the pitch to differentiate it from mid-tone homographs, underscoring tones' role in syntax and semantics.^[139]^[140]^[141]

Tuareg Berber

In Tuareg Berber languages, such as Tamashek and Tamahaq, the letter É (e with acute accent) in the Latin script primarily represents the mid front vowel /e/, a key phoneme in the reduced vowel system typical of Berber languages. This contrasts sharply with the central schwa /ə/, enabling distinctions in meaning across dialects spoken in regions like northern Mali, Niger, and southern Algeria; for instance, /e/ often appears in stressed or full-vowel positions to differentiate lexical items or grammatical morphemes. The acute accent further signals high tone or stress on the vowel, particularly in verbal conjugations and nominal forms, where tone plays a role in aspectual or modal contrasts.^[142] According to the 2006 Algerian standards for Tamazight orthography, developed by the High Commission for the Amazigh Language and applicable to Tuareg varieties in Algeria, É is integrated into Neo-Tifinagh/Latin hybrid systems to denote /e/ and high tone, ensuring consistency in educational and official texts. An example is the transcription of nouns like éyes ("horse") in Tamashek, where the accent marks both the vowel quality and prosodic prominence, avoiding ambiguity with schwa-based forms. These standards emphasize diacritics for precise phonetic rendering in multilingual contexts.^[143]^[142] The adoption of É in Tuareg orthography originated during the French colonial period in the late 19th century, as European linguists and administrators in Algeria, Mali, and Niger adapted Latin scripts with French-inspired diacritics to document and administer Berber-speaking populations. This influence persisted in post-colonial dialects, particularly in Mali and Niger, where Latin orthographies supplanted earlier Arabic or Tifinagh uses for practical administration and missionary work. In cultural contexts, É facilitates the transcription of Tuareg oral literature, including epic poetry and proverbs, by capturing tonal subtleties essential to performance and recitation traditions among nomadic communities. Such writings preserve the rhythmic and melodic qualities of spoken narratives, supporting cultural revitalization efforts in modern publications.^[144]

Character Encoding and Input

Unicode and Code Points

The character É, known as Latin capital letter E with acute, is encoded in Unicode as U+00C9, while its lowercase counterpart é, Latin small letter E with acute, is encoded as U+00E9.^[145] These code points were included in the Latin-1 Supplement block (U+0080–U+00FF) from the initial release of Unicode 1.0 in 1991. Both characters belong to the Basic Multilingual Plane and are classified as uppercase and lowercase letters, respectively, with bidirectional class Left-to-Right.^[145] In HTML, É can be represented using the named entity É or the numeric entities É or É, and é using é, é, or é. For UTF-8 encoding, the byte sequence for É is C3 89, and for é it is C3 A9, enabling efficient storage and transmission in web and text processing systems. É maintains compatibility with legacy 8-bit encodings, mapping directly to position 0xC9 in ISO/IEC 8859-1 (Latin-1), which was crucial for early web display and internationalization before widespread UTF-8 adoption.^[146] This alignment ensures seamless rendering of É in environments supporting ISO-8859-1, such as older HTML documents and European text files. Unicode supports two representations for É: the precomposed form U+00C9 and the compatibility decomposition into the base character Latin capital letter E (U+0045) followed by the combining acute accent (U+0301).^[147] Normalization processes, such as NFC (Normalization Form C), recompose decomposed sequences into the precomposed form for consistency in applications like search engines and databases.^[147] The combining variant allows flexible diacritic placement but requires careful handling to avoid display issues in non-normalized text.^[147]

Keyboard Input Methods

On Windows systems using a US keyboard layout, the character É (uppercase) can be input by holding the Alt key and typing 0201 on the numeric keypad, and é (lowercase) by typing 0233, provided Num Lock is enabled.^[148] This method relies on the Windows-1252 code page for legacy applications but works universally via Unicode input in modern environments.^[149] On macOS, users press Option (⌥) + e to produce an acute accent dead key, followed by e for é or É (with Shift for uppercase).^[150] This dead key sequence is part of the standard US layout and extends to other vowels for acute accents.^[150] In the French AZERTY keyboard layout, commonly used in France and Francophone regions, é is accessible via a dedicated dead key for the acute accent (´), pressed before e; many AZERTY keyboards also feature a direct key for é on the main letter row.^[151] This design facilitates efficient input of accented characters in French text.^[151] Linux distributions, such as Ubuntu, support the Compose key for multi-key sequences; assigning a key (e.g., right Alt) as Compose allows input of é by pressing Compose, then apostrophe ('), then e.^[152] This method draws from X11 standards and enables thousands of Unicode characters without layout changes.^[153] For Vietnamese input, the Microsoft Vietnamese IME (Telex or VNI method) on Windows generates é by typing e followed by a tone marker like s (for acute), automatically applying the diacritic based on phonetic rules.^[154] This input editor handles all six tones and base letters, converting sequences like "es" to "é" post-correction.^[154] On mobile devices, iOS keyboards display a popup menu for accented variants when long-pressing e, allowing selection of é by sliding to the acute option.^[155] Similarly, Android's Gboard and default keyboards offer the same long-press functionality on e to access é from the variant menu.^[156] Historically, typewriters from the 1880s onward, such as early French models, incorporated dead keys or shift mechanisms for accents like é, requiring the user to strike the accent key, backspace, and then the letter.^[157] These mechanical methods evolved into modern Unicode-based input, which now standardizes É across platforms.^[157]

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French Accent Marks: Learn Accents in French & How to Type Them
The 5 French accent marks are: acute (é), grave (à, è, ù), cedilla (ç), circumflex (â, ê, î, ô, û), and trema (ë, ï, ü).Missing: distinctions | Show results with:distinctions
[27]
Latvian Alphabet: Guide to All 33 Letters, Diacritics, and ... - Preply
Vowels with macrons: Four vowels (a, e, i, u) have long forms marked by macrons (ā, ē, ī, ū). The macron is a horizontal line above the letter that indicates ...The Latvian alphabet · Pronunciation essentials · Practice the Latvian alphabet...
[28]
A Foreigner's Guide to the Polish Alphabet | Article - Culture.pl
Jul 7, 2015 · Here's a little hint: ogonek means little tail and is responsible for nasalizing vowel sounds – ą, ę; kreska (acute accent) means either ...Missing: nasalization | Show results with:nasalization
[29]
[PDF] Les rectifications de l'orthographe - Académie française |
Dec 6, 1990 · Si certains locuteurs ont le sentiment d'une différence phonétique entre a et â, o et ô, è ou é et ê, ces oppositions n'ont pas de réalité sur.
[30]
Le français aujourd'hui | Académie française
— l'accent grave sur le e quand il est précédé d'une autre lettre et suivi d'une syllabe qui comporte un e muet (évènement, cèleri, sècheresse, règlementaire — ...
[31]
L'ÉCOLE mais la FORÊT : É ou Ê pour noter un ancien S
Apr 1, 2021 · En français, l'accent circonflexe est souvent la trace d'un ancien s. On le rencontre alors dans des mots d'usage courant, tandis que des ...
[32]
Jennifer T. (Couchey) - Académie française |
Feb 2, 2023 · Le tréma, comme l'accent circonflexe, permet dans certains cas de distinguer deux formes homonymes. Le tréma sert ainsi à faire le départ ...
[33]
Learn Latvian - Orthography - 101 Languages
The vowel letters A , E , I and U can take a macron to show length, unmodified letters being short. The letters C , S and Z , that in unmodified form are ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[34]
Polish Language - Structure, Writing & Alphabet - MustGo.com
In script, nasal vowels are marked by a diacritic called ogonek 'little tail,' e.g., /ɛ̃/ written as ę , and /ɔ̃/ written as ą. Front · Central · Back · Close. i.Structure · Sound System · Grammar<|control11|><|separator|>
[35]
Accent aigu - Dico en ligne Le Robert
L'accent aigu se place exclusivement sur la lettre e et indique toujours un son fermé. Le é apparaît uniquement en fin de. syllabe. , ou bien constitue une ...
[36]
Les accents (aigu, grave et circonflexe) - Alloprof
L'accent aigu est uniquement utilisé sur la voyelle e pour indiquer qu'elle doit être prononcée [e].
[37]
E accentué, perpendiculaire, cédillé ou crochu - Académie française |
Jul 2, 2020 · C'est Robert qui, en 1530, fut le premier à utiliser l'accent aigu pour noter e fermé en position finale : trempé, frappé, beauté. Il étendit ...Missing: rôle | Show results with:rôle
[38]
Histoire d'É ou de la variation des usages graphiques à la ... - Cairn
Jun 1, 2010 · Grâce à ces imprimeurs, l'accent aigu sur ?é à la finale des mots français se généralise dès le milieu du xvi e siècle, permettant en ...
[39]
Alphabet and Character Frequency: French (Français)
Letter Frequencies of the language French ; E · 15.10 % ; Ê, 0.24 % ; É, 2.13 % ; È, 0.35 % ; Ë, 0.01 %.
[40]
Accentuation - PortuguesePod101
When it appears over the vowels O or E however, it indicates that the syllable must be stressed, *and* that the vowel requires an open pronunciation. An open ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[41]
(PDF) The Portuguese Language Spelling Accord - ResearchGate
Jul 8, 2019 · The process of adopting an official orthography for the Portuguese language was completed very late in history, only in the twentieth ...
[42]
[PDF] Some Aspects of Father João Rodriguez' - Portuguese Orthography
... accent is referred to in this section. For the 16th century Portuguese orthographers the use of the accent was never consistent, as it also has various ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[43]
History and Reason of Portuguese accentuation marks
May 4, 2023 · If it uses the circumflex or an accute accet depends on the quality of the vowel, if it is more closed, the circumflex is used (â, ê, ô) and if ...Missing: Camões | Show results with:Camões<|separator|>
[44]
European vs Brazilian Portuguese
The difference appears in certain words that use the acute accent (´) in European Portuguese, but the circumflex accent (ˆ) in Brazilian Portuguese.Grammar · The Pronouns Tu/teu Vs... · Pronunciation
[45]
tilde | Diccionario panhispánico de dudas
### Summary of RAE Rules on Tilde Usage (DPD, 2nd ed.)
[46]
[PDF] 1ortografia_espanola_2010.pdf - Real Academia Española
Nov 28, 2010 · La correcta escritura, el buen uso del léxico y el dominio de las reglas gramaticales constituyen los tres grandes ámbitos que regula la ...
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https://www.fundeu.es/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/FundeuNovedadesOrtografia.pdf
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[PDF] Novedades de la Ortografía de la lengua española (2010) - Fundéu
En este documento se describen las novedades más importantes de la Ortografía de la lengua española, publicada en el 2010 por la Asociación de Academias de la ...
[49]
[PDF] Institut d'Estudis Catalans Ortografia catalana - IEC
). En canvi, s'escriuen amb accent agut (é) els mots acabats en ·és que fan el plural en -essos, com abscés, accés, congrés, excés, exprés (cf. exprès o ex ...
[50]
What are the letters e and é in a language with vowel reduction ...
Dec 3, 2021 · In an unstressed syllable, these letters typically correspond to /ə/ and /u/, respectively—note that the letter e may correspond to /ə/ or /e/ ...
[51]
[PDF] Standardisation of Spanish and Catalan - UdG
First essay on pronunciation and orthography. 1492- Antonio de Nebrija Gramatica Castellana. 1517- Antonio de Nebrija Reglas de Orthographia de la lengua ...
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Vademecum sull'accento: quando indicarlo e dove pronunciarlo
In tutti gli altri casi, l'accento sulla e finale è grave. Ricordate, in particolare, di segnarlo sulla terza persona del presente indicativo del verbo essere: ...
[53]
Stress position and accents in Italian - Jakub Marian
The grave accent (“è”) customarily indicates the open pronunciation, so to distinguish words with the close e, the acute accent (“é”) is used instead. Most ...
[54]
Italian orthography - Wikipedia
The acute accent (´) may be used on ⟨é⟩ ; The grave accent (`) is found on ⟨à⟩ ; The circumflex accent (ˆ) can be used to mark the contraction of two unstressed ...Alphabet · Vowels · C and G · Diacritics
[55]
Category:Italian terms borrowed from French
Italian terms borrowed from French. Jump to: Top – A À B C D E É È F G ... Italian adapted borrowings from French (0 c, 1 e). Italian pseudo-loans from ...
[56]
Sicilian language and alphabet - Omniglot
Aug 7, 2024 · Sicilian alphabet (l'alfabetu Sicilianu). A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h.
[57]
Old Occitan: Phonology and Spelling - Lingweenie.org
é, closed e, like French été, similar to English day but without the diphthong glide. · è, open e like met · ó, closed o, note · ò, open o, like caught, or French ...<|separator|>
[58]
https://npld.eu/institut-destudis-occitans-institute-for-occitan-studies/
[59]
[PDF] Occitan and Catalan - University of Bristol Research Portal
The standardisation process for Occitan began in. 1935 with the publication of Louis Alibèrt's Gramatica occitana segon los parlars lengadocians. ('Occitan ...<|separator|>
[60]
Institut d'Estudis Occitans | Institute for Occitan Studies - NPLD
IEO supports the promotion and teaching of Occitan and recommends the use of the so-called “classical” or “standard” spelling, adapted to dialectal diversity ...
[61]
Frédéric Mistral – Facts - NobelPrize.org
Mistral studied law but came to devote himself entirely to writing poetry in Provençal, a literary language dating back to the 12th century that originated in ...
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4 ways French has influenced the English language
Jun 8, 2020 · The acute (é), grave (è), and circumflex (â) accents aren't typically used in the English language, but some words borrowed directly from French ...Missing: loanwords | Show results with:loanwords
[63]
Early Modern English (c. 1500 - c. 1800) - History of English
Apr 3, 2024 · ... French borrowings such as crêpe, étiquette, etc. Early Modern English loans from Latin & French (from Google Books, originally from T.
[64]
Special Characters - The Chicago Manual of Style
We've been having a discussion in the office about whether to continue using diacritical marks on words such as decor and applique.
[65]
Use of italics - APA Style - American Psychological Association
This page addresses when to use italics, when to avoid italics, how to use italics for emphasis, and when to use reverse italics.
[66]
How to pronounce CAFÉ in English - Cambridge Dictionary
US/kæfˈeɪ/ café. Your browser doesn't support HTML5 audio. /k/ as in ... English Learner's Dictionary Essential British English Essential American English.
[67]
résumé, n. meanings, etymology and more - Oxford English Dictionary
How is the noun résumé pronounced? British English. /ˈrɛzjᵿmeɪ/. REZ-yuh-may. Listen to pronunciation. /ˈreɪzjᵿmeɪ/. RAYZ-yuh-may. Listen to pronunciation. U.S. ...
[68]
Why is the pronunciation of French loanwords with the ending é ...
Apr 24, 2018 · In English, /e/ and /eɪ/ are allophones, meaning they represent the same underlying phoneme, and /eɪ/ is always used at the end of the word. So ...Missing: misuse | Show results with:misuse
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Johnson's Dictionary Online
Samuel Johnson's Dictionary Dictionary Search View Printed Pages View Front Matter Browse By Letter Browse Quoted Authors Random WordAbout Johnson’s Dictionary · Guide to Dictionary · Random Word · Browse By Letter
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https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/news/2023/05/what-influence-did-french-really-have-on-dutch
[71]
Dutch Writing System - Translation Services USA
Rating 4.8 (324) In the recent spelling reform, the accent grave was dropped as stress sign on short vowels in favour of the accent aigu (e.g. 'wèl' was changed to 'wél'). Get ...
[72]
Accenttekens en andere diakritische tekens op hoofdletters
Mar 13, 2018 · Het plaatsen van accenttekens en andere diakritische tekens op hoofdletters is toegestaan bij leenwoorden (eigennaam en gewone woorden) die ...
[73]
What influence did French really have on Dutch? - Universiteit Leiden
May 15, 2023 · French played an important role in society as a lingua franca. Especially among the upper class, it was not uncommon to communicate largely in that language.<|control11|><|separator|>
[74]
QUOI?! - The French language in Dutch - Learn Dutch Online
French words in Dutch For example “horloge” is pronounced with the French [ge]-sound. And “etui” is pronounced e [twi].
[75]
Norwegian Bokmål language locale for Norway, Narrative Cultural ...
... Norwegian Bokmål words. It is used on vowels to show stress, typically as é to show stress. Special the indication of the number 1 - "én" "En kan bo bra i ...<|separator|>
[76]
[PDF] THE NORWEGIAN LANGUAGE REFORM OF 1917 REVISITED
Prior to 1917, the language conflict was about the use of either Dano-Norwegian or Nynorsk. After 1917, there developed a fierce sociolinguistic conflict within ...
[77]
Typing Swedish Vowels - Augustana College
The Swedish alphabet ends with three additional vowels, in this order: x, y, z, å, ä, ö. Occasionally one will also see an "é" or a German "ü" in Swedish names, ...
[78]
[PDF] The Afrikaans Orthographic Rules as Guide for Other South African ...
In this article work on the rules of Afrikaans spelling and orthography, by and large, is reported. It is hoped that some of the lessons learned in the process ...
[79]
Afrikaans | Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics
Jul 16, 2025 · Being a relatively young language, Afrikaans exhibits less dialectal variation compared to older European languages like German and Dutch.
[80]
Translation hermeneutics of the 1933/1953, 1983 and 2020 ...
Sep 7, 2022 · The official Afrikaans Bible translations, published in 1933/1953, 1983 and 2020, influenced Reformed theology, sociopolitical perceptions and ...Missing: diacritics | Show results with:diacritics
[81]
Luxembourgish | Journal of the International Phonetic Association
Apr 2, 2013 · The short vowels [ə] and [e] are complementarily distributed allophones of the same phoneme /e/. [e] (with a more open [ɛ] alternative ...
[82]
https://www.omniglot.com/writing/czech.htm
[83]
Luxembourgish language, alphabet and pronunciation - Omniglot
Jun 1, 2025 · Luxembourgish started to be used as a language of instruction in schools in 1914. A new spelling system, Lëzebuurjer Ortografi, was devised by ...
[84]
Codification in the shadow of standards: ideologies in early ...
Feb 24, 2024 · This paper explores how early Luxembourgish codification was influenced by language ideologies, showing how it was constructed within the ...
[85]
Czech language, alphabet and pronunciation - Omniglot
Sep 26, 2021 · He created the system of having one grapheme (letter) for every phoneme (sound) in the language by adding accents (čárka) to some of the letters ...
[86]
Slovak language, alphabet and pronunciation
### Information about the Letter É in Slovak
[87]
Czech / Lingvopedia - lingvo.info
Czech-German Dictionary by Jungmann. Josef Jungmann. 1843. Orthography reform proposed by Pavel Josef Šafařík, since 1849 basically modern orthography is in use ...
[88]
Czech vs. Slovak: A Study of Language Differences - PoliLingua.com
Dec 7, 2024 · They were once part of the same country, Czechoslovakia, until it split into two separate countries in 1993. Despite this split, the Czech ...Missing: É | Show results with:É
[89]
https://sbc.org.pl/Content/93088/doktorat3218.pdf
[90]
Dots, Accents & Little Tails: The Origins of Polish Orthography | Article
How did Polish vowels grow little tails? Who put the dot on the letter 'ż'? When do letters sing and how have typos altered the sense of literary works?
[91]
[PDF] Ortografia polska od II połowy XVIII wieku do współczesności ...
... Akademia Umiejętności 31 paź- dziernika 1891 roku zatwierdziła wnioski opracowane przez swoją Komisję Ortogra- . Wobec opieszałości Aka- demii Umiejętności ...
[92]
[PDF] Zasady pisowni i interpunkcji polskiej
May 3, 2024 · W pisowni tych samogłosek obowiązuje ogólna zasada fonetyczna, oznaczamy je zatem przy użyciu liter – odpowiednio a, e, o, i, y. Page 10. Rada ...
[93]
Learn the Hungarian Alphabet with the Free eBook
If you'd like to follow along with the audio, the full alphabet in order is: A, Á, B, C, Cs, D, Dz, Dzs, E, É, F, G, Gy, H, I, Í, J, K, L, Ly, M, N, Ny, O, Ó, ...
[94]
The quantity of high vowels in Hungarian speech and spelling
This process of shortening probably began as early as the 16th century (cf. Bárczi 1967: 167). Shortening of the same high vowels has also been evident for ...
[95]
[PDF] The Hungarian Language Reform in European Comparison1
Therefore, the fact that the Hungarian language reform concentrated around a few prominent personalities such as Ferenc Kazinczy was not just a natural ...
[96]
[PDF] k, associative plural -ék An integrated approach to three Hungarian ...
Aug 19, 2021 · Descriptively, Hungarian has three nominal plural markers: multiplicative (aka 'additive') -(V)k(1), possessive -i (2), and associative -ék (3).
[97]
The description of vowel length in the early grammars of Hungarian
Nov 12, 2024 · PDF | On Sep 20, 2024, András Cser and others published The description of vowel length in the early grammars of Hungarian | Find, ...
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[PDF] Morphophonological Innovations in New Speakers' Kashubian*
Kashubian became recognized as a regional language within the Republic of Poland in 2005 ... sical) orthography, derived from the original Kashubian orthography ...
[99]
https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110379082-024/html
[100]
[PDF] Coronal palatalization in Kashubian
The vowel represented by i is a high front [i], e represents a mid-front [ɛ]. The vowel represented as é in the Kashubian orthography denotes a front vowel.
[101]
[PDF] Five Centuries of Bible Translations into Kashubian - Biblioteka Nauki
Dec 17, 2021 · Abstract: This paper discusses translations of biblical passages into Kashubian, which originated in the Lutheran circles between the 16th ...
[102]
Five Centuries of Bible Translations into Kashubian
Dec 17, 2021 · The fundamental texts of this period include the works by Szymon Krofey (1586), Michał Pontanus (1643), and Perykopy smołdzińskie (1699–1701).
[103]
The Vietnamese Alphabet with IPA Transcription - Thao & Co.
Vietnamese has 6 tones as follows: • “Ngang” (no mark): flat tone, with no rise or fall. • “Huyền” ( ` ): low, falling tone. • “Sắc” ( ´ ): high, rising tone.
[104]
(PDF) First codification of Vietnamese by 17th-century missionaries
We analyse the importance of the generation of Jesuit pioneer missionaries at the service of the Portuguese Patronage for the implementation of quốc ngữ ...
[105]
Why Did Vietnam Adopt The Latin Alphabet? - Vietcetera
In the early 17th century, Portuguese and French Catholic missionaries, particularly Alexandre de Rhodes, arrived in Vietnam. To help spread Christianity, ...
[106]
How to Learn the Vietnamese Alphabet: An In-Depth Guide
Feb 3, 2020 · Essentially, a Vietnamese ê is like the “ay” in “way”, and the Vietnamese ô is like the “oe” in “toe”. Except, when we say the words “way” or “ ...
[107]
[PDF] Influence of F0 on Vietnamese syllable perception - ISCA Archive
The F0 contours of the 6 Vietnamese tones (examples are shown in Figure 2), are described as follows: • Tone 1- Level tone. (“ngang”) is a high tone. At the ...
[108]
[PDF] How to Use Young and Morgan's 1987 The Navajo Language
The 1987 volume starts with a brief preface on the phonology and orthography of the Navajo language, running pages x-‐xv. (For a fuller description of the.
[109]
[PDF] Introduction to Navajo Language Studies - The University of Arizona
Nasalization is marked with a nasal hook (i.e. a˛, e˛, i˛, o˛). Phonetically, the high vowel is pronounced [i:] when it is long, but. [I] when it is short.Missing: McReynolds | Show results with:McReynolds
[110]
łééchąą'í | Navajo Word of the Day
Apr 11, 2013 · The Navajo word łééchąą'í refers to domesticated dogs. Inside this word is the separate chąą'. This is a word meaning 'excrement, feces, poop, etc.'.
[111]
[PDF] KBBI Daring: A Revolution in The Indonesian Lexicography
6 The pronunciation field in KBBI only deals with entries having the letter <e>. The Indonesian language has the sounds [e], [@], and [E]. However, they are ...
[112]
[PDF] A RECENT HISTORY OF SPELLING REFORMS IN INDONESIA
grapheme (é) indicated the difference between /e/ and /ə/,. e.g. élok ... It was further decided that the spelling of Indonesian loan-words should be ...
[113]
[PDF] AN OVERVIEW OF INDONESIAN LOANWORDS FROM FRENCH
Jul 14, 2016 · French loanwords through Dutch in Indonesian. In Indonesian, most of the loanwords from French were imported via Dutch. To put it another way ...
[114]
https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/balinese.pdf
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[PDF] Balinese Romanization Table 2025 version 2025
Balinese script is traditionally used for representing text in Balinese, Javanese, Sasak1, Sanskrit, Malay, Arabic and other languages of central. Indonesia. It ...Missing: déwa | Show results with:déwa
[116]
Balinese orthography notes - r12a.io
The Balinese orthography is an abugida with one inherent vowel, generally pronounced a, but ə when word-final or in some affixes. Other post-consonant vowels ...
[117]
[PDF] Javanese, Sundanese, and Madurese romanization table
When questions arise as to whether the h should be represented, consult a standard dictionary of Javanese in Latin script, especially Pigeaud, Poerwodarminto, ...
[118]
Lesson 9 Javanese: A Latinum Institute Modern Language Course
Sep 7, 2025 · Common Pronunciation Errors: Not distinguishing é [e] from è [ɛ] changes meaning. Pronouncing silent h in words (h often not pronounced).
[119]
Javanese language and alphabet - Omniglot
Jan 6, 2025 · Javanese is a Malayo-Polynesian language spoken mainly on the Indonesian island of Java by about 80 million people.
[120]
[PDF] NEGATION IN FOUR LANGUAGES OF INDONESIA | Marielle Butters
Even among the languages of western Indonesia, e.g. Javanese, Sundanese,. Madurese, Balinese ... The orthographic vowel. 'é' refers to a front, mid vowel /ɛ/, ...
[121]
[PDF] Language Policy in the Dutch Colony: On Sundanese in the Dutch ...
Even though Sundanese culture had a great manuscript tradition in Arabic and Sundanese scripts, Sundanese became adapted to the Latin script quite fast ...
[122]
[PDF] The Acquisition of English Vowels by Javanese and Sundanese ...
Javanese influence on Indonesian. Pacific. Linguistics, Series D(38) ... Indonesian learners, therefore, is not due to an incorrect vowel duration per se ...
[123]
An Acoustical Contrastive Analysis of Sundanese Central Vowels
The alphabet which represents the e ə o vowel in orthographic system in Balinese is a, while a in Acehnese, the alphabet which represents the vowel Pic. 1 ...
[124]
[PDF] TECHNICAL NOTE - Italian Journal of Linguistics
Likewise for Emilian, cf. Parmigiano with bō, gõfi, trõ, etc., versus äzen ... following the main stress (BENE > bé, BONU > bò, CANE > cà) for it to be ...
[125]
Endangered languages: the full list | News | theguardian.com
Apr 15, 2011 · Endangered languages: the full list ; Emilian-Romagnol, 2000000, Definitely endangered ; Piedmontese, 2000000, Definitely endangered ; Venetan ...
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Emilian-Romagnol language, alphabet and pronunciation - Omniglot
Apr 23, 2021 · Emilian-Romagnol is a Romance language spoken in Emilia-Romagna and other parts of northern Italy, and also in San Marino.
[127]
Latin and the making of the Romance languages1 (Chapter 1)
The author shows what traces there are in Latin for lenition, a phonetic development which proves extremely important not only because it distinguishes the ...
[128]
The Pronunciation and Spelling of Modern Irish
Slender consonants are always written with the letters i or e next to them. Examples: Slender “b”. beo (byoh); bí (bee). Broad “b”. bó (boh); buí (bwee). In ...
[129]
[PDF] When regular is not easy: Cracking the code of Irish orthography
Jul 26, 2016 · Long vowel phonemes are usually represented by an acute accent (known as síneadh fada or just fada) over the vowel. Thus, /o/ and /oː/ are ...
[130]
Old Irish/Guide to Old Irish spelling - Celtic Languages
Jan 30, 2024 · Long vowels either weren't marked at all or had the acute accent ('fada') over them (á, ó, ú, é, í). OIr. also had quite a few diphthongs ...
[131]
[PDF] The Standardisation of Scottish Gaelic Orthography 1750-2007
Irish Old and New Testaments in Roman script he had also used the acute accent throughout. In the rare printed texts in Scotland in the early eighteenth ...
[132]
When regular is not easy: Cracking the code of Irish orthography
Aug 7, 2025 · We identify both basic orthographic rules and a few phonological rules that systematically alter pronunciations from those expected based on the ...
[133]
[PDF] Invisibilisation of the Gael in their own Country - Gaeltacht
Apr 24, 2021 · The report aims to assess the effectiveness of Irish-language education in creating proficient Irish ... fada to give the correct Irish ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[134]
Vowels - Goireasan Akerbeltz
Long vowels are indicated by means of accents. There are two accents used in Scottish Gaelic: the acute ( ´ ) found only on the letters e and o (and á in the ...
[135]
[PDF] SQA Gaelic Orthographic Conventions
The grave accent only should be used to indicate length: an-dè, bò, cù, làmh, lèine, mòr, tìr. However, the accent should be written on à/às (out of) and on ...
[136]
Welsh language, alphabet and pronunciation - Omniglot
Jun 1, 2025 · An acute accent can also be used to show a w is being used as a vowel, e.g. gwraidd [ɡwrai̯ð] (roots, sources) versus gẃraidd [ˈɡʊrai̯ð] (manly).
[137]
A primer on Welsh names - My Magick Theatre
Feb 5, 2016 · Accent aigu (á, é, í, ó, ú) is sometimes used to denote a stressed final syllable, though not always. An umlaut may be used to indicate two ...
[138]
[PDF] An analysis of the Yoruba language with english
A high tone is when your pitch is higher as it produces a sound. A mid ... high is marked with an acute accent (e.g. á), the low with a grave accent (à) ...
[139]
[PDF] Yoruba Writing: Standards and Trends
High tone to be indicated by acute accent [´] as in bá 'met', a low tone by the grave accent [`] as in bà 'hit' and mid tone should be left unmarked as in ba ' ...
[140]
[PDF] Vernacular Language and Political Imagination - Derek R. Peterson
His 1843 Vocabulary of the Yoruba Language utilized Latin letters to spell the language, replac- ing the Arabic letters used by earlier writers of Yoruba ( ...
[141]
Yoruba Online
In the 1960s through the 1970s, various orthography committees were set up, by both government and academic groups, to consider and subsequently review the ...
[142]
Alphabet and Character Frequency: Yoruba (Yorùbá)
Letter Frequencies of the language Yoruba ; B · 3.63 % ; D · 1.70 % ; E · 1.70 % ; É, 1.30 % ; È, 1.12 %.Missing: orthography standardization 1960s
[143]
Yoruba - Language Gulper
The high tone cannot occur on a word initial vowel. When high tone ... 2) adjective: jẹ (to eat) → jíjẹ (edible). 3) agentive noun: jà (fight) + ...
[144]
[PDF] Writing Northern Tamaziɣt and Tuareg - akufi.org
Sep 14, 2009 · ... Tuareg 'e' is needed. I suggest using the macron diacritic to mark a 'diferent e', rather than the acute accent used for Algerian Tuareg.
[145]
[PDF] Language Policy and Planning in Algeria: Case Study of Berber ...
Following the recognition of Berber as an official language, script choice and standardization of orthography posed a delicate issue for language planners ...
[146]
The Tuareg: Literature, Language, and Culture
Dec 14, 2022 · The term “Tuareg” refers to tribes and nomads who speak dialects of Tuareg and live in Targa, an area in southwest Libya recently renamed Wadi Al-Hayat.
[147]
[PDF] C0 Controls and Basic Latin - The Unicode Standard, Version 17.0
→ 2757 ❗ heavy exclamation mark symbol. → 2762 ❢ heavy exclamation mark ... E LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E. → 0190 Ɛ latin capital letter open e. → 2107 ℇ ...
[148]
ISO-8859-1 - Unicode
# 8859-1.TXT # Date: 2015-12-02 20:19:00 GMT [KW] # © 2015 Unicode ... E 0x46 0x0046 # LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F 0x47 0x0047 # LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G ...
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https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/intl/unicode-and-character-sets
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Keyboard shortcuts for international characters - Microsoft Support
Vowels with accents ; é. Alt+0233 ; í. Alt+0237 ; ó. Alt+0243 ; ú. Alt+0250.
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Enter characters with accent marks on Mac - Apple Support
Press and hold a letter key · In an app on your Mac, press and hold a letter key on the keyboard—for example, a—to display the accent menu. The accent menu for ...
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France's new AZERTY keyboard layout - Globalization
Dec 4, 2024 · The circumflex dead key (^) provides access to a layer of superscript numerals. Press the dead key (^) followed by a number to type a ...
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Enter special characters - Ubuntu Documentation
A compose key is a special key that allows you to press multiple keys in a row to get a special character. For example, to type the accented letter é, you can ...
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Xlib Compose Keys for en_US.UTF-8 - X.Org
Xlib Compose Keys for en_US.UTF-8. Applications using Xlib input handling should recognize these compose key sequences in locales using the en_US.UTF-8 ...
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Vietnamese IME - Globalization - Microsoft Learn
Jun 20, 2024 · The Vietnamese Number Key-based Input Method Editor (IME) for Windows lets you enter text using the Vietnamese alphabet while using a typical keyboard with 101 ...Missing: é | Show results with:é
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Enter characters with diacritical marks while using Magic Keyboard ...
For example, to enter é, touch and hold the e key. Slide your finger to choose a variant. To hide the onscreen keyboard when you're finished, press the Eject ...
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How to Type Accents on an Android with Smart Keyboard - wikiHow
Apr 22, 2024 · Tap a text field to open Smart Keyboard. Long-press the letter you want to add an accent to. Tap the accented letter you want to type. Steps.
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The History Of The Typewriter
E. Morton, to the files of the Phonographic World, Typewriter. Topics, Office ... accented vowels. No ribbon was employed with this machine, but a paper ...<|control11|><|separator|>