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Character

Character is a term with multiple meanings across various domains, including ethics, arts, language, mathematics, and more. In personal qualities and social sciences, character refers to the moral and ethical traits that influence an individual's decisions and behaviors, particularly in matters of right and wrong. This sense encompasses virtues like honesty and courage, as well as vices, and is studied in philosophy and psychology.^[1] In arts, entertainment, and media, a character is a person, animal, or entity portrayed in literature, film, theater, or other storytelling media, often embodying specific archetypes or roles. In written symbols and communication, character denotes a graphic symbol such as a letter, numeral, or punctuation mark in a writing system, or its representation in computing as a data unit in character encoding standards like ASCII or Unicode. In mathematics, characters are functions used in group theory to describe representations or in number theory for analytic purposes, such as Dirichlet characters. Other specialized uses include character evidence in law and character as a rhetorical device in philosophy. For detailed discussions, see the relevant sections below.

Arts, entertainment, and media

Fictional characters in literature and storytelling

A fictional character is a personage created by an author to inhabit and drive a narrative, serving as a constructed entity that embodies traits, motivations, and actions within the story's world.^[2] These characters typically include protagonists, who lead the central conflict; antagonists, who oppose the protagonist; and supporting roles that provide context, conflict, or development.^[3] In literary theory, they function as intentional systems designed to elicit reader engagement and advance thematic elements, distinct from real individuals by their invented nature.^[3] The development of fictional characters has evolved significantly across literary history, beginning with ancient epics where figures often embodied heroic ideals or divine attributes rather than psychological depth. In Homer's Iliad, characters like Achilles represent archetypal warriors driven by honor and fate, reflecting oral traditions that prioritized collective myths over individual complexity.^[4] By the 19th century, realism in novels shifted toward multifaceted portrayals, as seen in Charles Dickens' works such as David Copperfield, where characters like the protagonist exhibit personal growth amid social critiques, marking a transition to introspective, socially embedded figures.^[4] This progression highlights a broader move from mythic symbolism in epics to nuanced realism in modern prose, influenced by cultural and philosophical changes.^[5] Authors employ various techniques of characterization to reveal character traits, primarily divided into direct and indirect methods. Direct characterization involves explicit descriptions by the narrator, such as stating a character's personality or background outright, providing clear but potentially less engaging insights.^[6] In contrast, indirect characterization unfolds through a character's actions, dialogue, thoughts, or interactions with others, allowing readers to infer qualities and fostering deeper immersion.^[6] Literary critic Shlomith Rimmon-Kenan outlines these approaches as complementary, with indirect methods often dominating modern narratives to mimic real-life ambiguity.^[7] Central to character construction are concepts like the character arc, which traces a figure's internal transformation in response to events, and the distinction between flat and round characters. A character arc depicts evolution from an initial state through conflict to resolution, enabling thematic depth by illustrating growth or decline.^[8] E.M. Forster, in his seminal lectures, classified flat characters as those defined by a single dominant trait, useful for consistency but limited in surprise, while round characters possess complexity and capacity for change, akin to real people.^[9] This framework, introduced in Aspects of the Novel, underscores how round characters enhance narrative realism and emotional resonance.^[9] Illustrative examples abound in canonical literature. Shakespeare's Hamlet features the titular prince as a complex tragic hero, whose arc from indecision to vengeful action reveals profound psychological turmoil through soliloquies and moral dilemmas. Similarly, Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice presents Elizabeth Bennet as a round character whose prejudices evolve via indirect characterization—evident in her witty dialogue and evolving relationships—culminating in self-awareness and mutual respect with Mr. Darcy. These portrayals exemplify how authors blend techniques to create enduring, multifaceted figures that propel the plot and explore human nature.

Characters in performance arts and visual media

In performance arts, actors embody characters through techniques that emphasize emotional authenticity and psychological depth, particularly in theater. The Stanislavski system, developed by Russian practitioner Konstantin Stanislavski in the early 20th century, trains performers to internalize a character's motivations by drawing on personal memories and sensory experiences, enabling naturalistic portrayals on stage.^[10] This method revolutionized acting by shifting focus from external mimicry to internal truth, allowing actors to live the character's circumstances in real time during live performances.^[11] Character adaptation from textual sources to film and television introduces visual and auditory elements that enhance subtext, often through techniques like close-ups to reveal unspoken emotions. In the 1942 film Casablanca, directed by Michael Curtiz, Humphrey Bogart's portrayal of Rick Blaine evolves from a cynical expatriate to a self-sacrificing idealist, with close-up shots during key scenes—such as his reunion with Ilsa—conveying internal conflict and moral ambiguity without dialogue.^[12] Adapted from the unproduced play Everybody Comes to Rick's by Murray Burnett and Joan Alison, the film's visual storytelling amplifies Blaine's arc through lighting and framing, distinguishing it from its literary origins.^[13] In television, similar adaptations prioritize episodic consistency while allowing character growth through recurring visual motifs. The portrayal of characters in visual media has evolved significantly from the silent film era to contemporary CGI-driven blockbusters, expanding expressive possibilities. Charlie Chaplin's iconic Tramp character, introduced in 1914's Kid Auto Races at Venice, relied on physical comedy, exaggerated gestures, and mime to convey humor and pathos in the absence of sound, defining silent cinema's character-driven narratives.^[14] By contrast, modern films like the Marvel Cinematic Universe's Iron Man (2008) utilize computer-generated imagery to create dynamic, technologically advanced characters; Robert Downey Jr.'s Tony Stark interacts with fully CGI-rendered suits that enable complex action sequences and visual effects unattainable in earlier eras.^[15] This progression reflects broader advancements in visual effects, from practical sets in silent films to digital integration that blends human performance with synthetic elements.^[16] Casting decisions play a crucial role in character realization, balancing typecasting—where actors are repeatedly assigned similar roles based on physicality or prior success—with against-type choices that challenge expectations and add depth. Typecasting can limit versatility but ensures audience familiarity, as seen in actors often cast as brooding anti-heroes due to their demeanor.^[17] Against-type casting, however, invigorates portrayals by subverting norms, allowing performers to explore multifaceted characters and avoid pigeonholing.^[18] Maintaining character consistency across sequels and franchises is essential for narrative coherence, particularly in long-running series where arcs span multiple installments. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Tony Stark's evolution from arrogant inventor in Iron Man to sacrificial hero in Avengers: Endgame (2019) preserves core traits like wit and ingenuity while allowing growth, contributing to the franchise's interconnected success.^[19] This approach ensures visual and behavioral continuity, even as CGI enhancements evolve, fostering audience investment over a decade of films.^[20] Television series often employ ensemble casts to develop interconnected characters, highlighting group dynamics in performance arts. The NBC sitcom Friends (1994–2004), featuring Jennifer Aniston, Courteney Cox, Lisa Kudrow, Matt LeBlanc, Matthew Perry, and David Schwimmer as six interdependent friends, exemplified this format by distributing narrative focus equally among the group, allowing each character's quirks and relationships to emerge through collaborative scenes.^[21] This structure influenced subsequent ensemble-driven shows, emphasizing relational consistency over individual spotlights.

Character archetypes and types

Character archetypes refer to recurring patterns or models of figures that embody universal human experiences and roles within narratives, providing a structural foundation for storytelling across cultures and media. These archetypes facilitate audience recognition and emotional engagement by representing fundamental psychological and social dynamics. In ancient theory, Aristotle outlined early classifications in his Poetics, distinguishing character types based on moral and representational qualities: tragic figures as "better than us" to evoke pity and fear through their downfall from virtue, comic figures as "worse than us" for ridicule, and realistic or idealized portrayals that maintain consistency and appropriateness to avoid implausibility.^[22] Joseph Campbell expanded on archetypal models in his seminal work The Hero with a Thousand Faces (1949), identifying key roles within the monomyth or hero's journey, such as the mentor who imparts wisdom and tools for the quest, and the threshold guardian who challenges the hero at transitional points to test commitment and growth. These archetypes structure the narrative arc, ensuring the protagonist's transformation through trials resonates universally. Drawing from Carl Jung's psychological framework, archetypes in storytelling often derive from the collective unconscious, including the shadow as the repressed, darker aspects of the self, and the anima/animus as the internalized opposite-gender counterpart influencing relational depth. In application, characters like Darth Vader in the Star Wars saga exemplify the shadow archetype, embodying the hero's internal conflict with forbidden impulses and moral ambiguity.^[23] Characters manifest in diverse entity types: anthropomorphic ones, which endow non-human subjects with human traits and motivations, as seen in Aesop's fables where animals like the fox represent cunning and deception; non-human forms, such as mythical beasts or forces of nature that drive allegorical lessons; and symbolic or allegorical figures that stand for abstract concepts, like virtue or vice in moral tales. These types allow narratives to explore ethical and behavioral themes indirectly through familiar yet abstracted vessels.^[24]^[25] Contemporary storytelling extends traditional archetypes with figures like the anti-hero, who subverts heroic ideals through moral complexity and self-serving actions, exemplified by Walter White in Breaking Bad, a chemistry teacher turned drug lord whose ambition leads to ethical erosion. Additionally, ensemble dynamics integrate multiple archetypes into interdependent groups, fostering relational conflicts and collective growth, as in team-based narratives where roles like the reluctant leader and loyal ally balance the group's progression.^[26]^[27]

Written symbols and communication

Characters in writing systems and typography

In writing systems, a character is defined as a graphic symbol or grapheme that serves as the basic unit of written language, representing elements such as phonemes (sounds), morphemes (meaningful units), or ideas.^[28] Alphabetic characters, like the Latin letter A, typically denote phonemes, while logographic characters, such as Chinese hanzi, convey morphemes or concepts directly.^[28] These symbols form the foundation of scripts, enabling the visual encoding of language across diverse cultures. The historical development of characters traces back to ancient innovations, beginning with Sumerian cuneiform around 3200 BCE in Mesopotamia, where wedge-shaped marks on clay tablets evolved from pictographic representations of objects to more abstract phonetic and syllabic signs.^[29] Over millennia, writing systems diversified into various forms, including Egyptian hieroglyphs (c. 3100 BCE) and the Phoenician alphabet (c. 1050 BCE), which influenced many modern scripts like Greek and Latin. A pivotal advancement occurred in 1440 when Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type in Europe, allowing metal characters to be rearranged for printing, revolutionizing the mass production and standardization of texts.^[30] Typography governs the design and arrangement of characters to enhance readability and aesthetics. Serif fonts, characterized by small decorative strokes at the ends of letterforms (e.g., Times New Roman), contrast with sans-serif fonts, which lack these flourishes and appear cleaner (e.g., Arial), with serifs traditionally aiding eye flow in print while sans-serifs suit digital displays.^[31] Key spacing rules include kerning, the adjustment of space between specific pairs of characters to avoid visual gaps (e.g., tightening the space between "A" and "V"), and leading, the vertical space between lines of text, which influences legibility—typically set at 120-145% of the font size for body text.^[32] Writing systems are classified by how characters represent linguistic units: abjads focus on consonants with vowels often implied or marked by diacritics (e.g., Hebrew aleph), while abugidas use syllabic characters where a base consonant form is modified by vowel signs (e.g., Devanagari ka).^[33] These classifications encompass alphabets (full phonemic representation, like Latin), syllabaries (syllable-based, like Japanese kana), and logographic systems (idea-based, like Chinese). The Unicode standard, as of version 17.0 (September 2025), encompasses 159,801 characters across 172 scripts, facilitating global digital representation of diverse writing systems.^[34]

Characters in computing and digital encoding

In computing, characters from writing systems are represented digitally through encoding schemes that map symbolic units to binary values for storage, transmission, and manipulation in computers and networks. These encodings ensure interoperability across systems, evolving from limited national standards to universal frameworks capable of handling diverse global scripts. Early schemes focused on efficiency with fixed-width codes, while modern ones prioritize universality and backward compatibility.^[35] The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), developed in 1963 by the American Standards Association (now ANSI), was the foundational 7-bit encoding scheme supporting 128 code points, primarily for the English alphabet, digits, punctuation, and control characters.^[36] It allocated the first 95 positions (0x20 to 0x7E) for printable English characters, with the remainder for non-printing controls like line feed (0x0A).^[37] As computing globalized, ASCII's limitations became apparent, leading to 8-bit extensions that doubled capacity to 256 code points while preserving the original 128 for compatibility.^[38] One prominent extension was the ISO/IEC 8859 series, standardized starting in 1987, which provided single-byte encodings tailored to specific Latin-based scripts by redefining the upper 128 code points (0x80 to 0xFF) for accented letters, symbols, and additional controls.^[39] For instance, ISO/IEC 8859-1 (Latin-1) supported Western European languages by including characters like é (0xE9) and ñ (0xF1), building directly on ASCII's lower range.^[39] These 8-bit schemes marked a shift from 7-bit telegraphic codes to broader regional support but still fragmented international text handling due to script-specific variants.^[39] To address these fragmentations, the Unicode Standard emerged in 1991 as a universal encoding system, assigning unique code points—numerical identifiers from U+0000 to U+10FFFF—to 159,801 characters across all major writing systems, symbols, and scripts as of version 17.0 (September 2025).^[34] Code points abstract the abstract identity of a character, independent of its visual form; for example, the Latin capital letter A is U+0041.^[35] Unlike fixed-width predecessors, Unicode encodings like UTF-8 use variable-length byte sequences (1 to 4 bytes per code point) for efficient storage, preserving ASCII compatibility by encoding U+0000 to U+007F in a single byte.^[40] This allows UTF-8 to represent the full Unicode repertoire while minimizing space for Latin scripts, making it the dominant encoding for web content and files.^[35] A key distinction in Unicode lies between code points and glyphs: a glyph is the specific visual rendering of one or more code points, varying by font, style, or rendering engine, whereas the code point defines the character's semantic identity.^[41] For complex scripts, Unicode employs combining characters, where diacritics or modifiers follow a base character to form a single grapheme cluster; é, for instance, can be either the precomposed code point U+00E9 or the sequence U+0065 (Latin small e) followed by U+0301 (combining acute accent).^[42] To manage equivalences from such decompositions, Unicode normalization standardizes representations: Normalization Form C (NFC) decomposes then recomposes into canonical precomposed forms where possible, while Normalization Form D (NFD) fully decomposes into base and combining sequences.^[43] For example, the sequence U+0041 U+030A (A with combining ring above) normalizes to U+00C5 (Å) in NFC but remains decomposed in NFD.^[43] Historically, character encoding progressed from 7-bit ASCII's English-centric focus to 8-bit ISO-8859's regional expansions, culminating in Unicode's adoption of up to 32-bit code points (though limited to 21 bits in practice) for global inclusivity by the mid-1990s.^[35] A notable milestone was the 2010 release of Unicode 6.0, which formalized support for emoji as pictorial characters, adding 722 such symbols and enabling their cross-platform use in digital communication.^[44] Today, UTF-8's prevalence underscores this evolution, handling everything from legacy ASCII to modern emoji sequences without data loss.^[40]

Moral and ethical character

Moral and ethical character refers to the ensemble of stable moral traits that guide an individual's ethical behavior and decisions, often conceptualized as the disposition to act virtuously in accordance with reason and the good.^[45] In Aristotelian virtue ethics, as outlined in the Nicomachean Ethics (c. 350 BCE), character constitutes the sum of these traits, enabling a person to perform their function well by achieving a balanced state of excellence in moral conduct.^[46] Central to this framework are key virtues such as courage, temperance, and justice, which represent the mean between excess and deficiency, while corresponding vices like cowardice or intemperance arise from deviations.^[47] Aristotle identifies these as habits of the soul that align actions with what is noble, forming the core of a virtuous life.^[48] Historically, Confucian thought in the Analects (5th century BCE) emphasizes ren (benevolence or humaneness) as the paramount moral quality, encompassing empathy, reciprocity, and the fulfillment of social roles to cultivate harmonious character.^[49] In Christian ethics, the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5–7, New Testament) portrays moral character through imperatives like the Beatitudes, urging traits such as meekness, mercy, and peacemaking as reflections of divine righteousness and inner purity.^[50] Philosophical debates on character development contrast habituation—repetitive practice that shapes moral dispositions, as Aristotle argues—with views of innate predispositions, where natural tendencies provide a foundation but require cultivation to become fully virtuous.^[48] Aristotle stresses that virtues emerge not innately but through guided repetition, transforming potential into ethical reliability.^[51] In modern contexts, character education programs integrate these ethical frameworks to foster integrity in decision-making, teaching students to navigate dilemmas by prioritizing values like honesty and responsibility over situational expediency.^[52] Such initiatives, often rooted in virtue ethics, promote habitual ethical reasoning to build resilient moral character in professional and civic life.^[53]

Character in psychology and personality development

In psychology, character is defined as the totality of an individual's attributes and personality traits, particularly their characteristic moral, social, and religious attitudes that influence consistent patterns of behavior across situations.^[54] This conceptualization distinguishes character from transient states, emphasizing stable dispositions such as those captured in the Big Five personality model, including conscientiousness (which reflects self-discipline and moral reliability) and agreeableness (which involves empathy and cooperation).^[55] These traits form the foundation of character by shaping how individuals respond to ethical dilemmas and social norms, with empirical research showing their predictive power for long-term behavioral outcomes.^[56] Key theories in psychology frame character development through internal and environmental mechanisms. Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic model posits the superego as the moral component of personality, emerging around age five and internalizing parental and societal standards to enforce conscience and ideals of perfection.^[57] This structure regulates impulses from the id and mediates ego realities, fostering moral character by generating guilt or pride in response to behavior.^[58] Complementing this, Albert Bandura's social learning theory (1977) highlights observational modeling as central to character formation, where individuals acquire traits like perseverance or honesty by imitating role models and reinforcing behaviors through vicarious experiences.^[59] Bandura's reciprocal determinism integrates personal agency, behavior, and environment, explaining how character evolves via self-efficacy and social feedback loops. Developmental stages outline how character matures from childhood onward. Jean Piaget's 1932 theory describes two primary phases of moral reasoning: heteronomous morality (ages 5-10), where rules are seen as fixed and externally imposed with punishment based on consequences; and autonomous morality (ages 10+), emphasizing intent, mutual respect, and cooperative norms.^[60] Building on Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg's 1969 stage theory expands this into six sequential levels across three tiers—pre-conventional (obedience and self-interest, typical in early childhood), conventional (conformity to social expectations, emerging in adolescence), and post-conventional (universal ethical principles, rare in adulthood)—demonstrating progressive integration of justice and rights into character.^[61] However, Kohlberg's theory has been critiqued by Carol Gilligan, who in 1982 argued that it reflects a male-biased focus on justice and rights, potentially undervaluing women's moral reasoning centered on care, relationships, and context. Gilligan proposed an "ethics of care" framework, suggesting moral development progresses through stages emphasizing responsibility and interconnectedness rather than abstract principles.^[62] These models underscore that character solidifies through cognitive maturation and social interactions, transitioning from egocentric to principled orientations. Assessment of character relies on validated tools that quantify strengths and traits. The VIA Inventory of Strengths, developed by Christopher Peterson and Martin E. P. Seligman in 2004, measures 24 universal character strengths grouped under six virtues (e.g., courage includes perseverance and honesty), providing a positive psychology framework for evaluating moral and personal growth.^[63] This self-report instrument has been widely applied in research and interventions, revealing profiles like high perseverance linked to resilience and goal attainment.^[64] Longitudinal studies confirm that character stability increases with age, particularly from adolescence to adulthood, as traits consolidate amid life experiences. For instance, research tracking Big Five traits over decades shows rank-order consistency rising from 0.40 in adolescence to 0.70 by midlife, reflecting greater resistance to change and alignment with enduring values.^[65] This maturation effect supports interventions targeting early development to enhance lifelong character integrity.

Mathematics

Characters in group theory and representation theory

In group theory and representation theory, the character of a finite-dimensional complex representation \rho: G \to \mathrm{[GL](/page/GL)}(V) of a finite group G on a vector space V is the class function \chi: G \to \mathbb{C} defined by \chi(g) = \mathrm{Tr}(\rho(g)) for each g \in G, where \mathrm{Tr} denotes the trace.^[66] This trace is independent of the choice of basis for V and constant on conjugacy classes of G, making characters class functions that encode essential structural information about the representation.^[66] The theory of characters originated with Georg Frobenius's work from 1896 to 1903, where he extended the concept from abelian groups—used since Gauss for solving x^n = 1 in finite fields—to non-abelian finite groups, motivated by Dedekind's problem of factoring the group determinant over the complexes.^[67] Frobenius showed that the group determinant factors into irreducible factors corresponding to characters, with degrees dividing |G| and multiplicities matching representation dimensions.^[67] In 1905, Issai Schur's lemma advanced the framework by stating that any endomorphism commuting with all \rho(g) on an irreducible representation must be a scalar multiple of the identity, providing a key criterion for irreducibility and enabling proofs of deeper properties like orthogonality.^[68] Irreducible characters satisfy orthogonality relations: for distinct irreducible characters \chi_i and \chi_j of G,

\sum_{g \in G} \chi_i(g) \overline{\chi_j(g)} = |G| \delta_{ij},

where \overline{\chi_j(g)} is the complex conjugate and \delta_{ij} is the Kronecker delta (equal to 1 if i = j and 0 otherwise).^[69] This relation, derived from the inner product on class functions, implies that the irreducible characters form an orthonormal basis (up to scaling by |G|) for the space of class functions on G, with dimension equal to the number of conjugacy classes.^[69] Characters play a central role in classifying representations, as two representations are isomorphic if and only if they share the same character, allowing decomposition of any representation into irreducibles via character projections.^[70] A fundamental result is that the number of irreducible representations equals the number of conjugacy classes of G, enabling complete classification via the character table.^[70] Burnside utilized characters to prove this counting theorem, which underpins applications like determining solvability for groups of order p^a q^b.^[70] For the cyclic group \mathbb{Z}_n = \langle 1 \rangle of order n, the irreducible characters are the one-dimensional representations \chi_k(m) = \exp(2\pi i k m / n) for k = 0, 1, \dots, n-1 and m \in \mathbb{Z}_n, yielding exactly n distinct characters that form a complete set under multiplication.^[71]

Characters in number theory and analysis

In number theory, a Dirichlet character modulo q is defined as a completely multiplicative function \chi: \mathbb{Z} \to \mathbb{C} that is periodic with period q and satisfies \chi(n) = 0 whenever \gcd(n, q) > 1, induced by a group homomorphism from (\mathbb{Z}/q\mathbb{Z})^\times to the multiplicative group of nonzero complex numbers \mathbb{C}^\times.^[72] Key properties include the principal character \chi_0, which equals 1 if \gcd(n, q) = 1 and 0 otherwise, serving as the trivial homomorphism.^[73] Dirichlet characters also exhibit orthogonality relations: for integers a, b coprime to q, \sum_{\chi \bmod q} \chi(a) \overline{\chi(b)} = \phi(q) \delta_{a \equiv b \pmod{q}}, where the sum runs over all characters modulo q, \phi is Euler's totient function, and \delta is the Kronecker delta; this follows from the unitarity of the character table of the finite abelian group (\mathbb{Z}/q\mathbb{Z})^\times.^[73] Dirichlet introduced these characters in 1837 to prove the infinitude of primes in arithmetic progressions, using them to construct non-trivial analytic tools for prime distribution.^[74] Riemann generalized this framework in 1859 by extending the associated series to the complex plane, paving the way for deeper analytic properties.^[75] A primary application lies in Dirichlet L-functions, defined as L(s, \chi) = \sum_{n=1}^\infty \chi(n) n^{-s} for \Re(s) > 1, which converge absolutely and admit Euler products \prod_p (1 - \chi(p) p^{-s})^{-1} over primes p not dividing q; these functions are entire for non-principal \chi and connect to the prime number theorem for arithmetic progressions, asserting that primes are asymptotically equidistributed among residue classes coprime to q.^[76] For example, modulo 4, the non-principal character is \chi(n) = 0 if n is even, and \chi(n) = (-1)^{(n-1)/2} if n is odd, distinguishing primes congruent to 1 versus 3 modulo 4 in the L-function L(s, \chi).^[72] These characters originate briefly from representations of the multiplicative group modulo q, but their periodic extension enables analytic continuation beyond finite group contexts.^[73]

Other specialized uses

Character in law and evidence

In legal contexts, particularly under the U.S. Federal Rules of Evidence, character evidence refers to testimony or other proof regarding an individual's personality traits, propensities, or moral standing, often introduced to suggest that the person acted in conformity with those traits on a specific occasion.^[77] This type of evidence is governed primarily by Rule 404, which generally prohibits its admissibility in both civil and criminal trials to avoid undue prejudice and reliance on propensity inferences.^[78] The rule stems from common law traditions that sought to prevent juries from convicting based on a defendant's general bad character rather than specific facts, a principle traceable to early English evidence practices emphasizing relevance over stereotype.^[79] Despite the general bar, exceptions allow character evidence under limited circumstances to serve non-propensity purposes. For instance, in criminal cases, a defendant may introduce evidence of their own pertinent good character traits, such as honesty or peacefulness, as a substantive defense, though this opens the door for prosecution rebuttal with contrary evidence.^[78] Similarly, evidence of a victim's character may be admissible in homicide or sexual assault prosecutions if relevant to the defendant's claim of self-defense or consent, subject to balancing under Rule 403 to exclude unduly prejudicial material.^[78] Evidence of other crimes, wrongs, or acts under Rule 404(b) is permissible not to prove character but to establish motive, intent, opportunity, preparation, plan, knowledge, identity, absence of mistake, or lack of accident. In criminal cases, the prosecution is required to provide reasonable written notice to the defendant before trial of any evidence it intends to offer under this rule, stating the specific acts and the permitted purpose, as amended effective December 1, 2020.^[78] Post-1970s reforms, including federal and state rape shield laws enacted amid the women's rights movement, further restricted the use of a victim's sexual history or chastity-related character evidence in sexual assault cases to prevent victim-blaming, with narrow exceptions only for constitutionally required relevance.^[80] Character evidence also plays a key role in assessing witness credibility and impeachment. Under Rule 608, a witness's reputation for truthfulness or untruthfulness may be attacked or supported through opinion or reputation testimony, though extrinsic evidence of specific acts is generally barred.^[81] In the good character defense context, defendants often rely on character witnesses who testify to community reputation, but cross-examination may probe the witnesses' knowledge of the defendant's past to test the reliability of their opinion.^[77] A landmark illustration is the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in Michelson v. United States (1948), where the Court upheld the prosecution's cross-examination of defense character witnesses about the defendant's prior arrests (though not convictions) for similar offenses, ruling that such inquiries were proper to gauge the witnesses' understanding of the defendant's true reputation and did not introduce inadmissible propensity evidence.^[82] This case underscored the balance between allowing rebuttal and preventing mini-trials on collateral matters, influencing modern applications of character rules in federal courts.^[82]

Character in philosophy and rhetoric

In philosophy and rhetoric, character, denoted as ethos, serves as a foundational element of persuasion, representing the speaker's perceived credibility, moral integrity, and goodwill toward the audience. Aristotle, in his Rhetoric (c. 4th century BCE), establishes ethos as one of three primary modes of persuasion (pisteis), alongside logos (rational argument) and pathos (emotional appeal). He articulates that ethos persuades "when the speech is such as to render [the speaker] worthy of confidence," deriving from the audience's impression of the speaker's intelligence, virtue, and benevolence during the discourse itself.^[83] This framework underscores ethos not as an inherent quality but as a rhetorical construct essential for effective argumentation. Philosophical traditions further elaborate character as a moral imperative intertwined with ethical governance and personal excellence. Plato, in The Republic (c. 375 BCE), emphasizes virtuous character for just rulers, positing that only philosophers—endowed with wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice—can harmonize the soul and state, ruling reluctantly for the common good rather than self-interest.^[84] The Stoics, building on this, conceptualize arete (virtue or excellence) as the sole good and the essence of moral character, achieved through rational alignment with nature via the cardinal virtues of wisdom, justice, courage, and temperance; as Zeno of Citium founded, this "living in agreement" perfects the rational soul, rendering external circumstances irrelevant to true flourishing.^[85] Rhetorical techniques for cultivating ethos often involve strategic self-presentation to foster trust and alignment. Speakers build credibility through similitude, employing inclusive pronouns like "we" to create shared identity with the audience, and deference, such as humbly citing others' expertise to signal respect and modesty.^[86] However, ethos can be subverted by fallacies like ad hominem attacks, which target an opponent's personal traits—such as alleged dishonesty or bias—instead of engaging the argument, thereby eroding credibility without substantive refutation; this tactic, rooted in Aristotelian refutation practices, diverts from rational discourse.^[87] Historically, Cicero's De Oratore (55 BCE) exemplifies ethos in practice, portraying the ideal orator as a morally wise statesman whose ethical character and philosophical knowledge enable societal guidance, blending eloquence with virtue to inspire ethical action.^[88] In contemporary settings, such as political speeches, ethos persists as a persuasive tool; for example, Donald Trump's 2017 Jerusalem address invoked personal promises and experiences to project reliability and fresh perspective, reinforcing speaker credibility amid global challenges.^[89] Central to these applications is the notion of character as dynamic and discursively constructed, shaped by linguistic choices and contextual presentation rather than fixed attributes, allowing rhetors to actively forge audience perceptions of trustworthiness.^[90]

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E. M. Forster explores the qualitative aspects of the novel, emphasizing that a mere chronological storytelling fails to create a great narrative.
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How Casablanca Builds Up Rick Blaine to the Audience
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'Casablanca' Is the Best Adaptation You've Never Known About
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The Evolution of CGI in Film: From Jurassic Park to the Avengers
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Breaking Free From Typecasting: Expanding Your Acting Horizons
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5 Reasons Why Iron Man Was the Perfect Hero To Kickstart the MCU
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The Marvel Cinematic Universe: a realistic fictional world
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Friends | Rotten Tomatoes
Rating 78% (92) Cast & Crew ; Jennifer Aniston thumbnail image. Jennifer Aniston. Rachel Green ; Courteney Cox thumbnail image. Courteney Cox. Monica Geller Bing ; Lisa Kudrow ...Season 1 · Season 10 · Season 2 · Season 9
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Aesop's Fables: Analysis of Major Characters | Research Starters
The major characters in these fables often symbolize specific traits and human behaviors. The fox, for instance, is frequently depicted as cunning and deceitful ...
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Examples and Definition of Allegory in Literature - Literary Devices
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What is Unicode?
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UTS #51: Unicode Emoji
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Nov 15, 2023 · the totality of an individual's attributes and personality traits, particularly their characteristic moral, social, and religious attitudes.
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[PDF] MORAL STAGE THEORY
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Representation theory was created by Frobenius about 100 years ago. We describe the background that led to the problem which motivated Frobenius to define.
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[PDF] Representation Theory and Burnside's Theorem
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Let G be a finite cyclic group of size n with a chosen generator γ. There are exactly n characters of G, each determined by sending γ to the different nth ...
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character evidence | Wex | US Law | LII / Legal Information Institute
Character evidence is evidence on an individual’s personality traits, propensities, or moral standing. It is generally inadmissible in criminal cases unless ...
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This article focuses on rape shield rules throughout the United States, high- lighting how these evidence rules have been stretched beyond their original.
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Rule 608. A Witness's Character for Truthfulness or Untruthfulness
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In 1947 petitioner Michelson was convicted of bribing a federal revenue agent.1 The Government proved a large payment by accused to the agent.
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Plato: ethics and politics in The Republic
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Stoicism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Summary of each segment:
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Using rhetorical appeals to credibility, logic, and emotions to ... - NIH
May 7, 2018 · A writer's credibility can be bolstered using a number of rhetorical techniques including similitude and deference.
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Cicero - De Oratore
### Summary of Passages on Moral Character of the Ideal Orator in Cicero's *De Oratore*
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Ethos, Character, and Discoursal Self in Persuasive Legal Writing
In presenting character as an active construction of the speech—character as a representation—Aristotle finds rhetorical ethos to be sufficient.