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Interleaved 2 of 5

Interleaved 2 of 5 (ITF) is a continuous, linear symbology that encodes pairs of numeric digits (0-9) using interleaved bars and spaces, where each pair is represented by five bars and five spaces, with two wide and three narrow elements per character. Developed in 1972 by David Allais at as part of the Code 2 of 5 family, it requires an even number of digits for encoding, with odd-length messages padded by a , and supports bidirectional scanning through distinct start and stop patterns. Standardized under the Uniform Symbology Specification (USS) by the Automatic Identification Manufacturers (AIM) and defined in ISO/IEC 16390, this high-density symbology uses a bar-to-space width of approximately 3:1 and does not mandate a , though a modulo 10 option is available for error detection. Commonly applied in industrial settings such as shipping, warehouse labeling, and , Interleaved 2 of 5 serves as the basis for the used on cartons and packaging, offering efficient space usage for purely numeric data compared to alphanumeric symbologies like Code 39. It has been utilized commercially on products like and in automated identification systems where variable-length numeric strings up to high densities (e.g., 18 characters per inch) are needed, with minimum quiet zones of 10 times the narrow element width to ensure reliable scanning. The encoding scheme employs a pseudo-binary for each , where bars encode the first digit of a pair and spaces the second, enabling compact without fixed length limits beyond practical scanning constraints. Despite its simplicity and error-correcting interleaving, it is considered less robust against certain scanning errors compared to symbologies with mandatory checksums, making optional check digits recommended for critical applications.

History

Invention

Interleaved 2 of 5, a high-density numeric symbology, was invented in October 1972 by Dr. David Allais, then vice president of engineering at Intermec Corporation (formerly known as ID Systems). Allais developed the code during a business trip to , where he met with representatives from Computer Identics, a company seeking an efficient solution for scanning labels on corrugated cartons moving along conveyors using a fixed vertical beam. He sketched the initial specifications for the symbology while flying back to , aiming to create a compact alternative to existing 2 of 5 codes that could encode pairs of digits more densely without requiring extensive modifications to printer hardware. The primary motivation behind the invention was practical and commercial: to enable Intermec to sell barcode printers to Computer Identics by addressing the need for a symbology that provided greater data capacity in a smaller space, suitable for industrial applications like warehousing and logistics tracking. This built directly on earlier 2 of 5 codes, which were numeric-only but less efficient, by introducing an interleaving mechanism to pair and encode digits more compactly, thus improving overall density for heavy industry uses such as inventory management on shipping containers. The creation of Interleaved 2 of 5 occurred amid the accelerating evolution of technology following the 1952 patent for a linear system by and Bernard Silver, which laid the foundational concept for automated data encoding. By the early 1970s, growing demands for in and operations—driven by advancements in and scanning hardware—spurred innovations like Allais's work, positioning Interleaved 2 of 5 as a key step toward more efficient numeric data handling in industrial settings.

Standardization

Interleaved 2 of 5 was formally adopted by the Uniform Code Council (UCC, now part of ) in the early 1980s for encoding shipping container labels in the grocery industry, enabling efficient tracking through numeric pairing in symbols. This adoption built on the symbology's invention by David Allais in 1972, standardizing its use for carton identification to streamline operations. Key international standards emerged to define the symbology's structure and implementation. ISO/IEC 16390, first published in 1999 and revised in 2007, specifies requirements for the general Interleaved 2 of 5 symbology, including symbol characteristics, data encoding, and decoding processes to ensure interoperability across systems. Complementing this, 's General Specifications outline the ITF-14 variant, which encodes 14-digit Global Trade Item Numbers (GTINs) on cartons and shipping units, mandating fixed-length formatting and integration with GS1 identification keys for global commerce. The evolved to address scanning reliability and needs. Early specifications emphasized low- printing with wider bars for easier in varied conditions, while later refinements supported high- versions for compact applications, increasing data efficiency without compromising accuracy. In the ITF-14 variant, bearer bars were incorporated as vertical extensions around the symbol to prevent partial scans and misreads caused by distortions or damage. Related developments include variants adapted for specific sectors. In the 1990s, Deutsche Post introduced Identcode and Leitcode as specialized Interleaved 2 of 5 implementations for postal tracking, encoding customer and routing data to facilitate and within the German postal system.

Encoding Scheme

Digit Encoding

Interleaved 2 of 5 is a numeric-only barcode symbology that encodes digits 0 through 9 using a 2-of-5 , where each is represented by five consecutive elements—either bars or spaces—with exactly two wide elements and three narrow elements. The positions of these elements correspond to predefined values: 1 for the first position, 2 for the second, 4 for the third, 7 for the fourth, and 0 for the fifth, where a wide element in the fifth position equates to the width of two narrow elements for a total unit width consistent with 11 modules across the encoding structure. This assignment ensures that the sum of the values for the wide positions directly corresponds to the value (with 0 represented as a sum of 11). The specific encoding patterns for each digit are defined by the binary representation indicating wide (1) and narrow (0) elements, typically applied to bars for the first digit in a pair and to spaces for the second. The following table summarizes the patterns:
DigitBinary PatternBar/Space Pattern (n = narrow, W = wide)
000110nnWWn
110001WnnnW
201001nWnnW
311000WWnnn
400101nnWnW
510100WnWnn
601100nWWnn
700011nnnWW
810010WnnWn
901010nWnWn
These patterns are standardized in ISO/IEC 16390:2007. The 2-of-5 structure provides an inherent self-checking property, as each digit must have exactly two wide elements; errors such as single substitutions or transpositions typically result in invalid patterns with fewer or more wide elements, thereby reducing the likelihood of undetected single-digit errors during scanning. This property enhances reliability without requiring an explicit for basic implementations, though optional check digits may be added in full symbols.

Pairing and Interleaving

Interleaved 2 of 5 barcodes require an even number of digits for encoding, as the symbology processes data in pairs. If the input string has an odd number of digits, a is added to ensure an even count, allowing the data to be properly paired without altering the original numeric value. This padding mechanism maintains compatibility while enabling the interleaving structure to function correctly. The core of the encoding lies in the interleaving process, where each pair of digits—denoted as the first digit A and the second digit B—is represented by 10 alternating elements: five encoding A and five interleaved encoding B. Each 's representation follows the 2-of-5 pattern, consisting of five modules with exactly two wide elements and three narrow ones, but applied separately to bars for A and spaces for B. This results in a compact, continuous sequence starting with a bar, followed by space, bar, space, and so on, forming a single "character" for the pair. For example, to encode the pair "12", the first digit 1 is encoded in bars as wide-narrow-narrow-narrow-wide (wnnnw), while the second digit 2 is encoded in spaces as narrow-wide-narrow-narrow-wide (nwnnw). These are merged into the interleaved pattern: wide bar, narrow space, narrow bar, wide space, narrow bar, narrow space, narrow bar, narrow space, wide bar, wide space. This creates a dense representation of the two digits within 10 modules. For longer numeric strings, multiple pairs are handled sequentially by applying the interleaving process to each consecutive pair, resulting in a continuous chain of -space alternations across the entire data payload. This sequential approach ensures the reads as a unified stream without interruptions between pairs.

Symbol Structure

Start and Stop Patterns

The start pattern in Interleaved 2 of 5 barcodes consists of four consecutive narrow s, structured as a narrow , followed by a narrow , a narrow , and another narrow . This sequence, often denoted as "nnnn" in width terms, immediately precedes the first encoded data and serves to initialize the scanning process by establishing the nominal width of narrow elements for the reader. By providing a consistent reference for sizing, the start pattern ensures accurate decoding of subsequent interleaved pairs, which are represented through alternating s and s. The stop pattern, in contrast, features a wide bar followed by a narrow space and a narrow bar, conventionally represented as "Wnn." Positioned at the right end of the symbol adjacent to the final space of the least significant digit pair, this pattern signals termination of the data sequence and is followed by a trailing quiet zone. The inclusion of the wide bar imparts directionality to the , preventing misinterpretation if scanned in reverse, as the reversed stop would not match the all-narrow start pattern and would disrupt . This design enhances reliability in variable-speed scanning environments. In implementations like ITF-14, a standardized subset of Interleaved 2 of 5 used for shipping and logistics applications, the start and stop patterns adhere to the same structures to maintain , though the as a whole incorporates a mandatory modulo-10 and fixed 14-digit encoding for compliance with global requirements. These boundary patterns remain essential for robust performance across diverse printing and scanning conditions.

Overall Formatting

The complete Interleaved 2 of 5 symbol is assembled as a leading quiet zone, followed by the start pattern, a sequence of interleaved digit pairs representing the encoded data, the stop pattern, and a trailing quiet zone. This structure ensures reliable scanning by providing clear boundaries and separating the symbol from surrounding elements. The quiet zones must be blank spaces to prevent interference from adjacent printing or materials, and each must be at least 10 times the width of a narrow element (10X minimum). An optional check digit may be included at the end of the data to enhance error detection, though it is not part of the core standard for Interleaved 2 of 5 but is recommended for applications requiring verification. For variants like ITF-14, the is mandatory and calculated using the MOD 10 on the preceding 13 digits per standards. The algorithm involves assigning alternating weights of 3 and 1 to the digits starting from the rightmost position (3 for the rightmost digit, 1 for the next to the left, and so on), summing the products, finding the remainder when divided by 10, and setting the check digit to the value that makes the total sum divisible by 10 (i.e., $10 - (sum \mod 10) if not zero, or 0 otherwise). To illustrate, consider encoding a GTIN-12 (629104150021) in ITF-14 format, padded with two leading zeros to form the 13-digit prefix 0062910415002. Apply the weights from the right: \begin{align*} &2 \times 3 = 6, \\ &0 \times 1 = 0, \\ &0 \times 3 = 0, \\ &5 \times 1 = 5, \\ &1 \times 3 = 3, \\ &4 \times 1 = 4, \\ &0 \times 3 = 0, \\ &1 \times 1 = 1, \\ &9 \times 3 = 27, \\ &2 \times 1 = 2, \\ &6 \times 3 = 18, \\ &0 \times 1 = 0, \\ &0 \times 3 = 0. \end{align*} The sum is 66. Then, $66 \mod 10 = 6, so the is $10 - 6 = 4. The full 14-digit sequence is 00629104150024, which is then interleaved in 7 pairs for the . In certain variants such as ITF-14, bearer bars—horizontal lines extending above and below the symbol or forming a full around it—are added to prevent misreads from partial scans or uneven lighting. These bars aid in maintaining scan reliability in environments without altering the core data encoding.

Physical Specifications

Dimensions

The dimensions of an Interleaved 2 of 5 are critical for ensuring reliable scanning across various environments, with specifications defined to accommodate both manual and automated readers while maintaining readability. The nominal width of the narrow bar or space, known as the X-dimension, ranges from 0.191 mm (0.0075 inches) to 1.02 mm, depending on the scanning method; for automated scanning in applications such as ITF-14, the X-dimension must be between 0.495 mm and 1.02 mm to support high-speed conveyor systems. The ratio of wide elements (N-dimension) to narrow elements is standardized between 2.0:1 and 3.0:1, with a typical value of 2.75:1 for optimal performance; however, a minimum ratio of 2.2:1 is recommended for enhanced reliability, particularly in denser symbols with smaller X-dimensions. In ITF-14 applications, bar height requirements are a minimum of 13 mm for non-automated scanning environments and 32 mm for automated settings to prevent misreads from tilt or distance variations; for general use under the specification, the height must maintain an of at least 15% of the total symbol length or 6.35 mm (0.25 inches), whichever is greater, to ensure sufficient vertical coverage for the interleaved structure. The overall symbol length is variable, determined by the number of encoded digit pairs, but must include minimum quiet zones of 10X on each side to isolate the from surrounding elements and facilitate accurate start/stop detection. These parameters collectively ensure the symbology's scannability, with tolerances for element width variations scaled to the X-dimension and N-ratio for practical printing and verification.

Printing Guidelines

Producing reliable Interleaved 2 of 5 barcodes requires careful selection of substrates and inks to ensure and scannability. White labels or non-reflective surfaces such as natural kraft, mottled white, or full linerboard are recommended, as they provide optimal without interference from reflection or ink smearing. Direct printing on materials should be avoided due to potential ink and issues; instead, apply labels for better . Inks in black, dark blue, or dark green are preferred to achieve sufficient contrast against the , ensuring the bars and spaces are distinctly differentiable by . Tolerance levels during printing are critical to maintain symbol integrity, particularly regarding edge quality and dimensional accuracy. Edge raggedness should be minimized by undercutting the film master to prevent ink spread, with general tolerances aligning to ISO parameters where defects, including non-uniformity, must not exceed levels that degrade the overall grade below 0.5. Bar growth compensation is essential, as printing processes like can cause ink to spread, widening bars; artwork must be adjusted via bar width reduction (BWR) in the film master to counteract this gain, typically verified through test prints measuring deviations up to 0.1 mm. For ITF-14 symbols, bar width tolerances range from ±0.13 mm for standard sizes to ±0.305 mm on substrates, ensuring the narrow-to-wide remains between 2.25:1 and 3:1. Specialized tools and fonts facilitate accurate generation of Interleaved 2 of 5 symbols compliant with standards. IDAutomation ITF fonts, for example, maintain a fixed narrow-to-wide ratio of 2.75:1, falling within the acceptable 2.25:1 to 3:1 range, and include bearer bars for enhanced print stability. Software such as -certified generators (e.g., TEC-IT or Azalea I2of5Tools) ensures proper encoding, quiet zones, and compliance verification before production. A 40-power is recommended for inspecting masters to confirm dimensional accuracy within ±5 microns. Verification of printed symbols follows ISO/IEC 15416, which grades quality based on parameters including decode (successful data extraction), (edge contrast ratio ≥0.70 for top grades), and defects (non-uniformity ≤0.15 for high scores). For ITF-14, a minimum overall grade of 0.5 (using a 20-mil for X-dimensions ≥0.635 mm) is required, with 10-scan averages reported in the format g.g/aa/www; tools like NIST-traceable verifiers (e.g., RJS 5000) assess these to identify issues like voids or excessive growth. Symbols achieving grade 1.5 or better on non-ideal substrates like natural kraft ensure reliable scanning in environments.

Applications

Logistics and Warehousing

Interleaved 2 of 5 barcodes play a central role in and by encoding numeric identifiers for shipping containers, labels, and tracking systems, typically using even-length digit strings to represent item counts, locations, or shipment sequences. These barcodes facilitate rapid and of in high-volume environments, such as centers, where they are scanned to update inventory records and route packages efficiently. A key variant, ITF-14, encodes 14-digit Global Trade Item Numbers (GTINs) on outer cartons and shipping units, comprising an indicator digit for packaging level, the company prefix, item reference, and a for error detection. This format, standardized by for global supply chain interoperability, is printed directly on corrugated cardboard to identify cases and pallets without requiring separate labels. In contexts, Interleaved 2 of 5 offers high , allowing long numeric sequences to fit on compact labels, which supports space-constrained applications like tagging. It integrates seamlessly with automated sorters and conveyor systems in centers, enabling tracking and reducing manual handling errors. The symbology gained widespread adoption in grocery and industrial shipping during the following its endorsement by the Uniform Code Council (UCC, now US) in 1982 for use on shipping containers in . This standardization accelerated its integration into supply chains, particularly for bulk goods movement.

Specialized Uses

In postal services, variants of the Interleaved 2 of 5 symbology are employed for precise and . The Identcode, used primarily for tracking letters and parcels, encodes 11 numeric digits representing the primary distribution center identifier (2 digits), customer ID (3 digits), and mailing number (6 digits), followed by a 10 for . Similarly, the Leitcode facilitates automated and by encoding 13 numeric digits—comprising a 5-digit , 3-digit street identifier, 3-digit house number, and 2-digit —appended with a 10 . Both symbologies adapt the Interleaved 2 of 5 structure to include fixed-length data and error-checking, enabling high-speed scanning in . In the photography industry, Interleaved 2 of 5 barcodes appeared on canisters starting in the early , encoding a 6-digit numeric identifier that combined the manufacturer's code, type and details (via the number), and number of exposures. This application, standardized under ISO 1007, supported automated processing in development labs until the early , when reduced its prevalence. Interleaved 2 of 5 finds niche use in library systems for numeric item tracking, where it ranks among the most common symbologies alongside and , often in 14-digit formats with a 10 or 43 to ensure scan accuracy during circulation. In , it serves for batch and component tracking, allowing numeric of parts in assembly lines through high-density encoding of even-length digit pairs. However, its adoption remains rare in retail environments, where the Universal Product Code (UPC) is preferred for its alphanumeric capabilities and widespread scanner compatibility. Despite these specialized roles, Interleaved 2 of 5 has declined in high-volume tracking scenarios, increasingly supplanted by 2D symbologies like , which offer greater data capacity, error correction, and compactness for complex serial numbers in industries such as automotive and .

Advantages and Limitations

Benefits

Interleaved 2 of 5 (ITF) offers high data density by encoding pairs of numeric digits using just five bars and five spaces, enabling compact representations for long numeric strings. This structure allows ITF to encode numeric data in approximately half the space required by for equivalent information, making it particularly suitable for space-constrained applications like packaging labels. The interleaving of one digit's bars with the next digit's spaces contributes to this efficiency, supporting smaller label sizes or more digits within the same footprint compared to other linear symbologies. The symbology's inherent self-checking property, derived from its 2-of-5 encoding where exactly two of every five elements are wide, detects certain single errors, such as substitutions that alter the number of wide elements, without requiring an additional digit. This built-in error detection enhances robustness in industrial settings, such as dirty or damaged environments, where barcodes may be exposed to wear during handling. By verifying each character's integrity independently, ITF reduces the risk of undetected reading errors, promoting reliable data capture in high-volume operations. Scanning reliability is bolstered by ITF's continuous format, which relies on clear wide-to-narrow contrasts for precise decoding, and its allowance for wider element widths compared to some other symbologies that facilitate reading from longer distances. In the ITF-14 variant, bearer bars surround the symbol to prevent short-scan errors caused by skewed beams entering or exiting the edges, thereby improving overall read rates in automated systems. These features ensure consistent performance even on uneven surfaces like corrugated cardboard. The numeric-only focus and straightforward structure of ITF contribute to its cost-effectiveness, minimizing complexity in printing processes and scanner hardware tailored for environments. This simplicity allows for economical implementation in applications, where only digit encoding is needed, without the overhead of alphanumeric support.

Drawbacks

Interleaved 2 of 5 barcodes are restricted to encoding numeric data only, excluding alphabetic characters and symbols, which limits their versatility in applications requiring mixed data types compared to more comprehensive symbologies like Code 128. This symbology mandates an even number of digits for proper interleaving of pairs, necessitating the addition of a for odd-length numeric strings, which can waste encoding space or require additional data preparation steps to maintain compatibility. Unlike many modern barcodes, Interleaved 2 of 5 does not require a , relying instead on an optional modulo 10 that implementations may omit, thereby elevating the risk of undetected scanning errors in systems without verification. Scanning challenges further compound these limitations, as the interleaved structure can lead to "skip reading," where digits are omitted—particularly during angled scans—resulting in partial data capture, such as a four-digit code like "3852" being misread as "38." Additionally, partial scans that miss the start pattern can increase vulnerability to misreads on longer codes or with suboptimal orientation, while the potential for "embedded codes" within the pattern heightens misread propensity without supplemental features like bearer bars. These issues render Interleaved 2 of 5 less ideal for high-speed retail environments, where symbologies like UPC demand greater reliability and speed in point-of-sale scanning.

Comparisons

To Other Numeric Symbologies

Interleaved 2 of 5 (ITF) offers higher data density than UPC and EAN symbologies, particularly for encoding longer numeric strings on shipping cartons, where it supports variable lengths without mandatory human-readable interpretations below the , making it suitable for industrial packaging applications. In contrast, UPC-A and EAN-13 incorporate fixed check digits, start/stop guard patterns, and center guards to facilitate rapid point-of-sale scanning in environments, along with human-readable digits typically printed below for verification. While UPC/EAN achieve reliable readability through these structured elements, their wider bars and spaces can reduce overall density compared to ITF, especially in low-resolution printing scenarios like dot-matrix, where ITF packs data more efficiently. As part of the system, ITF-14 specifically encodes 14-digit GTINs for trade units like cartons, differing from the 12- or 13-digit GTINs in UPC/EAN used for items. Compared to the original Standard 2 of 5 (also known as or Industrial 2 of 5), Interleaved 2 of 5 achieves double the density by interleaving pairs of digits—one encoded in the bars and one in the intervening spaces—allowing two digits per symbol rather than one, which requires an even number of digits but enhances efficiency for numeric data streams. The original 2 of 5 uses a , lower-density structure with fixed-width spaces and encodes single digits via sets of five bars and four spaces, making it simpler to implement but less compact for applications needing more data per unit length. This interleaving in ITF transforms the continuous code into a self-checking format without altering the basic "2 of 5" wide-bar pattern, as standardized in ISO/IEC 16390, while the original remains a legacy symbology with limited adoption due to its inefficiency. Interleaved 2 of 5 serves general and warehousing with its width-modulated bars for compact numeric encoding, whereas POSTNET, developed by the , employs height-modulated bars of uniform width for specialized postal sorting, encoding ZIP codes or delivery points in formats like 5-, 9-, or 11-digit sequences. ITF's variable bar widths enable higher density in linear applications beyond , but POSTNET's fixed-width, variable-height design optimizes automated postal equipment readability, though it results in longer symbols less suited for non-postal uses. While both draw from 2 of 5 principles, POSTNET's prioritizes error detection in high-volume processing over ITF's focus on general density.

To Alphanumeric Symbologies

Interleaved 2 of 5 (ITF) offers higher numeric density compared to , encoding pairs of digits in a more compact format that allows for shorter symbols when handling purely numeric data. For instance, ITF can achieve up to approximately 11 characters per inch on high-resolution printers, surpassing 's maximum density of about 9.8 characters per inch. However, supports alphanumeric characters, including uppercase letters, numbers, and select symbols, along with explicit start and stop patterns denoted by asterisks (*), enabling it to handle mixed data types that ITF cannot encode. Additionally, ITF incorporates a self-checking mechanism through its interleaved structure, which detects certain and errors without requiring a separate , whereas relies on an optional modulo-43 for error detection. In comparison to Code 128, ITF provides similar density for numeric data, as both symbologies can encode two digits per codeword—ITF through bar-space interleaving and Code 128 via its subset C—but Code 128 extends to the full ASCII character set across subsets A, B, and C, accommodating letters, symbols, and control characters for greater versatility. ITF's simpler encoding scheme makes it more straightforward and cost-effective for applications limited to numbers, such as pairing odd and even fields in warehouse identifiers, but it lacks the flexibility of Code 128, which includes mandatory check digits and function codes for enhanced error correction and data structuring. In modern inventory systems, Code 128 has largely supplanted ITF due to its ability to manage alphanumeric payloads efficiently, reducing the need for multiple symbology types. The key trade-offs between ITF and these alphanumeric symbologies center on data requirements and implementation costs: ITF remains economical for numeric-heavy tasks like carton labeling in , where space savings from higher density justify its limitations, but is preferred for environments involving mixed alphanumeric data, such as shipping manifests or product descriptions, offering better overall adaptability despite slightly more complex encoding.

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