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Intermission

An intermission is an interval between the parts of an entertainment, such as the acts of a play or sections of a film.^[1] The practice traces its roots to ancient Greek tragedy, where choral odes known as stasima served as interludes between dramatic episodes, allowing the chorus to comment on the action while providing structural pauses in the performance.^[2] These elements evolved into more defined breaks in later theatrical traditions, with the English term "intermission"—derived from Latin intermissio, meaning "a leaving off" or "pause"—first appearing in the early 15th century for general temporary cessations and specifically applied to performance breaks by 1854.^[3] In modern theater, particularly on Broadway, intermissions typically last 10 to 20 minutes, enabling audiences to rest, socialize, use restrooms, and purchase concessions, while allowing stage crews to change sets, costumes, and lighting for subsequent acts.^[4]^[5] This dual purpose—practical for production logistics and beneficial for viewer engagement—helps sustain attention during longer shows exceeding 90 minutes.^[6] In cinema, intermissions originated in the early 20th century as a technical necessity for changing film reels on projectors, as seen in multi-reel productions like The Loves of Queen Elizabeth (1912).^[7] Technological advances, such as dual projectors in the early 1900s and platter systems in the 1960s and 1970s, eliminated the need for such breaks in many Western contexts by the 1980s, but they persisted in regions like India for economic reasons, including concession sales and advertising revenue during the "samosa break."^[7]^[8] Today, intermissions remain common in epic films or cultural screenings in countries such as Egypt, Turkey, Iceland, and Switzerland, often enhancing narrative structure by dividing stories into exposition and climax phases.^[7]^[9] Across performing arts, including opera and musical concerts, intermissions foster reflection and accessibility, though some contemporary works opt for continuous formats to maintain momentum.^[5]

Overview

Definition

An intermission is a deliberate, scheduled pause inserted between acts or parts of a multi-act performance or event, such as a theatrical play, opera, concert, or film screening, enabling audiences and performers to rest, refresh, or facilitate transitions in the production.^[1]^[10]^[11] The word "intermission" originates from the Latin intermissio, denoting an interruption or suspension, and entered Middle English around the 15th century as a general term for a temporary lapse or break in continuity; its specialized use in theater contexts, referring to pauses between acts, dates to approximately 1854.^[3]^[1] Intermissions are characterized by a predetermined duration, commonly 10 to 20 minutes, during which venue lights are typically raised to encourage movement.^[10]^[12] They are announced beforehand in the event program or via pre-show announcements and ushers, and initiated by signals like the end of an act, often following applause.^[13] This structured break is distinct from shorter, informal pauses, such as those for applause after scenes or minor set shifts.^[1]

Purposes and Functions

Intermissions in live performances primarily serve practical purposes for both audiences and performers. For audiences, they offer essential opportunities to use restrooms, stretch legs, and relax after prolonged sitting, while also allowing time to purchase refreshments.^[14] For performers, these breaks enable rest, costume changes, and preparation for the next segment of the show.^[15] Additionally, intermissions contribute to narrative pacing by inserting a deliberate pause that can build suspense and anticipation between acts.^[16] From a psychological and physiological perspective, intermissions help reduce audience fatigue associated with extended sitting and concentration, promoting physical comfort and mental refreshment.^[17] They facilitate the digestion of complex content by providing a moment for reflection and processing of the performance so far.^[15] Furthermore, these intervals encourage social interaction among viewers, such as discussing the show with companions, which enhances communal engagement and overall enjoyment.^[14] Economically, intermissions play a key role in commercial venues by creating a dedicated window for concessions sales, which often represent the primary profit source for theaters due to high margins—typically around 80% on food and drink.^[18] This revenue opportunity is particularly vital, as ticket sales alone frequently yield lower profitability after revenue sharing with producers or distributors. The length of intermissions varies based on factors like venue capacity, performance duration, and cultural norms, with a standard of 15 to 20 minutes common in many Western theater settings to balance practicality and pacing.^[17] In larger venues or longer shows, breaks may extend slightly to accommodate crowds, while cultural practices in some regions incorporate shorter or more frequent pauses tailored to audience expectations.

History

Origins in Ancient Performances

The earliest precursors to intermissions appeared in ancient Greek theater during the Dionysian festivals of the 5th century BCE, where performances of tragedies and comedies incorporated structural pauses known as choral odes or stasima. These interludes, positioned between episodes of dialogue, allowed the chorus to reposition on stage, reflect on the action, and provide commentary, while also giving principal actors time to change costumes or roles offstage.^[19] Aristotle's Poetics outlines this division of tragedy into prologue, episodes, choral songs (including parode and stasimon), and exode, emphasizing how the choric elements punctuated the narrative to heighten emotional impact and facilitate logistical needs during the multi-day festivals.^[20] Roman adaptations of these practices extended intermissions to both theatrical and spectacle events, particularly in amphitheaters from the 1st century BCE onward. In gladiatorial games and venationes (beast hunts), which often spanned an entire day with multiple bouts, interludes served logistical purposes such as clearing the arena of debris, removing casualties, and preparing for the next event, ensuring the spectacle's continuity and safety.^[21] Vitruvius, in De Architectura (Book V), describes the design of Roman theaters with interchangeable scenic elements for tragic, comic, and satyric scenes, implying planned breaks to facilitate scene changes and maintain the flow of multi-act performances. Non-Western traditions paralleled these developments, as seen in ancient Chinese performances during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), where variety shows known as baixi ("hundred entertainments") combined music, dance, acrobatics, and dramatic skits.^[22]

Development in the 19th and 20th Centuries

In the 19th century, the adoption of gas lighting in European theaters facilitated extended performance durations and more elaborate productions, contributing to the standardization of intermissions as structured breaks. Gas lighting systems were first installed in major London venues like the Lyceum Theatre by 1817, allowing for brighter illumination and scene transitions without frequent candle replacements, which in turn supported longer plays typical of the Victorian era. By the 1840s, theaters in Victorian London, such as those along the Strand, commonly incorporated 15-minute intermissions to accommodate audience rest, technical adjustments, and emerging commercial opportunities like the sale of refreshments, including ice cream introduced around 1849.^[23]^[24] During the early 20th century, intermissions evolved with the rise of vaudeville houses and nickelodeon theaters, where they served both practical and economic functions amid the integration of short films. From the 1890s to the 1920s, vaudeville programs featuring motion pictures as "chasers" included breaks between acts, which nickelodeons (emerging around 1905) adapted for reel changes and high audience turnover in continuous showings lasting 15 minutes to an hour. These pauses boosted profits by enabling "candy butchers" to sell peanuts, popcorn, and candy, with independent operators netting significant profits in small towns by the 1920s; however, upscale vaudeville chains like those managed by Edward Albee restricted certain items like chewing gum to maintain cleanliness.^[25]^[26]^[26] Post-World War II, intermissions in U.S. theaters were influenced by labor regulations and technological advancements, balancing performer welfare with commercial imperatives. In the 1940s, union disputes involving the Actors' Equity Association and theater staff addressed working conditions around concessions, including opposition from ushers to doubling as sellers, while broader rules ensured breaks for performer rest amid longer shows. The widespread installation of air conditioning by the mid-1930s, accelerating post-1946 with government grants, diminished the need for intermissions as cooling breaks but preserved them for commerce, as seen in drive-ins where 10-15 minute pauses accounted for 75% of refreshment sales and contributed to profits rising from $15 million in 1949 to $108 million by 1959.^[26]^[26] Globally, the 1920s saw intermissions integrated into Soviet theaters as part of ideological and operational reforms, contrasting with capitalist models focused on revenue. In the USSR, audience research conducted time-motion studies (khronometrazh) that analyzed the length of pauses and entr'actes to optimize theatrical efficiency and align with state goals of mass cultural education, emphasizing structured breaks for reflection on revolutionary themes rather than commercial sales.^[27]

In Theater

European and Western Traditions

In the Shakespearean era of late 16th-century Elizabethan theater, act breaks in plays functioned as intermissions, during which instrumental music was performed to mark the pauses in the dramatic action.^[28] These intervals provided opportunities for musical interludes, often featuring carefully selected pieces to entertain the audience and transition between acts. Additionally, jigs—lively comic dances and farces—were a common tradition at the conclusion of performances, serving as an energetic finale rather than occurring strictly within act breaks, as evidenced by stage directions and historical accounts from the period.^[29] During the 19th century, intermissions in European opera houses became formalized social rituals, particularly in prestigious venues like Milan's Teatro alla Scala, which opened in 1778 and hosted premieres of major works by composers such as Giuseppe Verdi.^[30] These intervals allowed elite audiences to engage in networking and conversation, reinforcing the opera's status as a venue for high society; strict timing ensured orderly returns to seats, with durations typically aligned to modern standards of around 20 minutes.^[31] In contemporary Broadway theater, the standard convention is a single intermission of 15 to 20 minutes midway through a production, during which house lights are raised, announcements are made, and patrons can visit concessions or restrooms.^[32] This structure supports the two-act format prevalent in most musicals and plays, balancing audience comfort with narrative pacing.^[12] Variations emerged in 20th-century experimental theater, particularly during the 1960s avant-garde movement, where shorter pauses or the elimination of intermissions became common to sustain immersion and challenge traditional bourgeois conventions.^[33] Influenced by political protests and a rejection of mainstream structures, groups like the Open Theatre prioritized continuous flow, using minimal breaks to heighten emotional intensity without disrupting the audience's engagement.^[34]

Asian and Non-Western Traditions

In Japanese Kabuki theater, originating in the early 17th century during the Edo period, intermissions known as tsunagi follow major acts, providing essential pauses in the multi-act structure. These breaks, typically lasting 15–30 minutes, enable audiences to enjoy tea services or bento meals sold within the theater, while performers adjust elaborate costumes and makeup for subsequent scenes. This practice enhances the communal and immersive experience of Kabuki, balancing spectacle with practicality in performances that can span four hours including intervals.^[35]^[36]^[37] Noh drama, developed in the 14th century by Kan'ami and Zeami, features rare and subtle pauses between linked plays within a full program, often filled by Kyōgen comic interludes rather than overt rests. These Kyōgen segments, performed on the same stage, offer humorous relief from Noh's solemn, spiritual intensity, underscoring a sense of ritualistic continuity over mere audience respite. A traditional Noh program includes five main plays interspersed with four Kyōgen pieces, maintaining the form's meditative pacing without disrupting its ethereal flow.^[38]^[39] In Indian classical traditions like Kathakali, which emerged in the 16th century in Kerala, intermissions during multi-hour performances accommodate the intricate adjustments to costumes and makeup essential for depicting diverse characters from Hindu epics. These pauses, integrated into the ritualistic all-night format of traditional stagings (now often condensed to 2-3 hours), allow performers to transform using layered fabrics, headdresses, and facial paints that symbolize moral archetypes, preserving the art's dramatic depth and visual symbolism.^[40]^[41] African oral traditions, exemplified by pre-colonial griot performances across West Africa, incorporate informal breaks during extended storytelling sessions that can last hours or days, fostering community engagement and reflection on shared history. Griots, hereditary custodians of genealogies and epics, use these natural pauses to interact with audiences, improvise praises, or adapt narratives.^[42]^[43]

In Cinema

Early Film Exhibitions

In the nickelodeon era of the early 1900s to 1910s, small U.S. venues typically screened short films in programs lasting 10 to 20 minutes, with brief 2- to 5-minute intermissions between reels to allow projectionists to change films and facilitate audience turnover. These pauses, often lasting up to 10 minutes in busier theaters, served practical purposes amid the technical limitations of hand-cranked projectors and flammable nitrate stock, while also enabling quick concessions sales in the compact, storefront-style nickelodeons that charged a nickel per admission.^[44]^[45] Silent film serials in the 1910s, such as Pathé's popular chapter plays like The Perils of Pauline (1914), incorporated intermissions at cliffhanger endings to build suspense and encourage weekly returns, with reel changes providing natural breaks of several minutes during which audiences discussed plot twists. Trade journals like Moving Picture World promoted these pauses as key to serial success, noting how the 12- to 15-minute reels ended on dramatic highs, turning technical necessities into narrative devices that heightened engagement in urban theaters.^[46] As films transitioned to longer features in the 1920s, intermissions extended to 10-15 minutes in grand picture palaces, allowing live orchestras to perform overtures, entr'actes, or resets between acts, as seen in venues like Grauman's Chinese Theatre, which opened in 1927 with elaborate stage prologues integrated into screenings. These breaks enhanced the theatrical spectacle, drawing on 19th-century stage traditions to accommodate the growing runtime of features up to two hours.^[47] Early adoption varied globally; in European cinemas like those in 1910s Paris, intermissions often featured newsreels from Pathé Journal (launched 1908) as programmed shorts between fiction reels, providing timely updates and diversifying content in multi-reel shows.^[48] In contrast, Asian screenings, such as in Japan with benshi-narrated films from the 1910s onward, blended cinema with live storytelling traditions in venues like Tokyo's early nickelodeon-style halls.^[49]

Modern Multiplex Practices

In contemporary multiplex cinemas, particularly for Hollywood blockbusters exceeding two and a half hours, theaters have increasingly adopted optional intermissions of 10 to 15 minutes to enhance audience comfort and drive revenue. These breaks, often positioned at narrative lulls, allow patrons to visit concessions or restrooms, addressing complaints about marathon runtimes in films like Martin Scorsese's Killers of the Flower Moon (2023), where UK chain Vue introduced a 15-minute interval midway through its 206-minute duration, receiving positive feedback from 74% of surveyed customers who appreciated the opportunity to stretch.^[50] Similarly, for epic franchises such as the extended cuts of The Lord of the Rings trilogy re-released in the 2000s and 2020s, select theaters incorporated short breaks between segments during marathons, facilitating merchandising tie-ins like themed snacks and collectibles that boost per-capita spending.^[51] This practice revives a profit-oriented model, with chains like AMC testing intermissions to promote film-related merchandise and concessions, which can account for up to 85% of a theater's income.^[52] In Bollywood and broader Indian cinema, the 10-minute "interval" remains a routine feature in most multiplex screenings, embedded in the film's structure since the advent of talkies in the 1930s to accommodate song-and-dance sequences and two-part narratives. This staple, originating with early sound films, divides the story into pre- and post-interval halves, often climaxing the first act with a high-energy musical number to sustain engagement while enabling snack sales that contribute 30-40% of multiplex revenue, primarily from popcorn and beverages.^[53] Even Hollywood imports in India receive added intervals at exhibitor discretion, underscoring the cultural norm's persistence despite occasional experiments like Dhobi Ghat (2011), the first major Indian release without one.^[53] International variations reflect diverse commercial and cultural priorities, with European multiplexes favoring continuous screenings for arthouse films to preserve artistic flow.^[52] In contrast, Middle Eastern theaters, particularly in Saudi Arabia and the UAE, adjust showtimes around Islamic prayer periods and incorporate prayer rooms, ensuring pauses align with cultural observances without disrupting the narrative.^[54] The digital era has largely eliminated formal intermissions on streaming platforms since the 2010s, empowering viewers to pause at will for uninterrupted home viewing of lengthy content. However, premium formats like IMAX revive structured breaks in theaters for immersive epics, such as re-releases of Avatar: The Way of Water (2022) in IMAX as of 2025, to mitigate physical strain during extended sessions while capitalizing on on-site concessions.^[52]

In Other Media

Television and Streaming

In commercial television, which proliferated from the 1950s onward, advertisement breaks functioned as de facto intermissions within serialized programming, providing structured pauses amid ongoing narratives. In the United States, these breaks in primetime shows typically lasted 2 to 3 minutes each, comprising multiple 15- to 30-second spots, and occurred several times per half-hour episode to accommodate sponsor content.^[55] Analysis of broadcasts from the era indicates that commercial time accounted for about 13% of broadcast hours in the early 1950s, equating to roughly 4 minutes per half-hour of programming.^[56] The miniseries format further adapted intermissions by incorporating deliberate pauses at episode conclusions, allowing audiences time for reflection on heavy thematic content. A seminal example is the 1977 ABC production Roots, an eight-part epic based on Alex Haley's novel, which aired over consecutive nights and sparked widespread national discussions on race and history during its inter-episode breaks, drawing over 100 million viewers for the finale.^[57] These pauses, often extending beyond standard ad slots, emphasized the format's role in fostering viewer engagement and emotional processing.^[58] In the streaming era of the 2010s to present, platforms like Netflix shifted away from fixed breaks toward algorithmic features that simulate intermissions for binge-watching sessions. The "Are you still watching?" auto-pause prompt, introduced around 2015, appears after several consecutive episodes to check viewer attention and prevent unintended playback, effectively mimicking a reflective break without rigid timing.^[59] This adaptive approach contrasts with traditional TV by prioritizing user data and seamless resumption over commercial imperatives. Global variations in television practices highlight differing intermission lengths, with Asian cable networks often featuring extended ad interruptions compared to U.S. standards. In Japan, for instance, commercial broadcasters face no overarching limit on advertising time per hour, enabling longer cumulative breaks—potentially up to 10-12 minutes hourly in practice—versus ad-free premium streaming models elsewhere. These differences reflect regulatory environments that balance viewer experience with revenue needs in diverse markets.^[60]

Live Music and Concerts

In classical music concerts, intermissions have become a standard feature, typically lasting around 20 minutes after the first half of the program in symphony halls. This break allows musicians time to tune their instruments, address any technical adjustments, and provides audiences an opportunity for refreshments and informal discussions. The practice aligns with longstanding traditions in major orchestras, such as the Vienna Philharmonic, which has maintained structured concert formats since its founding in 1842 during the 19th century.^[61]^[62] Opera performances integrate intermissions with their dramatic acts, often featuring intervals of 15 to 25 minutes to facilitate elaborate set changes, costume swaps, and performer rest amid extended narratives. This structure is particularly evident in Richard Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen, premiered in 1876 at the Bayreuth Festspielhaus, where the cycle's four operas span approximately 15 hours of music, divided by multiple breaks to manage the production's complexity and sustain audience engagement. For example, individual installments like Die Walküre include two intermissions within its roughly five-hour runtime.^[63]^[64] Since the 1960s, rock and pop concerts in arena settings have commonly incorporated mid-set breaks of about 15 minutes, enabling stage reconfiguration, lighting adjustments, and opportunities for fan interaction such as merchandise sales or meet-and-greets. These pauses balance the high-energy demands of performances while preventing performer fatigue, as observed in numerous tours during the 2010s, including those by artists like Taylor Swift, where breaks supported dynamic set transitions in large-scale productions.^[65] In festival contexts like Coachella, which began in 1999, intermissions manifest as shorter pauses of 10 to 30 minutes between acts on shared stages, prioritizing continuous crowd energy and logistical flow over extended rest periods. Set times are tightly scheduled to minimize downtime, fostering an immersive atmosphere where transitions between performers maintain momentum across the event's multi-hour lineup.^[66]

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Below is a merged summary of the historical development of intermissions and concessions in movie theaters across the 19th and 20th centuries, consolidating all information from the provided segments. To retain maximum detail in a dense and organized format, I will use a table in CSV format for key data points, followed by a narrative summary that integrates additional context and details not suited for the table. The response avoids any thinking tokens beyond the instruction limit and focuses on presenting the information as requested.
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Sep 27, 2023 · What can I do during intermission? Most of Pacific Symphony's concerts have a 20-minute intermission, during which you are welcome to purchase ...
[59]
1. Early History - Vienna Philharmonic
Until the first Philharmonic concert on March 28, 1842, the City of Vienna did not have a professional concert orchestra, despite the presence of composers.
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Die Walküre | Lyric Opera of Chicago
Richard Wagner · Language: Sung in German with projected English translations · Running Time: 4 hours, 55 minutes with 2 intermissions · Location: Lyric Opera ...<|separator|>
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Richard Wagner's 'Ring Cycle' - Los Angeles Times
May 16, 2010 · Los Angeles Opera's “Ring Cycle” clocks in at nearly 19 hours (with intermissions). That's not only a lot of Richard Wagner's music but plenty of love greed, ...
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Length and time of rock concerts - have they changed over the years?
May 5, 2009 · Bands like The Beatles, The Stones & The Beach Boys did 30 min. sets in the 1960's. It wasn't until the late 60's and early 70's that many bands ...
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Coachella 2025 Set Times & Streaming Schedule for Weekend Two
Apr 18, 2025 · The festival will once again be streaming basically all of the sets from six of the main stages after 4pm (plus a vertical YouTube Shorts feed ...