Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Isolating language

An isolating language, also known as an analytic language, is a linguistic system in which words typically consist of a single morpheme with little to no affixation or inflectional morphology, relying instead on word order, particles, and auxiliary words to express grammatical relationships and semantic nuances.^[1]^[2] This morphological type contrasts with synthetic languages, where affixes modify roots to convey such information.^[1] In isolating languages, grammatical functions like tense, aspect, number, and case are predominantly indicated through invariant free morphemes or syntactic structure rather than bound forms attached to words.^[3] For instance, compounding is a common method for word formation and derivation, allowing new terms to emerge by juxtaposing independent roots, while noun classifiers may accompany quantifiers to specify categories without altering the noun itself.^[3]^[1] This results in a low synthesis index, where the average number of morphemes per word approaches one, facilitating straightforward parsing but placing greater emphasis on contextual and positional cues for meaning.^[3] Prominent examples of isolating languages include Mandarin Chinese, where particles like le mark perfective aspect and classifiers such as gè denote units for counting, Vietnamese, which uses preverbal markers for tense, and Yoruba, an African language employing independent words like ti for past tense without altering the verb root.^[3]^[1]^[4] The concept of isolating morphology emerged in the 19th century as part of broader typological classifications proposed by linguists like August Schleicher, who categorized languages along a spectrum from isolating (minimal bonding) to agglutinative, fusional, and polysynthetic types based on morpheme fusion and word complexity.^[5] Although few languages are purely isolating, this typology highlights universal patterns in how languages package meaning, influencing fields from computational linguistics to language acquisition studies.^[3]^[6]

Definition and Characteristics

Core Definition

An isolating language is defined in linguistic typology as one that exhibits minimal or no morphological inflection, where grammatical relationships and categories such as tense, number, or case are primarily conveyed through word order, particles, or independent auxiliary words rather than through affixes, fusion, or other bound morphemes attached to roots.^[7] This structural feature distinguishes isolating languages from synthetic types that rely on internal word modifications to express such relations.^[8] In the prototypical isolating language, there is an ideal one-to-one correspondence between morphemes and words, meaning each word typically consists of a single, indivisible morpheme with no alteration or combination to indicate grammatical function.^[7] While no natural language fully adheres to this extreme without any exceptions—such as occasional reduplication or compounding for derivation—the type is characterized by a high degree of morphological simplicity, approaching zero inflectional complexity.^[9] Isolating languages thus represent the purest form of analytic languages, which more broadly encompass structures that prioritize separate words over inflection for syntax.^[7] The concept of isolating languages originated in the 19th century as part of early morphological typology, coined by the German linguist August Schleicher in his classification of languages into three categories: isolating (with no inflection), agglutinative (with separable affixes), and inflecting or fusional (with fused elements).^[5] Schleicher introduced this framework in works like Die Sprachen Europas in systematischer Übersicht (1850), aiming to describe languages that lacked the morphological complexity seen in Indo-European tongues. This classification, though later critiqued for its evolutionary implications, established the foundational understanding of isolating structures in comparative linguistics.^[8]

Morphological Traits

Isolating languages are characterized by the complete absence of inflectional morphology, meaning they lack bound affixes or modifications to word roots that indicate grammatical categories such as gender, number, case, or tense. Instead, roots remain unchanged regardless of their syntactic or semantic role in a sentence, with no fusion of morphemes to convey these functions. This trait distinguishes isolating languages from synthetic ones, where inflectional processes alter word forms to encode such information.^[4]^[10] Due to this lack of inflection, isolating languages rely on invariant word forms, where each lexical item maintains a fixed shape across contexts. Grammatical relations typically handled by inflection in other languages—such as plurality—are instead expressed through syntactic means, including the use of independent particles, classifiers, or quantifiers positioned separately from the root. This structural invariance ensures that words function as discrete units without internal modification, shifting the burden of grammatical encoding to word order and auxiliary elements.^[11]^[10] A defining quantitative feature of isolating languages is their low morpheme-to-word ratio, which approaches 1:1 in typological assessments, indicating that most words consist of a single, free-standing morpheme without affixation or compounding within the basic unit. This minimal synthesis contrasts with higher ratios in agglutinative or fusional languages and is a key metric in cross-linguistic databases for classifying morphological types.^[12]^[4] While isolating languages avoid inflectional fusion, they may employ compounding as the primary mechanism for word formation, juxtaposing independent roots to create new meanings without altering or blending their forms. This process preserves the autonomy of each component morpheme, avoiding the phonological or semantic merging seen in fusional systems, and allows for expansive lexical growth through simple concatenation.

Typological Context

Relation to Analytic Languages

Isolating languages embody the purest manifestation of analytic languages, where grammatical relations are conveyed exclusively through word order and auxiliary elements, with no inflectional affixes whatsoever.^[13] This extreme analyticity results in a morpheme-to-word ratio approaching one, as each word typically consists of a single, unchanging root.^[14] In contrast, mildly analytic languages, such as English, incorporate limited residual inflection— for instance, the plural marker -s on nouns—while still prioritizing free morphemes and syntactic positioning over bound morphology.^[14] The distinction underscores a continuum in linguistic typology, with isolating languages at the analytic extreme and broader analytic languages encompassing periphrastic constructions that use separate words or particles to denote relationships like tense or possession.^[7] Analytic languages thus form a category that includes isolating ones as a subset, but extends to those with minimal, non-inflectional affixation for derivation.^[13] This spectrum highlights how morphological traits, such as the absence of fusion or agglutination, enable the pure analyticity observed in isolating structures. Historically, many languages have undergone diachronic shifts from synthetic morphologies—characterized by heavy inflection—to analytic stages, with isolating forms representing a stable endpoint due to their resistance to re-inflectional pressures. This evolutionary trajectory, often cyclical, positions isolating languages as an outcome of simplification processes that favor independent morphemes over complex word-internal synthesis.

Comparison with Other Language Types

Isolating languages represent the extreme analytic end of the morphological typology spectrum, where grammatical relations are primarily expressed through word order and independent particles rather than bound morphemes, in direct opposition to synthetic languages that integrate such information within words.^[15] This contrast highlights fundamental differences in how languages package semantic and grammatical content. Agglutinative languages, such as Turkish, build grammatical complexity by attaching sequential affixes to a root, with each affix typically conveying a single, distinct meaning, enabling the creation of lengthy but transparently parsable words.^[16] In comparison, isolating languages avoid this affixation strategy altogether, relying instead on separate words to mark similar functions, which preserves word boundaries and reduces morphological complexity.^[17] Fusional languages, exemplified by Latin, fuse multiple grammatical categories—such as tense, number, and case—into a single, indivisible morpheme that does not allow straightforward segmentation into individual meanings.^[1] This opacity contrasts sharply with the morphological transparency of isolating languages, where grammatical distinctions are articulated through discrete, unaltered lexical items rather than fused forms.^[15] Polysynthetic languages like Inuktitut take synthesis to an extreme by incorporating nouns, verbs, and adverbs into single complex words that can express entire propositions, often resulting in morpheme-to-word ratios exceeding 3.0.^[18] Isolating languages, by contrast, exhibit a strong tendency toward monosyllabicity and low synthesis, with words rarely combining multiple morphemes.^[19] These differences are quantified in typological indices, such as the Synthesis Index, which measures the average number of morphemes per word in a language's texts; isolating languages consistently score near 1.0, reflecting their minimal fusion and synthesis, while synthetic types score progressively higher along the continuum.^[15] As the core of analytic languages, isolating types thus anchor the opposite pole from all synthetic categories in morphological classification.^[17]

Prominent Examples

East Asian Isolating Languages

East Asian isolating languages are predominantly represented by the Sinitic languages, particularly Chinese varieties, which account for over 1.3 billion speakers worldwide as of 2025, exerting significant linguistic influence on neighboring languages through historical contact and borrowing.^[20] The Sinitic branch, including Mandarin, Cantonese, and others, dominates the region with its monosyllabic roots forming the basis of vocabulary, where words are typically built through compounding rather than inflection.^[21] Modern Chinese exemplifies isolating morphology through its reliance on word order and particles to convey grammatical relations, featuring a topic-comment structure where the topic is introduced first, followed by commentary, as in Zhè běn shū hěn hǎo ("This book [topic] very good [comment]"). Aspect is marked by particles such as le for perfective, attached post-verbally to indicate completion, as in Tā chī-le fàn ("He ate [perfective] rice," meaning "He has eaten"). Classical Chinese, while also largely isolating, preserved some traces of earlier morphological complexity but emphasized concise, particle-driven syntax similar to its modern forms.^[22] The evolution toward full isolating status in Chinese occurred gradually, with Old Chinese (circa 1200–200 BCE) exhibiting minor inflections and derivational affixes that largely decayed by the Middle Chinese period (around 600–1000 CE), leading to the analytic structure of modern varieties.^[22] This shift reduced affixation, relying instead on invariant morphemes and contextual cues for meaning.^[23]

Southeast Asian and Other Regional Examples

In Southeast Asia, Vietnamese exemplifies an isolating language within the Austroasiatic family, particularly the Vietic subgroup, where it maintains a highly analytic structure with minimal inflection despite its Mon-Khmer heritage that historically included more fusional elements in related languages.^[24] Vietnamese, an Austroasiatic language heavily influenced by Chinese due to over a millennium of cultural and political contact, is spoken by around 97 million people as of 2025 and has adopted numerous Sino-Vietnamese loanwords comprising up to 60% of its vocabulary, alongside grammatical elements like classifiers and aspect markers.^[25] As an isolating language, it features a six-tone system inherited and adapted from Chinese, where pitch contours distinguish lexical meaning, such as ma (ghost, mother, horse, or rice seedling depending on tone).^[26] Complex predicates are formed via serial verb constructions, chaining verbs without conjunctions to express sequences or manners, as in Anh ấy đi mua sách ("He go buy book," meaning "He goes to buy a book").^[27] This structure underscores Vietnamese's analytic nature, paralleling East Asian typological traits while integrating regional borrowings. Vietnamese relies on word order, particles, and tone to convey grammatical relations, resulting in free morphemes that rarely fuse or alter form.^[28] This isolation contrasts with the more agglutinative tendencies in other Austroasiatic branches like Munda, highlighting regional areal influences from neighboring Sino-Tibetan and Kra-Dai languages.^[29] Another prominent example is Khmer (Cambodian), an Austroasiatic language spoken by about 16 million people primarily in Cambodia as of 2025, which exhibits isolating traits through word order, particles, and reduplication for grammatical functions, with minimal affixation. Thai and Lao, both from the Kra-Dai (Tai-Kadai) family, further illustrate isolating traits prevalent in mainland Southeast Asia, featuring SVO word order and extensive use of numeral classifiers to specify nouns without fused articles or prepositions.^[30] In these languages, grammatical functions are expressed through isolated particles and serialization rather than morphological affixation, allowing flexible verb chaining to denote complex actions.^[31] Thai, spoken by over 70 million primarily in Thailand as of 2025, and Lao, with around 25 million speakers in Laos and neighboring areas, exemplify how Kra-Dai languages spread across the region while preserving this analytic profile amid contact with Mon-Khmer and Austronesian tongues.^[32] Beyond Asia, isolating features appear sporadically in Africa, as seen in Yoruba, a Niger-Congo language of the Yoruboid branch spoken by around 50 million people mainly in Nigeria and Benin as of 2025.^[33] Yoruba exhibits isolating morphology with little noun or verb inflection, relying instead on tonal distinctions—high, mid, and low—to differentiate meanings and on verb serialization to express multifaceted predicates without subordinating conjunctions. This structure, where serial verbs form a single clause to convey causation or direction, underscores Yoruba's analytic tendencies within a family otherwise known for agglutinative patterns.^[34] Rare instances of isolating tendencies also emerge in creoles shaped by intense language contact, such as Tok Pisin, an English-based creole serving as one of Papua New Guinea's official languages and spoken by over 4 million people. Tok Pisin displays minimal inflection, using preverbal particles for tense-aspect-mood and word order for relations, with substrate influences from Austronesian and Papuan languages contributing to its analytic profile amid isolation from its lexifier.^[35] Such creoles highlight how contact scenarios can foster isolating grammars in Oceania, distinct from the Sinitic-dominated patterns in East Asia. Globally, isolating languages are concentrated predominantly in Asia, where they constitute the majority of analytic types across families like Sino-Tibetan, Austroasiatic, and Kra-Dai, with sparser occurrences in Africa and Oceania reflecting limited areal diffusion.^[36]

Linguistic Implications

Grammatical Strategies

Isolating languages rely heavily on rigid word order to encode grammatical relations, as they lack inflectional morphology to mark case, agreement, or tense. A common default is subject-verb-object (SVO) order, which helps disambiguate roles in transitive clauses without relying on affixes or clitics. For instance, in languages like Chinese, prepositions or postpositions further specify case roles such as agent or patient, compensating for the absence of nominal inflections.^[37]^[38] To express categories like tense, mood, aspect, and evidentiality, isolating languages employ dedicated particles and auxiliary words rather than verbal conjugations. These free-standing elements attach semantically to the main verb or noun, providing grammatical nuance through juxtaposition. In Mandarin, for example, the particle de indicates possession or modification, functioning as a structural linker without altering the root form.^[39] Lexical strategies such as reduplication and verb serialization also serve grammatical purposes, allowing derivation of meanings like emphasis, plurality, or aspectual distinctions without morphological fusion. Reduplication involves repeating a word or part of it to convey intensification or iteration, as seen in some East Asian examples where full or partial copying signals diminutives or distributive senses.^[40]^[41] Similarly, serialization chains multiple verbs into a single clause to express complex events, causation, or manner, a feature prevalent in isolating languages of Asia where each verb retains its lexical integrity but shares arguments.^[42]^[43] Classifier systems provide another key mechanism for handling nominal reference, particularly in quantifying or individuating nouns, in lieu of inflectional number marking. Numeric classifiers pair with numerals to specify the shape, size, or semantic type of the referent, while sortal classifiers categorize nouns more finely (e.g., for humans versus animals). This system effectively replaces plural suffixes by requiring classifiers to "count" units, a trait especially common in East and Southeast Asian isolating languages.^[44]^[45]

Challenges in Analysis and Classification

Classifying languages as isolating presents significant challenges due to the spectrum-like nature of morphological isolation rather than a strict binary distinction. Traditional typological frameworks, originating in the 19th century with scholars like August Schleicher and further developed in the early 20th century by Edward Sapir, conceptualized isolating languages as those with minimal inflectional morphology, approaching a one-to-one ratio of morphemes to words, but acknowledged that real-world languages exhibit gradations along this continuum rather than fitting neatly into categories. Metrics such as average word length, affix-to-root ratios, or the index of synthesis (morphemes per word) have been proposed to quantify the degree of isolation, yet their application remains debated because they often overlook compensatory complexities in syntax or phonology that maintain overall linguistic equilibrium. For instance, early 20th-century analyses highlighted how languages like Vietnamese appear highly isolating morphologically but rely on tonal systems and word order for grammatical distinctions, complicating absolute classifications.^[10] A major analytical hurdle arises from the pervasive influence of language contact, particularly in regions like Southeast Asia, where distinguishing inherent isolating traits from contact-induced simplification—such as in pidgins or creoles—proves difficult. In multilingual contact zones, isolating features may emerge through simplification processes that reduce inflection to facilitate communication among non-native speakers, as seen in the historical development of trade languages that evolved into more stable forms without clear genetic ties to isolating protolanguages. This blurring challenges historical reconstructions, as isolating morphology could reflect areal diffusion rather than deep-seated genetic inheritance, with pidgins often retaining some inflection from source languages despite expectations of total loss, and creolization expanding these into more fully developed languages that may retain or innovate analytic features while adding complexity. Scholars argue that such contact scenarios undermine binary typological labels, as the same morphological profile might stem from innate evolution in one language family or reductive adaptation in another.^[46]^[47] Traditional typological studies of isolating languages often lag behind modern computational tools, which offer quantitative rigor absent in earlier qualitative assessments. Computational morphology analysis, utilizing databases like those in the World Atlas of Language Structures or machine learning models trained on multilingual corpora, enables precise measurement of morphological features across large samples, revealing gradients in isolation that manual classifications overlook. For example, algorithms assessing subword tokenization productivity demonstrate how isolating languages like Mandarin exhibit lower morphological complexity in word formation but higher predictability in sequential dependencies, providing metrics like affix entropy or morpheme boundary detection accuracy that enhance cross-linguistic comparisons. These tools address gaps in outdated coverage by automating the detection of subtle variations, yet their application to under-documented isolating languages remains limited by data scarcity.^[48]^[49] Theoretical debates further complicate the analysis, particularly regarding whether truly zero-inflectional systems exist, as post-1980s research has identified subtle clitics and bound particles in purportedly isolating languages like Thai that challenge the notion of absolute isolation. While Thai is classically described as lacking inflectional affixes, analyses reveal clitic-like elements—such as aspectual particles that prosodically depend on adjacent words—functioning as bound morphemes, suggesting that "zero-inflection" may be a misnomer for languages with covert morphological dependencies. This debate, fueled by advances in prosodic typology, posits that no language achieves complete isolation, with even minimal bound forms ensuring grammatical cohesion, thus reframing isolating typology as a relative rather than absolute category.^[50]

References

[1]
Lecture No. 13
Languages that have no affixal morphology are called isolating languages and those that do, are called synthetic languages. Synthetic languages with many ...
[2]
Abduction The only of the three logical processes that can create ...
Isolating languages A type of languages in which each word is comprised of only one morpheme, and thus has little or no affixation. Isolationism The study of ...
[3]
[PDF] Morphology - CMU School of Computer Science
Nov 21, 2017 · • Isolating (or Analytic). • Fusional (or Inflecting). • Agglutinative. • Polysynthetic. • Others. Page 18. Isolating Languages: Chinese. Little ...
[4]
10.3. Packaging words and morphemes
Yoruba, as shown below in (1), is an example of an isolating language. Each word in these examples contains only a single morpheme. Tense markers, such as ...<|separator|>
[5]
[PDF] Review of Language Classifications: Observations and Explanations
Schleicher proposed that languages diachronically change from isolating to agglutinative, and from agglutinative to fusional as their sophistication increases.<|control11|><|separator|>
[6]
Languages of Africa & ALMA
Isolating morphology entails that there be only one meaningful element or morpheme per word in a given language. No further division of these words is possible.
[7]
[PDF] language typology
Clearly, such a causative construction can only exist in a language that is not isolating, but this follows logically from the definition of the isolating type ...
[8]
LINGUISTIC TYPOLOGY - Annual Reviews
Morphological typology by no means leads to a neat three-way classification, since languages are isolating, agglutinating, or fusional to varying degrees ...
[9]
Morphology | The Oxford Handbook of Computational Linguistics
Isolating languages are languages which do not allow any bound morphemes to attach to a word. Mandarin Chinese, with some minor exceptions, is an example of ...
[10]
Morphological Typology (Chapter 3) - The Cambridge Handbook of ...
Apr 13, 2017 · In linguistics, morphology is the study of how the forms of words may vary systematically to allow speakers to accomplish communicative work.<|control11|><|separator|>
[11]
[PDF] Alina Airatovna Khaliullina Natalia Andreevna Bolotova ... - Dialnet
Isolating languages are the types of languages with no inflectional morphology. Functions of inflections in these languages are implemented by the words.
[12]
https://wals.info/chapter/22
[13]
Edward Sapir: Language: Chapter 6: Types of Linguistic Structure
Feb 22, 2010 · One language runs to tight-knit synthesis where another contents itself with a more analytic, piece-meal handling of its elements.
[14]
Basic Language Structures
An isolating language tends to use few if any suffixes, prefixes, or even composite words (like "cowboy"). A slightly different type is the analytic languages: ...Missing: linguistic typology
[15]
[PDF] Quantifying Synthesis and Fusion and their Impact on Machine ...
Jul 10, 2022 · The field of morphological typology characterises languages in terms of their word and sentence build- ing strategies (Payne, 2017), such as ...
[16]
3.3 Morphology of Different Languages
Analytic languages have a low ratio of morphemes to words. They are often isolating languages in that each morpheme is also a word and vice versa. These ...
[17]
[PDF] Semantic Aspects of Morphological Typology - UNM Linguistics
The traditional division of languages into isolating, agglutinative, fusional and polysynthetic has been an extremely useful typology for many generations ...
[18]
[PDF] Polysynthesis and noun incorporation
' A polysynthetic language: (2). Inuktitut: annulaksi-kkanni-nginna-jualu-gasu-lauqsima-guma ...
[19]
Syllable Complexity and Morphological Synthesis: A Well-Motivated ...
Mar 17, 2021 · The Index of Synthesis ranges from 1.01 in Koho (Bahnaric, Austroasiatic) to 3.02 in Kalaallisut (Eskimo-Aleut), with the language sample ...
[20]
What is the most spoken language? | Ethnologue Free
Mandarin Chinese is the largest language in the world, if you count only native speakers. · Languages with the most native speakers, 2025 · Languages with the ...
[21]
Chinese Morphology | Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics
Jul 16, 2025 · Though Chinese has only a few inflectional affixes, it is rich in derivational morphology and rife with special clitics and reduplications.
[22]
Morphology in Old Chinese - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · To conclude, some remarks are made about the decay of Old Chinese affixational processes and the development into an isolating language.
[23]
[PDF] Old Chinese as an Inflectional Language - Macrothink Institute
Jun 20, 2016 · Abstract. This paper reviews the nature of Old Chinese (OC) by exploring the morpho-syntactic feature of the personal pronoun system.Missing: analytic | Show results with:analytic
[24]
(PDF) Sino-Vietnamese Grammatical Borrowing: An Overview
The purpose of this paper is to describe the influence of the Chinese language(s) on Vietnamese with a focus on grammatical elements.
[25]
Grammatical Characteristics of Vietnamese and English in ... - NIH
Aug 4, 2020 · Vietnamese is an isolating language: There is no inflectional morphology, and grammatical relations are shown exclusively through word order ( ...
[26]
Complex Events in the Serial Verb Constructions in Vietnamese
This study looks at the so-called serial verb construction, which Vietnamese speakers utilize to indicate complex events in a clause with two or more verbs ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[27]
An Updated Overview of the Austroasiatic Components of Vietnamese
This article presents an updated view of the language history of Vietnamese from its native Austroasiatic roots.
[28]
Monosyllabism - Language Log
May 7, 2025 · Almost all languages forming the area are root-isolating and follow a trend towards monosyllabization.
[29]
[PDF] The Origin and Dispersal of Austroasiatic Languages from the ...
Mar 15, 2024 · The Austroasiatic (AA) languages are a large language family in Mainland Southeast and. South Asia. Theoretical, methodological, and ...
[30]
https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.001.0001/acrefore-9780199384655-e-346
[31]
Kra-Dai Languages - Center of Excellence in Southeast Asian ...
Apr 10, 2018 · Kra-Dai languages are primarily head initial with basic SVO word order, employ numeral classifiers for individuation, and make use of serial ...
[32]
Context (Chapter 1) - The Languages of Mainland Southeast Asia
Mar 22, 2021 · This chapter outlines the complex historical processes that have shaped the present-day distribution of communities and ethnic groups across mainland Southeast ...
[33]
Yoruba Language - Dialects & Structure - MustGo.com
Yoruba is a Niger-Congo language spoken by 28 million, mainly in Nigeria, with a standard written form. It has a syllabic structure with no consonant clusters ...
[34]
[PDF] Yorùbá Dependency Treebank (YTB) - ACL Anthology
May 11, 2020 · Verb serialization is prominent in Yorùbá, the first verb marks the tense while the second indicates the direc- tion of an action (see ...
[35]
[PDF] Tok Pisin and Hawai'i Creole English as Literary Languages
Tok Pisin is one of the few pidgins and creoles to be reduced to writing and to undergo some degree of standardization. Despite the lack of written norms and ...
[36]
Agglutinative folk? - Languages Of The World
Jun 3, 2014 · For example, isolating languages are found in Africa (Hausa), Asia (Vietnamese), Oceania (Rapanui), and the Americas (Kipea).<|control11|><|separator|>
[37]
Chapter Order of Subject, Object and Verb - WALS Online
This map shows the ordering of subject, object, and verb in a transitive clause, more specifically declarative clauses in which both the subject and object ...
[38]
(PDF) How complex are isolating languages? - ResearchGate
This paper argues that in some cases, at least, isolating languages may indeed be of less overall complexity than their non-isolating counterparts.
[39]
Grammaticalization in isolating languages and the notion of complexity
PDF | This paper consists of four related arguments: we first review the claims about the nature of grammaticalization in isolating languages,.
[40]
[PDF] Reduplication in languages: A case study of languages of China - HAL
Oct 31, 2016 · Reduplication can be defined as proposed by Carl Rubino (2005): “the repetition of phonological material within a word for semantic or ...
[41]
[PDF] Chapter 4: Reduplication - UC Berkeley Linguistics
Overview. Reduplication is the doubling of some part of a morphological constituent (root, stem, word) for some morphological purpose.
[42]
(PDF) The Serial Verb Construction: Comparative Concept and ...
Serial verb constructions are a pervasive feature of isolating languages of Asia and West Africa, and are also found in the languages of the Pacific, South ...
[43]
Serial Verb Constructions: A Cross-Linguistic Typology
Oct 31, 2023 · This volume of new work explores the forms and functions of serial verbs. The introduction sets out the cross-linguistic parameters of variation ...
[44]
[PDF] Defining numeral classifiers and identifying classifier languages of ...
Nov 4, 2022 · Abstract: This paper presents a precise definition of numeral classifiers, steps to identify a numeral classifier language, and a database ...
[45]
Classifiers can be for numerals or nouns: Two strategies for numeral ...
Nov 9, 2022 · This paper compares two families of theories for numeral classifiers drawing on fieldwork data from two languages, Ch'ol (Mayan, Mexico) and Shan (Kra-Dai, ...
[46]
[PDF] Reconsidering the “isolating protolanguage hypothesis” in the ...
Much recent work on the evolution of language assumes explicitly or implicitly that the original language was without morphology. Under this assumption,.
[47]
"On the origin of Creoles" (Michel DeGraff, Linguistic Typology 2001)
The main goal of this essay is to constructively deconstruct the age-old myth that the world's simplest grammars are Creole grammars.
[48]
[PDF] Computational approaches to morphological typology
Computational approaches to morphological typology involve databasing and modeling morphological systems, using databases of forms and languages to test ...
[49]
Morphology Matters: A Multilingual Language Modeling Analysis
Mar 17, 2021 · This paper revisits this issue by increasing the number of languages considered and augmenting the kind and number of morphological features used.
[50]
[PDF] Types of clitics in the world's languages
Dec 27, 2023 · Abstract. This paper offers and discusses a simple definition of the term clitic from a comparative perspective: A clitic is a bound morph ...