Jonang
The Jonang tradition is a Tibetan Buddhist school of Vajrayana practice, established in 1294 at Jonang Monastery in central Tibet by Kunpang Tukje Tsondru, and systematized philosophically by Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (1292–1361), who articulated its distinctive shentong (gzhan stong, "other-emptiness") interpretation of Madhyamaka alongside an emphasis on the complete Kalachakra tantric system.[1][2] The shentong view posits that ultimate reality—identified as luminous buddha-nature—is empty of adventitious defilements and dualistic phenomena but inherently endowed with the inseparable qualities of a buddha, drawing from the Tathāgatagarbha sūtras, Maitreya's treatises, and tantric sources like the Kalachakra Tantra, in contrast to the rangtong (self-emptiness) emphasis of other Tibetan schools which regard all phenomena, including the ultimate, as devoid of inherent nature.[2][1] This doctrinal stance, first publicly taught by Dolpopa in 1330, provoked controversy for appearing to affirm an eternal, positive ultimate entity, leading to debates and accusations of veering toward eternalism (siddhāntavāda) from rangtong proponents, though Jonang scholars maintained it reconciled definitive scriptures with non-dual wisdom.[1][2] Politically aligned with the Tsangpa rulers, the tradition faced severe suppression in the mid-17th century under the Fifth Dalai Lama and the ascendant Gelug school, which converted key Jonang sites like Damchö Ling Monastery to Gelug institutions in 1658, banned shentong texts across Tibet, and dispersed the lineage, reducing its presence to remote eastern Tibetan regions like Amdo.[3][4] Surviving through underground transmission and relocation to areas such as Dzamthang, where it persisted with 4,000–5,000 monastics, Jonang experienced revival in the late 19th century amid the non-sectarian Rimé movement and continues today with over 70 monasteries primarily in Kham and Amdo, housing approximately 5,000 practitioners focused on Kalachakra meditation, shentong study, and vajrayoga, under decentralized leadership including the abbot of Tsangwa Monastery.[4][5][6]History
Origins and Early Development
The Jonang tradition emerged from the early transmissions of the Kālacakra Tantra into Tibet, particularly via the Dro lineage, which was established through the translation of the Vimalaprabhā (Stainless Light) commentary by the Indian pandita Somanātha and the Tibetan translator Dro Lotsāwa Śākya Ye shes in the 11th century.[3] This lineage emphasized the tantra's six-limbed yoga practices and laid the groundwork for Jonang's distinctive integration of sutric and tantric doctrines.[5] A pivotal early figure was Yumo Mikyö Dorje (born 1027), a yogi and disciple of Somanātha, who received Kalachakra initiations and practiced intensively near Mount Kailash, thereby introducing the shentong (other-emptiness) interpretation of emptiness to Tibet as an esoteric teaching aligned with the tantra's ultimate view.[7][5] Yumo's efforts marked the initial Tibetan adaptation of these elements, which later became central to Jonang identity, though the tradition remained diffuse without a centralized institution.[1] The formal establishment of the Jonang school occurred in 1294, when Kunpang Tukje Tsöndru (1243–1313) founded Jonang Monastery in the remote Jomonang valley of south-central Tibet, deriving the tradition's name from this site.[5][3] Kunpang, trained in the Rwa Kalachakra transmissions from childhood and additional Dro lineages, consolidated meditative practices there, designing the monastic complex according to the Shambhala mandala's symbolic layout to embody tantric principles.[5][8] Under Kunpang's immediate successors, such as Jangsem Gyalwa Ye shes (1247–1320) and Yöntan Rgya mtsho (1260–1327), the young tradition expanded its focus on Kalachakra retreats and the preservation of shentong-oriented commentaries, fostering a community oriented toward advanced yogic realization amid Tibet's fragmented regional polities.[3] This period solidified Jonang's emphasis on experiential tantric paths over scholastic debate, distinguishing it from contemporaneous schools like the Sakya and early Kagyu lineages.[5]Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen and Philosophical Maturation
Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (1292–1361), known as the "Buddha from Dolpo" due to his origins in the Dolpo region of present-day Nepal, emerged as the central figure in elevating the Jonang tradition's philosophical framework. Initially trained as a Sakya monk, he received extensive instructions in sutra and tantra, including the Kālacakra Tantra from masters like Kyiton at Sakya Monastery.[9] In 1322, during a retreat at Jonang, Dolpopa reported a visionary realization that crystallized his advocacy for the shentong (other-emptiness) interpretation of Madhyamaka, positing the ultimate reality as luminous awareness empty only of adventitious defilements rather than inherently empty of self-existence.[10] This shift marked a departure from predominant rangtong (self-emptiness) views, framing shentong as the definitive teaching drawn from Tathāgatagarbha sūtras and select Madhyamaka texts.[11] Ascending to the abbotship of Jonang Monastery in 1326, Dolpopa systematized shentong philosophy through seminal works, chief among them Mountain Dharma: An Ocean of Definitive Meaning (Ri chos nges don rgya mtsho, composed around 1325), which exegetically linked shentong to the three wheels of dharma—outer phenomena, inner mind, and secret enlightened qualities—and integrated it with Kālacakra tantric practice.[10] He contended that rangtong approaches, while valid for refuting extremes on conventional levels, inadequately captured the affirmative ultimate as primordially pure and endowed with buddha qualities, thus relegating them to provisional status.[2] This doctrinal innovation, supported by his commentaries on Prajñāpāramitā sūtras and Kālacakra, fostered Jonang's maturation into a distinct tradition emphasizing the inseparability of ground, path, and fruition in realizing non-dual wisdom.[12] Dolpopa's efforts extended beyond theory; he oversaw the construction of the Great Stūpa of Jonang ('Jam dbyangs rgyal mtshan grub pa'i mchod rten) between 1333 and 1335, symbolizing the layered meanings of shentong—with its mandala-like structure embodying the inseparability of sūtra and tantra.[10] His views sparked debates with contemporaries, including Sakya and emerging Gelug scholars, yet solidified Jonang's identity as a philosophical powerhouse focused on ultimate buddha-nature over mere negation. By his death in 1361, shentong had become the tradition's hallmark, providing a coherent hermeneutic for reconciling apparent scriptural contradictions and advancing causal analysis of enlightenment's ground.[11] [13]Expansion and Institutional Growth Prior to Suppression
Following the death of Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen in 1361, the Jonang tradition sustained its institutional base at Jomonang Monastery while propagating its distinctive shentong philosophy and Kalachakra practices across central Tibet. Successors, including figures in the lineage from Yonten Gyatso, preserved and disseminated these teachings, leading to gradual expansion through affiliated hermitages and study centers in the region.[14] The most significant phase of growth occurred in the late 16th and early 17th centuries under Tāranātha (1575–1634), a prolific scholar and abbot who revitalized Jonang institutions. In 1614, Tāranātha founded Takten Damchöling (also known as Takten Phuntsok Ling) Monastery in the Tsangpo Valley, approximately 200 miles west of Lhasa; construction was completed in 1628, establishing it as a major hub for advanced studies in Madhyamaka and tantric cycles.[15][5] This foundation underscored Jonang's architectural and doctrinal continuity, mirroring Dolpopa's earlier Great Stupa project. Tāranātha further extended Jonang's reach beyond Tibet by founding several monasteries in Mongolia shortly after 1614, facilitating the transmission of Kalachakra initiations and shentong views to Mongol patrons. By the early 17th century, Jonang maintained a vibrant presence in central, western, and eastern Tibet, including emerging centers in Amdo and Kham that emphasized monastic education and retreat practices.[16][17] This institutional maturation positioned Jonang as a dynamic school until the mid-17th century, when political interventions by the Gelug-led administration under the Fifth Dalai Lama led to the conversion of many central Tibetan monasteries, though eastern branches endured.[5]Philosophy and Doctrines
Core Shentong (Other-Emptiness) View
The Shentong, or other-emptiness (gzhan stong), view maintains that ultimate reality—identified as buddha-nature or the dharmakaya—is empty of everything extrinsic to its own essence, including relative phenomena and adventitious defilements, while being inherently replete with unconditioned, positive qualities such as luminosity, eternity, and omniscience. This doctrine, emphasizing a positivist interpretation of emptiness, was formalized by Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (1292–1361), who coined the term "shentong" to distinguish it from prevailing interpretations.[18][2] Central to Shentong is the differentiation between two modes of emptiness corresponding to the two truths. Self-emptiness (rang stong) characterizes the relative truth, wherein all conditioned phenomena and dualistic fabrications lack inherent existence and are thus illusory. In contrast, other-emptiness defines the ultimate truth as the great emptiness (mahāśūnyatā), wherein pristine awareness or buddha-nature is empty solely of subject-object dualities and other relative imputations, remaining permanently abiding and self-luminous.[18][19][2] Dolpopa articulated this as a resolution to apparent contradictions in Mahayana scriptures, positing Shentong as the definitive Madhyamaka view that affirms the intrinsic reality of the ultimate while negating only what is other to it. As later Jonang scholar Taranatha explained, "Pristine awareness is known to be emptiness because it is empty of everything within the subject-object complex or of fabrications other than itself." This framework underscores buddha-nature as primordially pure and endowed with the major and minor marks of a buddha, not fabricated but naturally luminous.[18][2]Rangtong-Shentong Debate and Criticisms
The Rangtong-Shentong debate revolves around divergent interpretations of emptiness (śūnyatā) within Tibetan Madhyamaka, where Rangtong (rang stong, self-emptiness) maintains that all phenomena, including ultimate reality, lack inherent existence and are empty of self-nature, aligning with Prasangika emphases on negation without positing a transcendent absolute.[2] In contrast, Shentong (gzhan stong, other-emptiness) asserts that the ultimate dharmakāya or Buddha-nature is empty only of other-dependent, adventitious phenomena like defilements, while being inherently real, luminous, and endowed with unconditioned qualities such as omniscience.[2][20] This view, systematized by Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (1292–1361) in the Jonang tradition, draws from Tathāgatagarbha sūtras and Kālacakra tantra to prioritize a positivist ontology over thoroughgoing negation.[20][21] Rangtong critics, dominant in Gelug and certain Sakya lineages, argue that Shentong contradicts core Madhyamaka principles by implying an intrinsically existent ultimate, thereby veering into eternalism (rtag pa) and undermining dependent origination, which requires all phenomena to arise conventionally without an independent foundation.[21][2] Tsongkhapa Lozang Drakpa (1357–1419), Gelug founder, explicitly refuted Dolpopa's framework in works like Explanation of the Difficult Points and Golden Garland of Eloquence, contending that Shentong's "pure transcendental knowledge" (kun gzhi ye shes) and eternal basis for path and fruition misinterpret Nāgārjuna and Chandrakīrti by exempting the ultimate from emptiness of intrinsic nature.[21] His disciples, such as Khedrup Gelek Palsang (1385–1438), extended these critiques, labeling Shentong an "eternalistic Madhyamaka" incompatible with sūtra-based emptiness teachings.[22] Similarly, Sakya scholar Gorampa Sonam Senge (1429–1489) challenged Dolpopa's formulation for overemphasizing nondual pristine awareness at the expense of Madhyamaka's apophatic method, though he proposed an alternative Shentong aligned more closely with autocommentarial reasoning.[2] Earlier detractors like Rendawa Shönu Lodrö (1349–1412) engaged Jonang directly, debating at Jonang monasteries and converting numerous monks by arguing that Shentong's literal reading of Kālacakra promoted a permanent absolute clashing with sūtra and tantra negations of self-nature.[20] These philosophical objections fueled institutional actions, culminating in the Fifth Dalai Lama Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso's (1617–1682) 1650 decree suppressing Jonang, converting its monasteries to Gelug control, and banning Shentong texts for doctrinal inconsistency with Prasangika norms.[20][22] Shentong proponents counter that Rangtong risks nihilism (mu) by reducing ultimate reality to mere absence, failing to affirm the sūtra-described luminosity and qualities essential for tantric realization, yet Rangtong responses maintain such positivity applies only conventionally, not ultimately.[2][21] The debate persists in Tibetan scholarship, with Shentong texts revived in regions like Amdo since the 20th century, though Gelug dominance has marginalized it historically.[20]Alignment with Madhyamaka and Sutra-Tantra Integration
The Jonang school maintains that its shentong (gzhan stong, "other-emptiness") view constitutes the "Great Madhyamaka" (dbu ma chen po), a superior realization of Nāgārjuna's Madhyamaka tradition that transcends the rangtong ("self-emptiness") interpretations dominant in Svatantrika and Prasangika subschools.[2] [23] In this framework, conditioned phenomena are empty of inherent existence (rangtong), but the ultimate reality—identified as luminous buddha-nature or primordial awareness—is empty only of "other" adventitious defilements, while inherently possessing unconditioned qualities such as omniscience and compassion.[23] [24] Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (1292–1361), the school's seminal philosopher, systematized this position from 1333 onward, tracing its lineage through Nāgārjuna to Maitreya and Asanga, while distinguishing it from Cittamātra (mind-only) by emphasizing nondual awareness as truly established beyond mere imputation.[23] [11] Later figures like Tāranātha (1575–1634) reinforced this alignment in works such as his Essence of Empty-of-Other, arguing that provisional rangtong methods serve as gateways to the definitive shentong realization, avoiding the perceived nihilism of over-negation in general Madhyamaka.[23] Jonang doxography classifies shentong as the Madhyamaka of definitive meaning, drawing on texts like the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras and Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra to affirm an ultimate that is "not empty" of its intrinsic nature, in harmony with Nāgārjuna's intent to refute extremes of existence and nonexistence without undermining buddha-nature's luminosity.[24] This view integrates the three natures doctrine—imaginary, dependent, and perfected—from Yogācāra elements but subordinates them to Madhyamaka deconstruction, rejecting confusions with earlier Cittamātra assertions of real sensible phenomena.[24] Critics from rangtong traditions, such as Tsongkhapa's Gelug school, contend that shentong veers toward eternalism by positing a substantially real ultimate, but Jonang proponents counter that such accusations stem from misapplying provisional emptiness to definitive reality, preserving Madhyamaka's middle way.[2] Regarding sutra-tantra integration, Dolpopa pioneered a hermeneutic that mutually illuminates Mahāyāna sūtras and Vajrayāna tantras, identifying a unified corpus of definitive scriptures supporting shentong, such as the Tathāgatagarbha Sūtras, Śrīmālādevī-siṃhanāda Sūtra, and Maitreya's Ratnagotravibhāga alongside the Kālacakra Tantra and its Vimalaprabhā commentary.[2] [11] He employed Kālacakra's cosmological schema—dividing Buddhist history into three cycles (sūtra, tantra, and their synthesis)—to position shentong as the pinnacle, where tantric methods like six-branch yoga actualize the buddha-nature affirmed in sūtras.[2] This synthesis treats tantra not as supplemental but as the experiential fulfillment of sūtra philosophy, with Kālacakra initiations and retreats enabling direct realization of the nondual ground beyond dualistic sutra analyses.[11] Such integration underscores Jonang's emphasis on tantra's definitive status, where emptiness reveals innate qualities rather than mere absence, bridging exoteric and esoteric vehicles in a coherent path.[2]Key Texts and Sources
Foundational Mahayana Sutras
The Jonang tradition identifies the foundational Mahāyāna sūtras for its shentong (gzhan stong) view primarily within the third turning of the Dharma wheel, as expounded in the Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra, which distinguishes provisional teachings on selflessness from definitive ones on the non-dual ground of awareness.[25] This framework posits that ultimate reality—termed dharmakāya or tathāgatagarbha—is empty of adventitious afflictions and dualistic otherness but inherently endowed with unconditioned qualities such as luminosity, eternity, bliss, and purity.[2] These sūtras counter rangtong (rang stong) interpretations by emphasizing a positive ontology grounded in buddha-nature, which Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (1292–1361) defended as aligning with Madhyamaka's freedom from extremes.[25] Central among these are the tathāgatagarbha class of sūtras, often enumerated as the "ten sūtras on the essence" or dharmakāya sūtras, which reveal the buddha-element as primordially pure and omnipresent.[2] The Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra describes this garbha as a luminous essence concealed by defilements, akin to a pure crystal obscured by dirt, possessing all major and minor marks of a buddha.[26] Similarly, the Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra teaches the single yāna (vehicle) and the garbha's three aspects—self, qualities, and qualities' activity—as indivisible from enlightenment, empty only of what is other than buddhahood.[27] The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra extends this by affirming the garbha's four qualities (permanence, bliss, self, purity) as ultimate, rejecting nihilistic emptiness and asserting its presence in all sentient beings, thus serving as a scriptural basis for shentong's rejection of absolute voidness.[26] Additional sūtras on definitive meaning, such as the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, reinforce this by delineating mind-only as a provisional path leading to non-dual awareness, where phenomena lack inherent existence relative to delusion but subsist as the play of primordial consciousness.[2] Jonang exegetes, following Dolpopa, integrate these with the second turning's prajñāpāramitā sūtras—emptying what is other—while subordinating them to the third turning's positive disclosures, arguing that misreading the former as rangtong obscures the sūtras' intent.[25] This selective hermeneutic prioritizes sūtras explicitly teaching extrinsic emptiness to affirm causal realism in enlightenment's ground, influencing Jonang's synthesis of sūtra and tantra.[28]Tantric Cycles, Especially Kalachakra
The Jonang tradition's tantric practices are predominantly centered on the Kalachakra Tantra ("Wheel of Time"), which integrates cosmological, philosophical, and meditative elements unique to the school's emphasis on other-emptiness (shentong). This tantra, transmitted through the Dro lineage from India, serves as the primary vehicle for advanced yogic realization, encompassing both generation and completion stages to realize the eternal, self-established nature of buddhahood inherent in all beings.[29][30] While Jonang masters occasionally reference broader tantric corpora such as the Bodhisattva Trilogy for commentary, the Kalachakra remains the specialized focus, with 17 transmission lines consolidated in 13th-century Tibet by figures like Kunpang Thukje Tsondru.[31][32] Transmission of the Kalachakra in Jonang crystallized under Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (1292–1361), who received the full empowerment and instructions from Yonten Gyatso (1260–1327) at Jonang Monastery in 1322, mastering its six vajra yogas as a realized practitioner.[33] Dolpopa synthesized the tantra's view with shentong Madhyamaka, interpreting its deepest level as the identity of basis and result—where phenomena's actual nature (chos-nyid-kyi don-dam-pa’i sang-rgyas) abides eternally, beyond conceptual voids, aligning with Maitreya's Uttaratantra.[30] Later masters like Jetsun Taranatha (1575–1634) systematized these into retreat curricula, preserving the tantra amid suppression.[32] Practices begin with prerequisites: the Kalachakra empowerment (wang) from a qualified master, followed by common preliminaries (refuge, bodhicitta, Vajrasattva purification, mandala offering, and guru yoga, each 100,000 repetitions) to cultivate devotion and purify obscurations.[34] Uncommon preliminaries include generation-stage meditations on the deity mandala—progressing from condensed (1 million mantra recitations) to extensive (10 million recitations over one year with 636 deities)—and the three isolations of body, speech, and mind in dark-room retreat (50–100 days).[34] The completion stage culminates in the six-fold vajra yoga: (1) withdrawal into empty forms amid darkness; (2) meditative concentration unifying perceptions; (3) harnessing vital winds in chakras; (4) retention via indestructible spheres; (5) recollection generating four joys and inner heat (gtum-mo); and (6) stabilization coalescing with the deity's clear light.[34][29] These yogas, unique to Jonang's full Kalachakra system, are undertaken in structured retreats—typically three years for foundational mastery, extendable to six or nine years, or lifetime seclusion for advanced yogins—aiming to dissolve dualistic appearances into the tantra's non-dual reality.[34][29] Key commentaries include Dolpopa's annotations on the Vimalaprabhā and Paltseg's works, emphasizing experiential verification over mere scholarship.[35] The tradition's cosmological framework, detailing 722 deities in the mandala, supports prophetic elements like Shambhala, though practices prioritize internal transformation over external prophecy.[29]Major Jonang Commentaries and Treatises
Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (1292–1361), the foremost systematizer of Jonang doctrine, produced key treatises that established the shentong view as a distinct interpretation of Madhyamaka. His Mountain Doctrine (Ri chos nges don rgya mtsho), completed in 1322 during the construction of Jonang's Great Stupa, serves as the tradition's seminal philosophical exposition, synthesizing sutra-based definitive meaning with tantric insights, particularly from the Kalachakra Tantra, while critiquing rangtong interpretations.[33][36] In this work, Dolpopa argues for the ultimate reality of buddha nature as primordially pure and non-dual, empty of adventitious afflictions but not of its own qualities.[11] Dolpopa's Ocean of Definitive Meaning (Nges don rgya mtsho) further delineates the rangtong-shentong distinction, positing shentong as the profound meaning of texts like the Uttaratantra Shastra and third turning sutras, where emptiness refers to the absence of other (gzhan stong) rather than self-emptiness.[37] He also composed Phar phyin mdo lugs ma, a commentary on the Prajnaparamita sutras emphasizing their compatibility with shentong, interpreting wisdom as the inseparability of clarity and emptiness.[37] Taranatha (1575–1634), a prolific Jonang polymath and lineage holder, expanded these foundations through commentaries integrating historical, doctrinal, and practice-oriented texts. His Essence of Other-Emptiness (gZhan stong snying po) elucidates shentong as the pinnacle of Madhyamaka, drawing on Indian sources like Ratnagotravibhaga to affirm luminous mind as ultimate reality.[38] Taranatha's extensive Kalachakra commentaries, including elucidations on the tantra's six yogas and cosmological framework, reinforce Jonang's emphasis on tantric realization of empty-of-other luminosity.[38] Additional treatises by Jonang masters include Dolpopa's Dispelling the Darkness of Ignorance (Ma rig mun sel sgron me), which refutes rangtong objections and defends shentong against accusations of eternalism using scriptural pramana.[39] These works collectively form the exegetical core, prioritizing direct engagement with Indian root texts over later Tibetan syntheses, though their interpretations faced suppression and selective preservation.[11]Practices and Lineages
Meditation and Six Dharmas (Jordruk)
In the Jonang tradition, meditation practices center on the Six Vajra Yogas (sbyor drug gi rdo rje'i rnal 'byor), referred to as Jordruk, which form the core of the completion stage (rdzogs rim) in the Kalachakra Tantra. These advanced tantric methods aim to transform ordinary body, speech, and mind into the enlightened qualities of a Buddha within one lifetime, integrating subtle energy control (lung or prana), visualization, and non-conceptual awareness. Jonang masters, including Jetsun Tāranātha (1575–1634), emphasize their efficacy when preceded by generation-stage practices (kye rim) and preliminaries (ngondro), such as guru yoga and Vajrasattva recitation, to purify obscurations and stabilize the path.[40][34] The six yogas progress sequentially, each building on the previous to dissolve dualistic appearances into luminous emptiness:- Yoga of Withdrawal (so sor sdud pa or pratyāhāra): Practitioners retract sensory engagement, dissolving outer perceptions into inner luminosity by focusing on the central channel and gathering vital winds (lung) at the heart chakra, mimicking the process of death's intermediate state.[34][41]
- Yoga of Meditative Concentration (bsam gtan or dhyāna): Sustained single-pointed focus stabilizes the mind on the indestructible drop at the heart, cultivating four levels of absorption to pacify gross winds and enhance clarity.[34][42]
- Yoga of Harnessing Life-Force (srog 'dzin or prāṇāyāma): Involves breath control and wind dissolution into the central channel, igniting inner heat (gtum mo) to melt the white bodhicitta drop and generate blissful energy, distinct from Naropa's six dharmas by emphasizing Kalachakra's fivefold wind system.[34][41]
- Yoga of Retention (bzung ba or dhāraṇā): Retains the descending blissful energy without emission, stabilizing the vajra body by holding bindus (drops) at key points, preventing dispersal of innate awareness.[34]
- Yoga of Recollection (dran pa nye bar bzhag pa or anusmṛti): Recalls the clear light nature of mind during waking, dream, and deep sleep states, integrating illusory body (sgyu lus) practices to recognize self-arising wisdom free from subject-object dichotomy.[34][43]
- Yoga of Reabsorption (rdzogs pa or samādhi): Culminates in total absorption into non-dual clear light, actualizing the union of bliss and emptiness, leading to the rainbow body or full enlightenment.[34][41]