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Khi Solar One

Khi Solar One is a 50 MW concentrated solar power (CSP) plant featuring power tower technology, located approximately 15 km southwest of Upington in South Africa's Northern Cape province.^[1]^[2] Developed by the Spanish firm Abengoa and currently majority-owned by Cox Energy since its 2024 acquisition, it was the first utility-scale solar tower CSP facility in sub-Saharan Africa, achieving commercial operation in February 2016 after construction began in 2012.^[3]^[2]^[4] The plant employs a 205-meter central tower surrounded by a solar field of 4,120 heliostats covering 576,800 square meters of aperture area, which concentrate sunlight to generate superheated steam at 130 bars and 530°C for electricity production via a direct steam generation system.^[1]^[3]^[5] Equipped with two hours of thermal storage using saturated steam, Khi Solar One enables dispatchable power generation, supplying clean electricity to the national grid and supporting South Africa's renewable energy transition from its coal-dependent system. As of 2024, it generates approximately 100 GWh annually.^[1]^[2]^[6] The project, with a total construction cost of $450 million, was financed in part by the European Investment Bank and a South African development finance institution, marking a pioneering effort in the region's adoption of advanced solar thermal technologies.^[2]^[1] In operation, it powers approximately 17,000 households annually (based on average South African consumption) while preventing the emission of about 100,000 tons of CO₂ per year, contributing to environmental sustainability in an area rich with solar resources south of the Kalahari Desert.^[3]^[6]^[7]

Overview

Location and Site

Khi Solar One is situated in the Northern Cape province of South Africa, approximately 15 kilometers southwest of Upington in the ZF Mgcawu District Municipality.^[1]^[2] The plant occupies a physical footprint of 140 hectares (346 acres) of arid land, providing ample space for its heliostat field while integrating into the surrounding landscape.^[8] The site benefits from its proximity to the Orange River, which supplies water for plant operations, and lies within a semi-arid desert climate characterized by hot summers and mild winters.^[9] This region experiences high solar irradiance, with annual direct normal irradiation exceeding 2,500 kWh/m²—reaching up to 2,816 kWh/m² in the Upington area—making it ideal for concentrated solar power due to consistent sunlight exposure throughout the year.^[10]^[11] Site selection prioritized factors such as abundant flat, undeveloped land in the Kalahari Desert region, strong solar resources, and access to Eskom's national transmission grid for efficient power evacuation.^[12] These criteria ensured minimal ecological disruption in the low-biodiversity arid biome, while supporting the plant's 50 MW capacity to contribute reliably to South Africa's energy needs.^[12]

Capacity and Design Specifications

Khi Solar One is Africa's first concentrated solar power (CSP) plant utilizing solar tower technology, with an installed gross capacity of 50 MW. The facility is designed to generate approximately 180 GWh of electricity annually, expected to provide sufficient clean power for about 65,000 average South African households.^[1]^[3] The plant's core design centers on a 200-meter central tower supporting a direct steam generation receiver that produces superheated steam at 530°C and 130 bar to drive a steam Rankine cycle turbine. It incorporates 4,120 heliostats, each with a 140 m² reflective surface, arranged across 140 hectares to concentrate sunlight onto the receiver. The solar field delivers a peak thermal input supporting the plant's output, complemented by a two-hour saturated steam thermal storage system for dispatchable generation and dry cooling to minimize water use in the arid Northern Cape region.^[5]^[1]^[13]^[3]

Development and Construction

Planning and Development

The development of Khi Solar One was led by the Spanish engineering firm Abengoa as part of South Africa's Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme (REIPPPP), with the project awarded under Bid Window 1 in December 2011 following the programme's launch earlier that year.^[14]^[15] This initiative marked one of the first concentrated solar power projects selected through the competitive bidding process aimed at expanding renewable energy capacity in the country.^[14] Key partnerships were established to support the project's equity structure, with Abengoa holding a 51% stake, the Industrial Development Corporation of South Africa (IDC) contributing 29%, and the Khi Community Trust providing 20%.^[16] These arrangements ensured local participation and aligned with REIPPPP requirements for economic empowerment and ownership by South African entities.^[16] Financing for the 50 MW project totaled approximately €332 million, including around €300 million in non-recourse debt from multilateral and commercial lenders such as the European Investment Bank (EIB, providing €50 million), the African Development Bank (AfDB), the International Finance Corporation (IFC, approximately $75 million), and local institutions like Nedbank Capital.^[2]^[16]^[1] Equity investments from the partners complemented the debt package. A 20-year Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) was secured with Eskom, South Africa's state utility, at a tariff of ZAR 2.69 per kWh starting in 2016.^[1]

Construction Process and Timeline

Construction of Khi Solar One began in November 2012, shortly after the contract award in May 2012, marking the start of site preparation and foundational work on the 140-hectare site near Upington, South Africa.^[11]^[3] In 2013, major structural progress advanced with the erection of the 200-meter central tower, completed in August, providing the core framework for the solar receiver system.^[17] This phase involved pouring foundations and assembling the tower's steel structure, integrating components such as the natural draft cooling system directly into the design for enhanced efficiency.^[18] Heliostat field assembly followed from 2014 through 2015, encompassing the installation of approximately 4,120 heliostats, each with a 140 m² reflective surface, to form a field spanning 576,800 m² of aperture area.^[1] During this period, the focus shifted to precise positioning and alignment of the heliostats to optimize solar concentration on the tower receiver. Integration of the water/steam receiver, thermal storage, and 50 MW steam Rankine power block occurred concurrently in 2015, enabling the system's ability to generate superheated steam at 530°C and 130 bar.^[1]^[19] The construction phase concluded toward the end of 2015, with full commissioning and commercial operations commencing in February 2016.^[19]^[1] The total cost reached $450 million, reflecting investments in advanced tower technology and two hours of thermal storage capacity.^[1]

Technology and Infrastructure

Solar Tower and Heliostat Field

The central receiver tower at Khi Solar One stands 200 meters tall and is constructed primarily of reinforced concrete.^[1] Atop the tower is a direct steam generation receiver manufactured by John Cockerill, featuring a design with three cavities: two natural circulation evaporators positioned on the western and eastern sides, and a superheater on the southern side.^[3] This receiver uses concentrated sunlight to heat feedwater, producing superheated steam at 530°C and 130 bar pressure, which is then directed to the power block for electricity generation.^[3] The heliostat field consists of 4,120 dual-axis tracking mirrors, each with an aperture area of 140 m², manufactured by Abengoa using the ASUP140 model with dimensions of approximately 13.1 m by 10.7 m.^[1] ^[11] These heliostats are arranged in a surrounding pattern around the base of the tower, covering an area of about 300 hectares and providing a total reflective surface of 576,800 m².^[1] ^[20] The field layout optimizes sunlight reflection onto the receiver by minimizing shading and blocking losses through a radial-staggered configuration.^[21] Heliostats are controlled via advanced software systems that enable precise aiming of reflected sunlight to the receiver, adjusting for solar position throughout the day to maintain focus.^[22] Cleaning protocols are implemented regularly to mitigate dust accumulation in the arid Northern Cape environment, ensuring high mirror reflectivity essential for efficient solar concentration.^[23] This integrated setup captures and concentrates solar energy to support the plant's 50 MW gross output capacity.^[1]

Thermal Storage and Power Generation

The thermal storage system at Khi Solar One employs pressurized tanks to accumulate saturated steam, providing a full-load equivalent storage capacity of two hours that enables the plant to generate dispatchable power during periods without direct sunlight.^[1] Unlike conventional molten salt storage used in many other concentrating solar power facilities, this steam accumulator approach avoids the need for complex heat transfer fluids and associated freezing risks, while storing energy directly in the working fluid of the power cycle.^[24] The system consists of 19 steam accumulators integrated with the solar receiver, allowing excess steam generated during peak solar hours to be stored under pressure for later release.^[25] This stored steam feeds into a conventional steam Rankine cycle for power generation, where it expands through a turbine-generator set to produce electricity at a nominal capacity of 50 MW.^[1] The cycle incorporates reheat and condensation stages to optimize thermodynamic efficiency, with superheated steam entering the turbine at 530°C and 130 bar before partial expansion, reheating, and further expansion, followed by condensation in a dry cooling system to minimize water use.^[3] The heliostat field supplies concentrated sunlight to a central receiver that initially generates the high-pressure steam for both direct use and storage.^[1] The steam-based storage offers unique operational advantages, including rapid startup times significantly faster than the several hours required to melt and heat molten salts in comparable systems—facilitating flexible response to grid demands.^[26] This design contributes to reliable baseload-like performance despite the plant's reliance on intermittent solar input.^[27]

Operation and Performance

Commercial Operations

Khi Solar One commenced commercial operations in February 2016, marking it as Africa's first solar tower power plant to achieve this milestone.^[28]^[29] The plant was initially managed by Abengoa Solar, with operations focused on delivering power under a 20-year power purchase agreement with Eskom, South Africa's public utility.^[1] In its first full year of operation in 2017, the facility was designed to produce approximately 180 GWh annually, though actual generation has varied based on performance optimizations.^[1] Ongoing operations involve a dedicated team of around 85 personnel responsible for day-to-day management, including routine maintenance such as heliostat field calibration to ensure precise solar tracking and regular inspections of the superheated steam systems and valves to maintain efficiency.^[30]^[13] The plant's thermal storage system, providing about two hours of full-load operation, supports a designed capacity factor of approximately 41%, enabling dispatchable power generation beyond peak sunlight hours.^[1] Following Abengoa's challenges, ownership and operational control transitioned, with Cox Energy acquiring a 51% stake in December 2024 and assuming responsibility for operations and maintenance through 2036.^[31]^[32] As of December 2024, Khi Solar One was generating around 100 GWh annually, with upgrades implemented by Cox, completed in July 2025, aiming to boost output by more than 30% toward the original design targets.^[32] The plant contributes to South Africa's renewable energy expansion under the updated Integrated Resource Plan, which aims for renewables to supply over 40% of electricity by 2030, supporting national goals for sustainable power amid growing demand.^[33]

Environmental and Economic Impact

Khi Solar One significantly contributes to environmental sustainability by displacing fossil fuel-based electricity generation. The plant avoids approximately 185,000 tons of CO₂ emissions annually, providing clean power equivalent to that needed by 65,000 households.^[3] This reduction is comparable to removing about 40,000 passenger vehicles from the roads each year, based on average annual emissions per vehicle. Additionally, the facility employs dry cooling technology, which minimizes water consumption to under 0.5 m³/MWh, a critical adaptation for the arid Northern Cape region where water resources are scarce.^[34] Economically, the project has stimulated growth in the Northern Cape through job creation and support for local supply chains. During construction, it generated an average of 600 jobs per year, with peaks contributing to broader regional employment, while operations sustain around 85 positions.^[35]^[30] These efforts, including community ownership via the Khi Community Trust, enhance local economic resilience in an area with high unemployment.^[8] As South Africa's first commercial solar tower plant, Khi Solar One demonstrates the viability of concentrated solar power (CSP) technology in Africa, supporting the country's energy diversification away from coal-dominated generation.^[29] Its 50 MW capacity helps reduce reliance on the coal-heavy national grid, promoting a more sustainable energy mix.^[7]

Ownership and Challenges

Initial Ownership and Financing

Khi Solar One was developed under the ownership of Khi Solar One Pty Ltd, with initial equity stakes held by Abengoa at 51%, the Industrial Development Corporation (IDC) at 29%, and the Khi Community Trust at 20%. Abengoa, a Spanish engineering and renewable energy firm, acted as both the engineering, procurement, and construction (EPC) contractor and the long-term operator of the facility. This structure incorporated local economic participation through the IDC, a South African state-owned development finance institution, and the community trust aligned with Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) requirements. The project's financing followed a standard project finance model, comprising approximately 40% equity and 60% non-recourse debt to support construction costs estimated at around €332 million. Key international lenders included the European Investment Bank (EIB), which provided €50 million in debt financing, alongside contributions from the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the Dutch Entrepreneurial Development Bank (FMO), Proparco, and domestic support from the Development Bank of South Africa (DBSA), the IDC, and commercial banks such as Nedbank, Absa, and Rand Merchant Bank. The arrangement was bolstered by subsidies under South Africa's Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme (REIPPPP), which facilitated competitive bidding and tariff support. As part of Abengoa's expanding global portfolio of concentrating solar power (CSP) initiatives, Khi Solar One exemplified the transfer of advanced Spanish CSP technology to emerging markets, marking the company's first major solar tower project in sub-Saharan Africa and contributing to the nation's renewable energy diversification goals. Revenue stability was ensured through a 20-year power purchase agreement (PPA) with Eskom, the state utility, at a tariff determined via REIPPPP Round 1 bidding.

Abengoa Bankruptcy and Asset Transfers

In November 2015, Abengoa SA initiated insolvency proceedings in Spain after accumulating approximately €9 billion in debt, primarily due to aggressive overexpansion in renewable energy projects amid falling solar tariffs and delayed payments from clients.^[36] While the financial crisis posed risks to the company's global portfolio, Khi Solar One's ongoing operations and recent entry into commercial service in early 2016 remained largely insulated, as the plant's power purchase agreement with Eskom and local financing structures provided stability; however, Abengoa's 51% equity stake faced potential restructuring to address creditor claims.^[37]^[16] The insolvency process extended into a comprehensive restructuring, with Abengoa's U.S.-listed yieldco subsidiary, Abengoa Yield (later rebranded Atlantica Sustainable Infrastructure), filing for Chapter 11 protection in the United States in early 2016 to reorganize up to $10 billion in liabilities.^[38] This effort culminated in March 2017, when Abengoa announced the completion of its global restructuring plan, reducing debt by over €6 billion through asset sales, debt-for-equity swaps, and creditor agreements, thereby stabilizing the parent company's finances without immediate divestment of key operational assets like Khi Solar One.^[39] Abengoa retained control of its South African CSP projects, including Khi Solar One, during this period, ensuring continuity in maintenance and output. In July 2024, the 51% stake in Khi Solar One was sold to Spain-based Cox Energy SA (part of the Cox Abg Group), granting the buyer operational control while integrating the asset into its renewable energy holdings.^[30] The transaction, finalized in December 2024 after regulatory approvals, valued the deal at an implied annualized EBITDA of €21-23 million for the acquired share and aligned with ongoing portfolio optimization.^[40] This ownership transition preserved Khi Solar One's operational integrity, with the remaining 49% held by local partners including the Industrial Development Corporation (IDC) and Khi Community Trust, and the plant continuing to deliver reliable baseload power under its 20-year PPA expiring in 2036 without significant interruptions to its 50 MW capacity or environmental commitments.^[16]^[31] The shift to Cox Energy's management has supported long-term sustainability, including plans for efficiency enhancements to boost output by up to 30%, with implementation estimated to complete in July 2025. As of November 2025, these upgrades aim to increase annual generation beyond the current 100 GWh.^[41]^[32]

Incidents and Safety

2014 Crane Collapse

On November 3, 2014, during the construction phase of the Khi Solar One project near Upington in South Africa's Northern Cape province, a 198-meter-tall crawler crane collapsed amid a severe storm, crushing three temporary office containers on site.^[42]^[43] The incident, which occurred around 1:30 p.m., resulted in the deaths of two workers—a 26-year-old woman named Alentia Muller, who died at the scene, and a 31-year-old man who succumbed to his injuries at a hospital—and left six others injured, four of them in critical condition.^[44]^[42] The injured were promptly transported to nearby medical facilities for treatment.^[42] The collapse was attributed to gale-force winds from the freak storm, which reportedly exceeded safe operating limits for the crane.^[42]^[44] South Africa's Department of Labour immediately launched an investigation under the Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1993, dispatching a team of inspectors to the site to examine factors such as equipment stability, weather conditions, and site procedures.^[43] The probe, led by an occupational health and safety specialist, included on-site assessments and was expected to produce a preliminary report within days, with findings forwarded to the National Director of Public Prosecutions if violations were identified.^[43] In the immediate aftermath, construction at the site was halted pending the investigation, remaining non-operational at least one week later as authorities completed initial phases of the review.^[45] Project developer Abengoa, the Spanish firm overseeing the build, expressed condolences and committed support to the affected families, though specific details on compensation were not publicly disclosed.^[42] The incident prompted reviews of safety measures, contributing to broader enhancements in weather monitoring and crane securing protocols at similar sites, without causing long-term disruptions to the overall project timeline that led to commissioning in 2016.^[43]

Post-Construction Safety Record

Since becoming operational in 2016, Khi Solar One has demonstrated a robust post-construction safety performance as part of Abengoa's South African operation and maintenance portfolio. In 2020, the facilities, including Khi Solar One, achieved two consecutive years without downtime accidents and two years without incidents resulting in sick leave. Company-wide, Abengoa reported an improved Low Frequency Index (IFCB) of 2.48 compared to 2.84 in 2019.^[46] Abengoa aligned its occupational health and safety management system with the ISO 45001 standard during 2020, incorporating key pillars such as leadership commitment, employee training, continuous improvement, legal compliance, and system integration to update occupational risk prevention policies across operations.^[46] Under subsequent ownership by the Cox ABG Group since December 2024, the plant benefits from the group's certified management systems under ISO 45001 for occupational health and safety, ISO 9001 for quality, and ISO 14001 for environmental management, with a commitment to zero accidents and no fatalities reported in 2024 operations. As of November 2025, no major safety incidents have been reported at the facility.^[47] Operational safety at the plant emphasizes staff training and rigorous auditing. In 2020, Abengoa employees, including those at South African sites like Khi Solar One, received an average of 30.92 training hours per person amid a shift to virtual formats due to the COVID-19 pandemic.^[46] The organization conducted 64 internal and 14 external health and safety audits that year, identifying and addressing 7,969 deviations to prevent risks.^[46] These efforts align with national guidelines for managing occupational hazards in high-heat industrial settings.^[48]

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