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Turkmen

The Turkmen are a Turkic ethnic group native to Central Asia, with origins tracing to the Oghuz confederation of nomadic pastoral tribes that emerged in the early Middle Ages from the steppes encompassing present-day Mongolia and surrounding regions.^[1] Numbering approximately 8 million worldwide, they form the titular majority in Turkmenistan—comprising over 85% of that country's population—and maintain significant communities in Iran, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and smaller diasporas elsewhere.^[2]^[3] The group is characterized by a historically nomadic lifestyle focused on herding sheep and horses, structured around major tribes such as the Teke, Yomut, and Ersari, and unified by the Turkmen language, which belongs to the Oghuz branch of the Turkic family and features agglutinative grammar with vowel harmony.^[4]^[5]^[6] Predominantly Sunni Muslims following the Hanafi school, often blended with pre-Islamic shamanistic elements and Sufi influences, the Turkmen have preserved distinctive cultural practices including intricate carpet weaving, epic poetry recitation, and reverence for the Akhal-Teke horse breed as a symbol of endurance and heritage.^[7]^[8]

History

Origins and Oghuz heritage

The Turkmen people trace their ethnic origins to the Oghuz Turks, a western branch of Turkic nomadic pastoralists who emerged in the Central Asian steppes during the early medieval period. Proto-Turkic groups, ancestral to the Oghuz, are associated with archaeological evidence from the Altai-Sayan region and Mongolia, including nomadic burial mounds dating to the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age that reflect horse-riding cultures linked to steppe migrations around 2000–1000 BCE.^[9]^[10] These early populations, characterized by mobile herding economies and warrior traditions, expanded westward from the Mongolian periphery by the 6th–8th centuries CE, forming tribal confederations amid interactions with neighboring Iranian and Indo-European groups.^[11] Linguistic evidence firmly places Turkmen within the Oghuz subgroup of Turkic languages, featuring shared phonetic shifts such as the preservation of proto-Turkic *š as /s/ (e.g., "seven" as *yätti in Oghuz forms) and vowel harmony patterns distinct from eastern Turkic branches. This classification aligns with the Oghuz dialects spoken by tribes documented in 11th-century texts like Mahmud al-Kashgari's Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, which lists 22 Oghuz tribes including Kınık and Bayındır, precursors to Turkmen clans. Genetic studies corroborate this heritage, revealing in Turkmen populations elevated frequencies of Central Asian steppe-derived haplogroups (e.g., Y-chromosome R1a and Q at 5–10%, tracing to Oghuz-era migrations) alongside autosomal components showing 30–50% East Eurasian ancestry consistent with proto-Turkic nomad expansions, though admixed with local West Eurasian elements from pre-Turkic substrates.^[6]^[12]^[13] The ethnonym "Turkmen" (or "Türkmen") crystallized in the 10th–11th centuries CE, denoting Oghuz tribes that underwent mass conversion to Islam following contacts with Abbasid and Samanid influences in Transoxiana and Khurasan, distinguishing them from pagan or Buddhist Turkic groups further east. Arabic and Persian sources from this era, such as al-Muqaddasi's writings, first apply the term to these Muslimized Oghuz nomads, who formed tribal alliances emphasizing purity of Turkic descent (Türk meaning "pure" or "Turk-like"). This identity formation was driven by causal factors like ecological pressures on steppe pastures and opportunities for mercenary service under Islamic caliphates, leading to settled fringes in present-day Turkmenistan by the 9th century without implying a singular empire but rather decentralized confederations.^[11]^[14]

Medieval khanates and migrations

During the 16th to 19th centuries, Turkmen tribes, descending from Oghuz nomads, integrated into the political structures of Central Asian khanates, particularly Khiva and Bukhara, where they provided military support and influenced succession struggles without forming independent Turkmen-led states. In the Khanate of Khiva, established around 1511 by Uzbek rulers but encompassing Turkmen populations, tribes such as the Yomud, Ersari, and Chowdur comprised up to one-quarter of the inhabitants by the 19th century and actively intervened in internal affairs by backing rival Uzbek claimants to the throne, leveraging their warrior prowess to secure concessions like tax exemptions and pasture rights. Similarly, in the Bukhara Khanate, founded in 1501 by Shaybanid Uzbeks, Turkmen groups raided Persian territories to supply slaves, bolstering the khanate's economy while expanding their own nomadic domains northward into Khorasan following the Safavid collapse in the early 18th century.^[15] These integrations stemmed from pragmatic alliances, as sedentary Uzbek elites relied on mobile Turkmen cavalry for defense against external threats, while Turkmen gained access to oases for seasonal grazing amid the arid steppes' resource constraints.^[16] Turkmen migrations during this era were propelled by recurrent conflicts with neighboring powers, including Iranian incursions and khanate enforcements, compounded by environmental scarcities that disrupted pastoral mobility.^[17] From the 16th century onward, tribes fled eastward into Afghan territories and southward into northeastern Iran to evade punitive expeditions by Khiva and Bukhara rulers, who sought to curb Turkmen autonomy through tribute demands and forced submissions, often resulting in retaliatory raids that escalated displacements.^[17] Droughts and overgrazing in the Karakum Desert further incentivized southward shifts, as tribes like the Tekke and Salor relocated to fertile fringes in Khorasan, establishing semi-permanent encampments while maintaining raiding circuits for livestock and captives.^[5] By the late 18th century, post-Nader Shah disruptions had recaptured Turkmen lands for the khanates, prompting additional exoduses to avoid reincorporation, with settlements solidifying in regions like Merv and Herat.^[16] A core driver of these dynamics was the Turkmen reliance on slave raiding as an economic mainstay, adapted to nomadic imperatives where captives supplemented labor shortages in herding and artisanry.^[18] Turkmen warriors targeted Persian villages and caravans, capturing thousands annually for sale in Khiva's markets—where slavery fueled prosperity from the 16th to 19th centuries—or retention as household servants, yielding revenues that financed tribal confederations and weaponry.^[18] This practice, rooted in the steppe's competitive ecology where fixed agriculture was untenable, intensified migrations as successful raids attracted reprisals from Safavid and Afghan forces, dispersing tribes while perpetuating cycles of plunder over sedentary tribute economies.^[19] Such adaptations underscored the causal primacy of ecological pressures and martial traditions in shaping Turkmen expansions, prioritizing mobility and extraction over territorial consolidation.^[18]

Russian Empire and early 20th century

The Russian Empire's expansion into Turkmen territories accelerated in the 1860s, targeting the semi-independent nomadic tribes such as the Yomud and Tekke, who controlled oases like Akhal and Merv. Initial advances involved amphibious landings at Krasnovodsk in 1869 and campaigns against Yomud tribes along the Caspian, but the Tekke Turkmen in the Akhal region mounted fierce resistance, raiding Russian outposts and defeating early expeditions.^[20] By 1879, a Russian force under General Lomakin assaulted the Geok Tepe fortress but retreated after suffering heavy losses from Tekke counterattacks, highlighting the challenges of subduing fortified nomadic strongholds.^[21] The decisive campaign occurred in 1880–1881 under General Mikhail Skobelev, who constructed supply lines including segments of the Transcaspian Railway to sustain the siege of Geok Tepe. On January 24, 1881, Russian troops stormed the fortress, resulting in the deaths of approximately 5,000–8,000 Tekke defenders during the assault and subsequent pursuits, effectively breaking organized resistance in the Akhal oasis.^[22] This victory led to the submission of remaining Tekke groups and the conquest of the Merv oasis in 1884, incorporating the region into the Transcaspian Oblast.^[23] Russian forces numbered around 7,000–10,000 in these operations, leveraging artillery and entrenchments against numerically superior but less disciplined Turkmen warriors.^[20] Administrative control prompted infrastructure development, including the full extension of the Transcaspian Railway from Uzun-Ada on the Caspian to Kizil-Arvat by 1881 and Ashgabat by 1885, spanning over 500 kilometers and enabling rapid troop movements while disrupting traditional caravan routes used by nomads.^[24] Economically, Tsarist policies promoted cotton cultivation to supply Russia's textile mills, expanding irrigation canals in oases and encouraging sedentary farming among Turkmen tribes, which reduced pastoral mobility and integrated the region into imperial markets.^[25] High cotton prices in the late 19th century incentivized shifts from livestock herding, though yields remained modest compared to later Soviet expansions.^[26] In the early 20th century, discontent with Russian conscription and land policies fueled unrest, culminating in the 1916 revolt across Turkestan. Turkmen tribes, including those in the Transcaspian area, participated in uprisings such as raids near Chikishlar and in the Khanate of Khiva, protesting a decree mobilizing Muslim males aged 19–43 for rear-line labor amid World War I shortages.^[27] Russian reprisals suppressed these actions, killing thousands and exiling leaders, but they presaged broader resistance movements like the Basmachi, initially rooted in anti-Tsarist grievances before intensifying post-1917.^[28] These events underscored ongoing tensions over centralization efforts that clashed with tribal autonomy.^[20]

Soviet incorporation and transformations

The Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic was established on October 27, 1924, as part of the Soviet Union's national delimitation process, which reorganized Central Asia into ethnically designated republics to consolidate Bolshevik control and preempt pan-Turkic unity.^[29] Borders were delineated by Soviet commissions, incorporating Turkmen-majority areas from the Turkestan ASSR while excluding some nomadic grazing lands and assigning enclaves to neighboring republics, effectively fragmenting tribal territories historically shared among Teke, Yomut, and Ersari groups to weaken kinship-based loyalties and foster loyalty to the new administrative units.^[30] This engineering diluted traditional confederations, as nomadic tribes spanning modern borders were split, compelling reliance on centralized Soviet authority for resource allocation. Soviet policies accelerated forced sedentarization of Turkmen nomads during the 1920s and 1930s, targeting pastoralist lifestyles through land reforms and anti-"feudal" campaigns that confiscated herds and resettled populations into collective farms (kolkhozes). By the late 1930s, the majority of Turkmen had transitioned to sedentary agriculture, eroding tribal hierarchies as elders lost influence over communal decisions, which were supplanted by party-appointed officials. Collectivization drives, peaking in 1932–1933, imposed grain quotas and livestock requisitions that triggered localized food shortages and livestock die-offs, though less severe than in Kazakhstan; these measures dismantled customary dispute resolution and genealogical identities central to Turkmen social organization. Russification efforts compounded this by prioritizing Russian as the lingua franca in administration and education, marginalizing Turkmen dialects and integrating local elites into Soviet nomenclature to prioritize class over tribal affiliations.^[31]^[32] During World War II, the Turkmen SSR contributed to the Soviet war effort by mobilizing labor for oil extraction in the Caspian fields and supplying foodstuffs, with Turkmen units forming part of the Red Army's Central Asian divisions; per capita donations of personal valuables, such as jewelry, exceeded those of other republics, reflecting coerced patriotism amid wartime rationing. Post-war reconstruction emphasized industrialization, expanding cotton monoculture via extensive irrigation networks that boosted agricultural output but initiated soil salinization and desertification in the Karakum region, precursors to broader ecological strain from inefficient water diversion. Literacy rates rose dramatically—from under 5% in 1926 to over 90% by 1959—through mandatory schooling in Russian-medium institutions, yet this advance enforced state atheism, suppressing Islamic practices and Sufi orders through mosque closures and anti-religious propaganda, which alienated rural communities while urbanizing a nascent Turkmen intelligentsia loyal to Moscow.^[33]^[34] These transformations prioritized extractive economics over sustainable development, yielding short-term productivity gains at the expense of demographic stability and cultural continuity.^[35]

Independence and post-1991 developments

Turkmenistan declared independence from the Soviet Union on October 27, 1991, amid the USSR's dissolution, with Saparmurat Niyazov, the former Communist Party leader, assuming the presidency.^[36] Niyazov quickly adopted a policy of permanent neutrality, enshrined in the 1992 constitution and recognized by the United Nations General Assembly via unanimous resolution on December 12, 1995, which emphasized non-alignment in military alliances and focus on internal development.^[37] This isolationist stance, combined with vast natural gas reserves—estimated at over 11 trillion cubic meters—enabled self-sufficiency, as post-independence control over export pipelines initially directed revenues primarily to Russia before shifting toward China via the Central Asia-China pipeline completed in 2009, funding state subsidies and infrastructure while limiting foreign influence.^[38]^[39] Under Niyazov, gas export revenues—peaking in the 2000s with global energy price surges—sustained a pervasive personality cult, exemplified by the 2001 publication of Ruhnama, his autobiographical manifesto elevated to quasi-scriptural status, mandatory for school curricula, university admission, and even driver's licenses until its de-emphasis after his death.^[40]^[41] This ideology reinforced authoritarian consolidation, with repression of dissent ensuring domestic stability; reports document systematic violations including arbitrary arrests, torture, and curbs on freedom of expression, as corroborated by state department assessments and human rights monitors.^[42] Niyazov's death on December 21, 2006, led to the swift ascension of Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow, his health minister and protégé, who was appointed acting president by the State Security Council and confirmed in a 2007 election lacking genuine opposition.^[43] Berdimuhamedow's rule perpetuated centralized control, leveraging gas wealth—constituting over 80% of exports—to maintain subsidies that bought public acquiescence amid economic opacity and corruption, though diversification efforts faltered due to isolationism.^[44] In a dynastic shift, he resigned in March 2022, paving the way for his son Serdar Berdimuhamedow to win the presidency on March 12 with 72.97% of votes in an election criticized for fraud and absence of viable alternatives.^[45] Serdar's tenure has seen continuity in authoritarian practices, with ongoing restrictions on civil liberties and media, per annual human rights evaluations.^[46] Economic strains intensified by subsidy reductions and food shortages—exacerbated by post-2022 global pressures—sparked rare public protests, primarily by women over ration system failures, met with swift suppression, highlighting tensions between resource-driven stability and underlying repression.^[47]^[48]

Peoples and Demographics

Tribal subgroups and ethnic composition

The Turkmen are organized into major tribal subgroups rooted in Oghuz Turkic confederations, with social structures emphasizing patrilineal clans (urug), extended kinship ties, and tribal loyalties (taýpa or il) that historically governed resource allocation, conflict resolution, and endogamous marriage practices.^[49] The principal tribes comprise the Teke, the most populous subgroup; Yomud; Ersari; Saryk; Goklen; and Chaudor, each descending from medieval Oghuz branches and maintaining semi-autonomous hierarchies led by elders or begs.^[50] These divisions endure as frameworks for identity and mutual aid, influencing inheritance, nomadic herding strategies, and ritual observances despite external pressures toward sedentarization.^[49] Subgroup variations manifest in dialectal distinctions within the Oghuz Turkmen language, where tribal affiliations correlate with lexical divergences—such as unique pastoral terminology—and subtle phonological or grammatical shifts, preserving oral genealogies (sheler) and epic recitations tailored to each tribe's migratory history.^[51] Customs diverge accordingly, including tribe-specific weaving techniques for textiles and carpets, variant marriage rites emphasizing bride-price negotiations, and specialized equestrian traditions, all underpinned by shared shamanistic-Islamic syncretism but adapted to ecological niches. The Teke subgroup's numerical and cultural weight has positioned its dialect and practices as de facto standards for broader Turkmen linguistic and normative unification, evident in literary codification efforts from the 19th century onward.^[50] Turkmen ethnic composition centers on these tribal cores, with over 95% of self-identified Turkmen tracing descent to one or more of the aforementioned groups, supplemented by minor subclans like the Salyr integrated into larger tribes such as Saryk or Teke.^[50] Peripheral intermixing occurs via alliances or unions with neighboring Turkic peoples like Uzbeks and Kazakhs, introducing limited bilingualism or hybrid customs in contact zones, yet tribal endogamy and Oghuz-specific markers—such as the gösde ancestral cult—sustain a cohesive ethnic boundary distinct from Karluk or Kipchak influences.^[51] This tribal matrix, rather than fluid assimilation, defines the Turkmen's internal ethnic dynamics, prioritizing lineage fidelity over territorial or state-based affiliations.^[49]

Population estimates and genetic studies

Estimates place the global population of ethnic Turkmen at approximately 7 million, with the largest concentration in Turkmenistan comprising about 85% of the total, followed by smaller communities in Iran (around 1-2 million), Afghanistan (350,000-1 million), and Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan (tens of thousands each).^[52]^[53] In Turkmenistan, official government figures from the 2022 census report a total population of over 6.7 million, with ethnic Turkmen forming the majority, but these numbers are widely disputed by independent observers due to the regime's history of statistical manipulation and failure to account for net emigration; opposition and expatriate sources estimate the actual total population at 3-4 million, implying fewer than 3 million ethnic Turkmen domestically.^[54]^[55]^[52] Turkmen demographics reflect a youthful profile, with over 50% of the population under 30 years old, a median age of 26.9, and 31% aged 0-14 as of 2025 projections; this structure stems from a total fertility rate of about 2.0-2.1 children per woman and a crude birth rate of 17-19 per 1,000 population, though high infant mortality (around 38 per 1,000 live births) tempers growth.^[56]^[57]^[58] Emigration has accelerated population decline, with net migration rates negative at -1.7 to -6 per 1,000 annually; between 2008 and 2018, an estimated 1.9 million people departed, primarily youth seeking economic opportunities abroad amid stagnation, and 2024 saw over 366,000 emigrants, exacerbating labor shortages and distorting official counts.^[59]^[60]^[61] Genetic studies of Y-chromosome DNA in Turkmen populations reveal a diverse haplogroup profile consistent with Oghuz Turkic origins, featuring elevated frequencies of R1a (associated with steppe pastoralists) and J2 (linked to West Asian and Anatolian components), alongside Q-M25 (up to 40-70% in some subgroups, tracing to Siberian-Altaic sources) but distinguishing from Mongolic groups through low prevalence of C2-M217 (typically under 5-10%, versus 40-60% in Mongols).^[13]^[62] A 2024 analysis of 23 Y-STR loci in 200 Turkmen males from Turkmenistan confirmed high haplotype diversity (0.999), with regional variations reflecting tribal endogamy (e.g., higher Q in Yomud tribes), supporting limited recent East Asian admixture compared to eastern Turkic peoples and emphasizing West Eurasian paternal continuity from medieval Oghuz migrations.^[12]^[63] These patterns indicate that while Turkmen carry some Northeast Asian ancestry (10-20% autosomal), their Y-lineages align more closely with proto-Turkic expansions than with dominant Mongolic markers, underscoring causal separation from post-13th-century Mongol influences.^[13]

Historical ethnonyms and identity evolution

The term "Türkmen" first appeared in 11th-century Persian sources to designate nomadic Oghuz Turkic tribes that had adopted Islam, contrasting with settled urban Turkic populations labeled simply as "Türk."^[64] This distinction reflected lifestyle and conversion status, as the mobile Oghuz migrants, originating from the Aral Sea region, pushed westward under Seljuk leadership after defeating Ghaznavid forces at Dandanakan in 1040, integrating into Persianate societies while retaining pastoral nomadism.^[65] Ottoman chronicles perpetuated the ethnonym for analogous nomadic groups in Anatolia, such as the Yörüks, even as some Turkmen lineages transitioned to semi-sedentary patterns by the 15th century, evolving the term from a primarily socio-economic marker to one encompassing broader tribal confederations descended from Oghuz forebears.^[64] Soviet administrative reforms in the 1920s formalized "Turkmen" as a national category, delineating the Turkmen ASSR in 1924 and elevating it to union republic status in 1925, with korenizatsiya policies promoting literacy and cultural institutions to cultivate a unified identity transcending tribal divisions like Tekke or Yomud.^[66] This supra-tribal framing countered pan-Turkic ideologies, which envisioned a singular Turkic polity spanning Central Asia, by institutionalizing separate titular nations to fragment potential irredentist unity under Moscow's oversight.^[66] Pre-revolutionary literacy efforts, such as the journal Ravnaq al-Islām (published circa 1910s), had already hinted at emergent supra-tribal consciousness among urbanizing elites, which Bolshevik ethnographers amplified through census classifications and vernacular standardization.^[67] In post-independence Turkmenistan, state narratives under presidents Niyazov (1991–2006) and Berdimuhamedow emphasize a monolithic Turkmen ethnicity rooted in ancient Oghuz myths and centralized symbols like the Ruhnama textbook, subordinating tribal markers to national cohesion amid authoritarian governance.^[68] Conversely, diaspora populations exceeding 2 million in Iran and 1.5 million in Afghanistan often prioritize tribal affiliations—such as Yomut in northern Iran or Ersari in northern Afghanistan—for social organization and endogamy, reflecting weaker state imposition of unified identity outside Turkmenistan's borders.^[53] This divergence underscores how political authority shapes ethnonymic self-perception, with tribalism persisting where national projects lack enforcement.^[50]

Language

Linguistic classification and Oghuz features

Turkmen is classified as a Southwestern Turkic language within the Oghuz subgroup of the Turkic language family, specifically aligning with the Eastern Oghuz languages alongside varieties like Khorasani Turkic.^[69] This positioning stems from comparative reconstructions tracing shared innovations from Proto-Oghuz, including lexical retentions and morphological patterns distinct from Kipchak or Karluk branches.^[70] Like other Oghuz languages, Turkmen exhibits core Turkic grammatical features such as agglutination—where suffixes attach sequentially to roots to encode case, tense, and possession—vowel harmony constraining suffix vowels to match root vowel qualities (front/back and rounded/unrounded), and absence of grammatical gender or articles.^[71]^[72] These traits foster syntactic parallels with Turkish and Azerbaijani, enabling partial mutual intelligibility estimated at 40-80% among educated speakers, though comprehension falters beyond Oghuz due to phonological shifts and borrowed lexicon from Persian and Russian.^[73]^[74] Phonologically, Turkmen retains dental fricatives /θ/ (as in θüüt 'milk') and /ð/ (voiced counterpart), uniquely preserved among Oghuz languages from Proto-Turkic *s and *z that affricated or sibilated elsewhere (e.g., Turkish süt, Azerbaijani süd).^[71]^[75] This conservative evolution, shared only with Bashkir in the broader family, underscores Turkmen's peripheral development and contributes to intelligibility barriers even within Oghuz, as speakers of standard Turkish perceive these as unfamiliar "th"-like sounds rather than sibilants.^[76]

Dialects and regional variations

The Turkmen language encompasses several dialects tied to tribal affiliations, which remain mutually intelligible despite regional and phonetic variations. Primary dialects include Teke, Yomud, Ersari, and Goklen, with additional varieties such as Salyr, Sarik, and Chowdur.^[77] ^[71] The Teke dialect, encompassing sub-varieties like Ahal and Mari, predominates in central and southern Turkmenistan and underpins the national standard.^[77] Yomud dialects, with western and northern sub-forms, are widespread in northeastern Iran (Khorasan and Mazandaran provinces) and western Turkmenistan.^[77] Ersari prevails among communities in northern Turkmenistan (Lebap province) and Afghanistan, while Goklen occurs in southwestern Turkmenistan and bordering Iranian areas.^[77] ^[71] These dialects cluster into broader groups: one encompassing Teke, Yomud, Goklen, Sarik, Salyr, and Ersari, which closely aligns with the standard; a second in frontier zones between Turkmenistan, Iran, and Uzbekistan, showing greater divergence.^[71] Vocabulary differences arise from contact languages, featuring Persian loanwords (e.g., deryā for 'river') and Arabic elements across varieties, though eastern Afghan forms reflect heightened Persian (Dari) integration compared to western Iranian ones with distinct Arabic-Persian admixtures.^[77] ^[78] Post-independence in 1991, Turkmenistan has advanced standardization via the Teke-based form in official domains, education, and broadcasting to foster uniformity, while curtailing Russian lexical influence.^[71] This process privileges Teke features in media and policy, though tribal dialects persist in informal and cross-border contexts.^[77]

Scripts, standardization, and literary tradition

Prior to the Soviet era, the Turkmen language employed the Perso-Arabic script, which had been adapted for Turkic phonetics since the 10th century but posed challenges for representing specific vowel harmonies and consonants unique to Oghuz languages.^[79] In 1928, Soviet authorities initiated a latinization campaign across Turkic republics, replacing Arabic with a Latin-based alphabet for Turkmen to promote literacy and ideological alignment, drawing from the Teke dialect spoken around Ashgabat as the standardization base.^[78] ^[80] This shift facilitated initial standardization efforts but was reversed in 1940 when Cyrillic was imposed to enhance Russification and administrative control, adding diacritics for Turkmen sounds absent in Russian.^[81] Following Turkmenistan's independence in 1991, President Saparmurat Niyazov decreed a return to a modified Latin script on April 12, 1993, motivated by desires to distance from Russian influence and revive pre-Soviet Turkic heritage, though implementation dragged due to Niyazov's personal interventions in orthographic rules, such as imperfect grammar standardization.^[82] ^[83] The new Latin alphabet incorporated 30 letters, including unique symbols like Ñ for /ŋ/ and Ž for /ʒ/, but adoption faced delays from resource shortages and resistance, with Cyrillic lingering in education and media into the early 2000s; full transition was mandated by 2000, causally tied to nation-building under Niyazov's authoritarian consolidation.^[84] Turkmen literary tradition in the 20th century evolved under political constraints, shifting from Soviet-era socialist realism—where writers critiqued feudal remnants and promoted collectivism—to post-independence state-controlled narratives emphasizing Niyazov's cult of personality, including mandatory study of his Ruhnama (2001) as quasi-scriptural text that stifled dissent and prioritized patriotic themes over innovation.^[83] Key figures like playwright and novelist Berdi Kerbabayev exemplified mid-century output with works such as Aygïtlï ädim (1940), blending traditional epic forms with ideological messaging, though broader creativity waned amid censorship.^[85] Isolationist policies under Niyazov and successors limited digital literary dissemination, with heavy internet censorship—ranking Turkmenistan among the world's most restrictive regimes—blocking global platforms and suppressing online Turkmen content, thereby confining tradition to print and oral forms vulnerable to state oversight.^[86] ^[87]

Geographic Distribution

Turkmenistan

Turkmen constitute approximately 85% of Turkmenistan's population of over 7 million, forming the dominant ethnic group in a country where official statistics emphasize their cultural and demographic primacy.^[52] The urban center of Ashgabat, with a population exceeding 900,000 as of 2025, exemplifies rapid modernization under state directives, featuring white marble architecture and centralized infrastructure that prioritizes elite access over broad distribution.^[88] In contrast, rural regions, home to about 46% of the populace, retain stronger tribal divisions among subgroups like the Yomut and Teke, where pastoral traditions and clan-based social networks influence land use and dispute resolution despite government centralization efforts.^[89]^[52] The national economy hinges on natural gas production and exports, which comprised around 70% of total exports in recent years and propelled GDP growth amid reserves ranking fourth globally at nearly 20 trillion cubic meters.^[90]^[91] Revenues from pipelines primarily to China fund state projects but concentrate wealth among ruling elites and connected urban strata, fostering inequality reflected in a Gini coefficient estimated at 40.8 in available data, though recent measurements suggest levels up to 51.1 due to opaque resource allocation.^[92]^[93] Rural Turkmen households, reliant on subsidized agriculture and remittances, face chronic shortages of imported goods, underscoring the disconnect between gas wealth and everyday provisioning.^[94] Government policies enforce cultural preservation to reinforce Turkmen identity, mandating traditional dress such as long skirts and headscarves for women in public spaces, with intensified restrictions in Ashgabat since March 2025 prohibiting vibrant colors and form-fitting attire to align with state aesthetics.^[95] These decrees, disseminated through local authorities and workplaces, extend to bans on cosmetic enhancements like dyed hair or false nails, positioning adherence as a civic duty amid broader controls on personal expression.^[96] Such measures, while framed as safeguarding nomadic heritage, limit individual autonomy in daily routines, particularly for urban women navigating state-monitored environments versus rural kin upholding customs through informal tribal enforcement.^[97]

Iran

The Turkmen population in Iran is estimated at between 1 and 2 million, primarily concentrated in the northeastern provinces of Golestan and North Khorasan, adjacent to the border with Turkmenistan.^[98]^[99] They belong predominantly to the Yomut (Yomud) tribe, one of the major Turkmen tribal confederations, with historical roots in semi-nomadic pastoralism involving sheep and horse herding across the arid steppes.^[100] These communities maintain cross-border kinship networks with kin in southern Turkmenistan, facilitating informal trade and seasonal migrations that predate modern state boundaries but have been constrained by post-Soviet border controls.^[101] Linguistically, Iranian Turkmen are bilingual, speaking a southern dialect of the Turkmen language alongside Persian, the dominant state language enforced in education and administration.^[77] This bilingualism arises from generational exposure to Persian-medium schooling and urban interactions, though Turkmen remains the primary vernacular in rural households, supporting oral traditions and family cohesion.^[102] Religiously, they adhere to Sunni Islam, distinct from Iran's Shia majority, with practices emphasizing communal prayer and Sufi influences; following the 1979 Revolution, some communities experienced heightened scrutiny amid ethnic unrest, including a brief rebellion in Golestan demanding cultural recognition, yet religious observance has persisted moderately without widespread radicalization.^[103] Economic pressures have driven significant rural-to-urban migration since the late 20th century, with many Yomut shifting from herding to wage labor in cities like Gorgan or Tehran, often as construction workers or traders.^[100] Despite this, traditional crafts endure, particularly women's carpet weaving using wool from local flocks to produce intricate Tekke-style rugs with geometric motifs, which are sold domestically and exported for their durability and cultural authenticity.^[104] Assimilation challenges persist through state policies favoring Persian in public life and sporadic land reallocations that disrupt tribal grazing rights, eroding distinctiveness among younger generations while elder-led efforts preserve endogamous marriages and clan structures.^[105]^[106]

Afghanistan

The Turkmen in Afghanistan number approximately 1 million, comprising about 3 percent of the country's population, with the majority residing in the northwestern region, particularly Herat province.^[107]^[108] This population is dominated by the Ersari and Yomud (also spelled Yomut) tribal subgroups, who maintain strong cross-border kinship ties to Turkmenistan, influencing their social and economic patterns.^[109] Herat's Turkmen communities have demonstrated resilience amid recurrent conflicts, including Taliban governance periods from the 1990s and post-August 2021, through sustained cross-border trade via the Torghundi port, a key transit point for goods between Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.^[110]^[111] This trade, expanded by a July 2025 agreement investing $5 million in port infrastructure, mitigates economic disruptions from instability, though refugee outflows remain minimal due to Turkmenistan's restrictive border policies, even for ethnic kin, to prevent potential land claims or security risks.^[112]^[113] While broader Afghan displacements exceeded 3.5 million internally by 2021, Turkmen-specific migrations to neighboring states were limited, preserving community cohesion through informal networks rather than mass exodus.^[114] Economic ties extend to Afghanistan's opium sector, with Herat serving as a smuggling conduit for opiates toward Central Asia, including a reported 15 percent routed via Turkmenistan borders, though Taliban-enforced bans since April 2022 have sharply reduced cultivation nationwide, from 233,000 hectares in 2022 to near eradication levels by 2023.^[107]^[115] Limited formal education access compounds challenges for Turkmen youth, as Taliban policies prohibiting female secondary schooling since 2021 hinder human capital development, with Herat's informal and charitable schools serving only partial needs amid resource constraints.^[116]^[117]

Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan

Approximately 221,000 Turkmen reside in Uzbekistan, concentrated in the northern border regions of Khorazm Province and the Republic of Karakalpakstan, adjacent to Turkmenistan's Dashoguz and Lebap provinces.^[118] These populations trace their presence to Soviet administrative divisions in the 1920s, when the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic and Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic were delineated, creating cross-border ethnic enclaves without regard for local demographics.^[119] Water allocation disputes along the Amu Darya River, which forms part of the border, exacerbate challenges for these communities, as upstream diversions in Turkmenistan for irrigation have periodically reduced flows into Uzbekistan, straining agriculture in Turkmen-inhabited districts.^[120] Uzbekistan's official language policies prioritize Uzbek, limiting Turkmen-language education and media, which has contributed to cultural assimilation pressures on minority groups.^[118] In Kazakhstan, Turkmen communities number fewer than 3,000 according to official data, with small pockets in the west near the Caspian Sea and in the Kyzylorda Region proximate to the shrinking Aral Sea basin.^[121] Soviet border policies similarly stranded these groups during the republic formations of the 1920s-1930s, fostering isolated enclaves amid Kazakh-majority territories.^[119] The Aral Sea's desiccation, driven by Soviet-era cotton irrigation projects diverting the Amu Darya and Syr Darya since the 1960s, has severely impacted local ecosystems and livelihoods in Kyzylorda, indirectly affecting Turkmen pastoralists through salinized soils and lost fisheries.^[35] Kazakhstani state promotion of Kazakh and Russian languages in public spheres has marginalized Turkmen cultural expression, with limited access to native-language schooling reported in minority areas.^[118]

Other regions including diaspora

Turkmen minorities in Syria trace their origins to Oghuz Turkish tribal migrations and settlements during the Ottoman Empire, forming communities primarily in northern regions including Latakia and Aleppo provinces, as well as scattered areas in Homs, Damascus, and Quneitra. These groups, largely Sunni and adhering to the Hanafi school, have historically coexisted with Arab populations while preserving Turkic linguistic and cultural elements.^[122]^[123]^[124] In Turkey, smaller historical Turkmen pockets exist alongside more recent Central Asian inflows, with approximately 60,000 Turkmen nationals holding various residence permits as of 2021 data, driven by visa-free access and escapes from domestic repression. Many enter irregularly, with over 70,000 illegal Turkmen migrants detained by Turkish authorities since 2018 amid heightened crackdowns on emigration from Turkmenistan.^[125]^[61] Western diaspora communities in the United States and Europe remain limited, consisting mainly of political refugees and skilled migrants fleeing Turkmenistan's authoritarian controls, economic stagnation, and human rights restrictions, with asylum seeker numbers rising from 323 in 2000 to 1,680 by 2018. Between 2008 and 2018, nearly 1.9 million Turkmen citizens emigrated overall, though the Western subset represents a fraction amid preferences for proximate destinations like Turkey and Russia. These groups have established informal networks and participated in broader Turkmen associations to maintain cultural ties.^[126]^[127] The Humanitarian Association of Turkmens of the World, founded in 1991 by the Turkmen government, operates branches in 14 countries to promote national history, traditions, and unity among expatriates, hosting events that emphasize state-approved narratives. Independent dissident activities, however, highlight tensions, including abductions of activists in Turkey labeled as threats by Ashgabat. Small diaspora sizes exacerbate language attrition and cultural dilution, yet integration yields empirical gains in education, employment, and personal freedoms unavailable domestically, fostering selective assimilation over isolation.^[128]^[129]^[130]

Culture and Traditions

Nomadic lifestyle and material culture

The Turkmen traditionally practiced pastoral nomadism in the arid steppes and deserts of Central Asia, herding sheep, goats, horses, and camels to exploit seasonal pastures in environments with limited arable land and water sources.^[131] This mobility allowed adaptation to the harsh Karakum Desert and surrounding regions, where groups identified as charwa (pastoralists) migrated with livestock for grazing, contrasting with more settled chomur (agriculturalists) near oases.^[132] Camels facilitated long-distance transport in caravans across trade routes, carrying goods and families, while horses enabled rapid movement for herding and defense.^[30] Central to this lifestyle was the Akhal-Teke horse, bred by nomadic Teke tribes for its endurance, speed, and metallic sheen, serving as mounts for raids, migrations, and daily herding in protein-scarce diets shared between horse and rider.^[133]^[134] Dwellings consisted of portable yurts (ak öý), constructed from wooden lattice walls, felt coverings made from sheep wool, and a central roof ring for ventilation, allowing quick assembly and disassembly by 5-15 people to follow herds.^[135] Material culture emphasized wool-based items; women wove carpets on vertical looms using dyed sheep wool, incorporating tribal motifs like the göl (tribal emblem) to denote clan identity and serve as economic trade goods or tent dividers.^[136]^[104] Soviet policies from the 1920s onward promoted sedentarization through collectivization, reducing full nomadism among Turkmen tribes by 1924 and shifting populations to fixed settlements for agricultural control.^[137] Despite this, elements of nomadic practices persisted in rural areas, with yurt construction, horse breeding, and carpet weaving maintaining cultural continuity among herders into the late 20th century.^[138]

Arts, crafts, and oral traditions

The epic art of Görogly constitutes a central pillar of Turkmen oral traditions, featuring narrative performances of heroic tales centered on the legendary warrior Görogly and his forty cavalrymen, transmitted through generations by bakhshi bards who improvise verses accompanied by instruments such as the dutar. These epics, blending prose and poetry, encapsulate Turkmen historical conceptions, moral codes, and tribal identities, with performances historically serving communal functions like healing and entertainment among nomadic groups. Inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2015, the tradition underscores the bakhshi's role as custodian of pre-Islamic folklore, often invoking motifs of justice, valor, and resistance against tyranny. Instrumental music forms another vital expressive outlet, prominently featuring the dutar, a long-necked, two-stringed lute with a pear-shaped body that emerged around the 15th century among pastoral communities and remains emblematic of Turkmen sonic heritage. Bakhshi utilize the dutar to underpin epic recitations, improvising schemas that reflect regional styles, such as those from Dashoguz, where it pairs with the ghijjak fiddle for layered ensembles evoking steppe landscapes and spiritual introspection.^[139] The instrument's craftsmanship and performance practices, integral to epic arts, were recognized by UNESCO in 2019, highlighting their continuity in fostering communal bonds despite modern encroachments on nomadic life. Turkmen crafts emphasize functional artistry tied to tribal status and cosmology, with women's jewelry—crafted from silver encrusted with carnelian stones for protective symbolism—incorporating motifs of mountains, animals, and horns derived from creation myths and pastoral symbolism.^[140] Headgear, pendants, and braid ornaments, layered from antiquity, denoted marital and social rank among tribes like the Teke and Yomut, with pieces often weighing several kilograms to signify wealth and resilience in migratory existence.^[141] Textiles, particularly knotted-pile carpets woven using the asymmetrical Senneh knot, feature centralized medallions and gül (tribal emblems) patterns that encode clan affiliations, with traditions dating to at least the 5th century AD and formalized in UNESCO's 2019 inscription for their role in preserving nomadic material culture amid urbanization.^[136] These artifacts, produced on portable looms by women, not only served utilitarian purposes like tent coverings but also embedded cosmological narratives, though contemporary state initiatives have institutionalized production, potentially standardizing designs at the expense of variant tribal expressions.^[136]

Cuisine and daily customs

Turkmen cuisine emphasizes hearty, meat-centric dishes derived from the pastoral traditions of sheep herding, with mutton or lamb as the primary protein source. Plov, a rice pilaf cooked in a large cauldron (kazan), forms the cornerstone of meals, prepared with long-grain rice, chunks of lamb or beef, abundant onions, carrots, and spices like cumin and chili, often enriched by lamb tail fat for authenticity.^[142]^[143] This dish is communal, typically served at gatherings, reflecting the nomadic heritage where rice absorbs flavors from slow-cooked meats and vegetables. Accompanying staples include manty—steamed dumplings stuffed with minced mutton, onions, and fat—and flatbreads such as chorek, baked in tandoor ovens.^[144] Daily meals revolve around tea rituals, with hot green tea (gök chaý) served year-round in shallow, bowl-like cups known as käses, symbolizing warmth and social bonding. Tea precedes and follows food, poured by the host or women of the household, and is integral to hospitality codes where visitors are invariably offered multiple rounds alongside sweets or bread upon arrival, as a mark of honor and generosity.^[145]^[146] Refusal is rare, underscoring the cultural imperative of communal sharing in both rural yurts and urban homes. Marriage customs prioritize endogamy within tribal lineages, with spouses selected from the same clan or tribe to preserve kinship ties and social structures, contrasting exogamous practices among neighboring groups.^[147] Weddings involve elaborate feasts featuring plov and ritual exchanges, often arranged early for brides, though civil registration is now required alongside traditional ceremonies. In traditional rural settings, gender roles delineate clear divisions: women oversee domestic tasks like cooking, weaving, and child-rearing, while men handle herding and external affairs; urban migration introduces limited shifts, with women entering education or light labor, yet patriarchal norms largely endure in household dynamics.^[148]^[149]

Religion and spiritual practices

The vast majority of Turkmen adhere to Sunni Islam, specifically the Hanafi school of jurisprudence, which has been the dominant interpretive tradition since the religion's adoption in the region between the 8th and 14th centuries.^[150] This form of Islam integrates elements of Sufi mysticism, particularly among tribal groups, where Sufi orders have historically shaped spiritual practices, poetry, and communal rituals emphasizing personal devotion and esoteric knowledge over strict orthodoxy.^[151]^[152] Sufi influences persist in folklore and healing traditions, blending with Hanafi legalism to form a syncretic piety that prioritizes experiential faith. Pre-Islamic Turkic beliefs, rooted in Tengrism—a system combining animism, shamanism, and sky-god worship—continue to manifest in Turkmen spiritual practices despite formal Islamic adherence.^[153] Ancestor veneration, a core Tengrist element, endures through rituals honoring deceased kin and shamans, often invoked for protection or guidance, as seen in customs involving offerings at gravesites or recitation of genealogies during life events.^[151] Animistic residues appear in beliefs about nature spirits (e.g., jinn-like entities in deserts or mountains) and protective amulets against the evil eye, which coexist with Islamic prayers and are rationalized as compatible folk extensions rather than deviations. These practices reflect causal persistence of pre-Islamic causal frameworks, where spiritual efficacy derives from harmony with ancestral and natural forces, undiluted by later overlays. Soviet rule from 1924 to 1991 enforced state atheism, closing most mosques—reducing active ones to fewer than 20 by the 1980s—and suppressing overt religious expression through anti-Islamic campaigns that targeted clerics and texts, fostering a legacy of subdued observance among Turkmen.^[154] Post-independence revival accelerated after 1991, with over 1,000 mosques constructed or restored by the early 2000s, including large-scale marble-and-dome structures symbolizing renewed communal worship.^[155] This resurgence counters Soviet secularization by reasserting Islam's role in daily spirituality, though empirical surveys indicate observance remains inconsistent, with many blending ritual participation and private shamanistic elements rather than uniform orthodoxy.^[150]

Society and Modern Challenges

Tribal roles in contemporary society

In contemporary Turkmenistan, tribal affiliations continue to shape social interactions and loyalties, often paralleling or subtly undermining the state's emphasis on centralized national identity. Kinship networks, rooted in historical nomadic structures, influence personal relationships, resource sharing, and conflict resolution, with major tribes such as Teke, Yomud, Ersari, and Saryk maintaining distinct roles in community governance.^[156]^[157] Despite official policies promoting ethnic unity under the presidency, tribal elders frequently mediate interpersonal and familial disputes, drawing on customary law (adat) to enforce decisions that prioritize clan harmony over formal state mechanisms.^[132]^[50] Marriage practices exemplify the persistence of tribal endogamy, where unions are preferentially arranged within the same tribe to preserve lineage purity and social alliances, though inter-tribal marriages occur more frequently in urban settings.^[50]^[158] Tribal affiliation remains a key factor in mate selection, with families consulting elders to assess compatibility based on clan history and territorial origins, reinforcing networks that extend to mutual aid during crises.^[159] This contrasts with state egalitarian ideals, as tribal preferences can perpetuate hierarchies and regional divisions, occasionally clashing with policies aimed at uniform citizenship.^[160] Tribal influence is markedly stronger in rural areas, where over 50% of Turkmen reside and clan attachments dominate daily life, including land use and community decisions, compared to urban centers like Ashgabat where modernization and migration have diluted but not eradicated these ties.^[161]^[50] In villages, tribal councils under elder leadership handle minor arbitrations, filling gaps in state administration's reach, while urban dilution stems from Soviet-era urbanization and current economic migrations that mix populations yet preserve informal tribal associations for social support.^[158] Such dynamics highlight a tension between enduring kinship realism—where loyalty to blood ties ensures survival in resource-scarce environments—and the central government's push for ideological conformity.^[160]

Economic conditions and resource management

Turkmenistan's economy is predominantly driven by hydrocarbon exports, particularly natural gas, which accounted for approximately 73.9% of total export revenue in 2023, with exports reaching 39.5 billion cubic meters that year.^[162]^[163] This reliance has elevated nominal GDP per capita to around $9,166 in 2024, supported by state revenues from gas sales primarily to China, which comprised $9.6 billion of the $14.17 billion in gas revenues for that period.^[164] However, this resource dependency fosters vulnerability to global price volatility; for instance, declining hydrocarbon incomes since 2014 have constrained food supplies and exacerbated economic pressures, limiting diversification into other sectors and contributing to uneven welfare distribution despite apparent per capita gains.^[165] Subsidies on utilities and basic goods, financed by gas rents, mask underlying inflationary pressures and distort economic signals, with official consumer price inflation reported at 1.39% in 2023 but real rates likely higher due to unadjusted social benefits and import restrictions that fail to reflect market costs.^[166]^[167] These mechanisms sustain basic consumption but hinder efficient resource allocation, as evidenced by hyperinflation episodes in the late 2010s tied to gas price drops, leading to widespread food shortages and eroded purchasing power.^[168] Official unemployment stands at 4.1% for 2023, yet underreporting in a state-dominated labor market suggests hidden underemployment, further compounded by corruption that ranks Turkmenistan 170th out of 180 on the 2023 Corruption Perceptions Index, enabling elite siphoning of hydrocarbon wealth and stifling private investment.^[169]^[170] Agricultural productivity has declined due to environmental legacies of Soviet-era irrigation, which diverted Amu Darya River waters for cotton monoculture, causing soil salinization and contributing to the Aral Sea's shrinkage by over 90% since the 1960s, with inefficient open canals persisting as relics that exacerbate water scarcity.^[35]^[171] This has reduced arable land viability and output in a sector once expanded to 15.9 million hectares across Central Asia, now facing chronic shortages that amplify food insecurity amid gas-funded subsidies unable to offset systemic degradation.^[172] Overall, gas dependency sustains fiscal inflows but causally undermines long-term welfare by crowding out non-hydrocarbon growth, perpetuating corruption-driven inefficiencies, and failing to remediate irrigation-induced agricultural collapse.^[47]

Political structures and authoritarian governance

Turkmenistan operates as a highly centralized authoritarian presidential republic, where power is concentrated in the executive branch under the president, who dominates legislative and judicial functions through loyal appointees and advisory bodies like the Halk Maslahaty (People's Council).^[173]^[174] The 1992 constitution, amended multiple times, nominally establishes separation of powers and allows for political parties, but in practice, the system enforces one-party dominance via the Democratic Party of Turkmenistan (DPT), with other registered parties functioning as regime extensions lacking independent platforms or opposition capabilities.^[175]^[176] The doctrine of permanent neutrality, declared in 1995 and enshrined in Articles 2 and 9 of the constitution, reinforces internal authoritarian mechanisms by prioritizing non-alignment and isolation from external alliances, allowing the regime to focus resources on domestic control rather than geopolitical entanglements.^[177] This policy, recognized by UN General Assembly Resolution 50/80 on December 12, 1995, limits military pacts and international commitments, enabling sustained opacity and self-reliance in governance while minimizing threats from abroad.^[178] Elections serve primarily as rituals of legitimacy, with presidential terms of seven years featuring no genuine competition; candidates are pre-approved, voter turnout is near-universal under mobilization, and results consistently yield supermajorities for incumbents, as in Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow's 97% victory in 2012.^[179]^[180] The 2022 presidential transition exemplified hereditary consolidation, as Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow resigned on March 19 after 15 years in power, paving the way for his son Serdar Berdimuhamedow to win 72.97% in the March 12 election amid a field of regime-vetted rivals.^[181] Serdar, previously a regional governor and deputy prime minister, assumed the presidency while his father retained influence as "Arkadag" (Protector) and chairman of the reconstituted Halk Maslahaty, an expanded advisory body incorporating executive, legislative, and local elites to perpetuate family oversight.^[182]^[183] This dynastic shift maintained continuity in repressive controls, including surveillance, media monopoly, and resource allocation favoring regime loyalty over diversification. Authoritarian structures have secured regime stability by averting internal upheavals through mobilization, resource patronage, and isolationist policies, fostering a controlled environment absent major ethnic or ideological conflicts since independence.^[184]^[173] However, this comes at the cost of stifled innovation, as centralized decision-making, restricted information flows, and suppression of dissent hinder technological advancement, private enterprise, and adaptive reforms, resulting in economic rigidity dependent on state hydrocarbon monopolies despite vast reserves.^[185]^[186]

Human rights issues and international critiques

Turkmenistan's government maintains tight control over political expression, media, and movement, with international organizations documenting persistent violations including arbitrary detention, torture, and censorship. The U.S. Department of State's 2024 Human Rights Report notes credible reports of torture or cruel treatment by officials, alongside arbitrary arrests without due process, often targeting perceived critics or those failing to demonstrate loyalty to the ruling family.^[42] Human Rights Watch's World Report 2025 similarly highlights enforced disappearances and political imprisonment, with authorities denying access to independent monitors, relying instead on state-controlled institutions that fail to investigate abuses.^[46] These practices, while justified by officials as necessary for national stability amid ethnic tribal dynamics and resource scarcity, empirically correlate with suppressed dissent rather than broad security threats, as evidenced by the regime's intolerance for even mild online criticism.^[187] Media operates under severe censorship, with no independent outlets permitted and all content required to praise the leadership, including the Berdimuhamedow family. Amnesty International's 2024 assessments describe how authorities block foreign websites, monitor internet use, and punish journalists or bloggers for unauthorized reporting, fostering self-censorship pervasive across state media.^[188] Travel restrictions compound isolation, as the government arbitrarily denies passports or exit permissions, particularly to activists, with Human Rights Watch reporting in November 2024 that officials barred citizens in Turkey from renewals, effectively stranding thousands in a "cage" of immobility.^[189] Such measures extend transnationally, with the State Department documenting harassment of exiles via threats to relatives or forced returns, as seen in cases involving Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty contributors in 2023.^[190] Critics abroad face surveillance and smear campaigns, patterns corroborated by multiple exile testimonies despite the challenges of verification in a non-transparent state.^[46] Women's rights face de facto limitations, including inadequate protections against gender-based violence and restricted reproductive autonomy, amid cultural norms reinforced by state policies. The State Department's 2024 report cites discrimination in law and practice, with limited access to services for domestic violence survivors and reports of coerced pregnancies to boost population growth, as noted in independent analyses of draconian family policies implemented since 2022.^[42]^[191] International bodies like the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women have urged reforms, pointing to gaps in anti-trafficking measures during seasonal labor mobilizations that disproportionately affect women.^[192] The personality cult, featuring mandatory displays of Niyazov-era statues and Berdimuhamedow family iconography in public spaces, sustains repression by diverting resources from development—evidenced by stagnant GDP per capita around $7,000 in 2023 despite gas wealth—and fostering isolation that hampers scrutiny.^[193] UN Human Rights Council reviews and EU dialogues have critiqued these as barriers to progress, though Turkmen officials counter that they preserve cultural unity against external influences, a claim undermined by the absence of verifiable internal dissent data.^[194] Reports from organizations like HRW and Amnesty, drawing on defector accounts and satellite imagery of prison facilities, underscore systemic issues over isolated incidents, with no observed reforms post-2022 leadership transition.^[195]

Other Uses

Animals and breeds

The Akhal-Teke horse, a breed native to Turkmenistan, is renowned for its exceptional endurance and distinctive metallic sheen in its coat, often appearing golden.^[134] This slim, long-legged equine, with a lean build resembling a greyhound, traces its lineage to ancient Turkmen horses documented over 3,000 years ago, serving historically as cavalry mounts and racehorses due to superior stamina in arid conditions.^[196] The breed's intelligence and versatility extend to modern disciplines like dressage and jumping, though its population remains critically low, classified as endangered by conservation organizations.^[197] Karakul sheep, a fat-tailed breed prevalent in Central Asia including Turkmenistan, provide essential wool, meat, and pelts for local economies.^[198] Mature Karakuls yield 3 to 4 kg of wool annually, with a growth rate of about 2 cm per month, supporting shearing twice yearly; the wool's coarse texture suits hand-spinning and weaving.^[199] In Turkmenistan, Karakuls alongside Saraja sheep are prioritized for meat productivity enhancement through selective breeding, adapting to arid foothills and irrigated zones where they thrive on sparse vegetation.^[200] Desertification in Turkmenistan's Karakum Desert exacerbates pressures on these breeds by degrading rangelands through overgrazing and resource exploitation, reducing forage availability and biodiversity.^[201] Conservation measures, coordinated by the National Institute of Deserts, Flora and Fauna since 1996 under the UN Convention to Combat Desertification, emphasize regulated grazing and afforestation to mitigate soil salinization and habitat loss affecting livestock viability.^[202] These efforts aim to sustain breed populations amid fragile ecosystems, where unchecked land use has historically intensified degradation.^[203]

Media and cultural references

Independent media outlets operating in the Turkmen language from abroad include Radio Azatlyk, the Turkmen Service of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, which broadcasts news, analysis, and cultural content on Turkmenistan's political, economic, and social developments via shortwave, satellite, and online platforms.^[204] This service, funded by the U.S. Congress, functions as the primary independent source of information for audiences within Turkmenistan, where domestic media face strict state control.^[205] Films produced or distributed by Turkmenistan's state studio, Turkmenfilm, include titles such as Güýz (2009), a drama exploring family and societal themes, and Jennet Gusy (1991), focusing on personal struggles in rural settings. Internationally, Tümlükden Nura (From Darkness to Light), released in 2019, marks the first feature-length gospel film produced specifically for Turkmen audiences in Central Asia, addressing themes of spiritual transformation amid cultural isolation.^[206] Documentaries on Turkmen media and society include a 2025 YouTube production analyzing state television content, highlighting game shows, cartoons, and talent programs that reflect government propaganda and limited creative expression.^[207] Additionally, a biographical film on the 18th-century poet Magtymguly Pyragy, released in 2025, earned an international award in London for depicting his philosophical emphasis on peace, homeland loyalty, and humanism.^[208]

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The Dictatorship of Saparmurat Niyazov - Open Society Foundations
Niyazov's autobiographical and highly ideological text, the Ruhnama, is the cornerstone of the all-pervasive cult of personality he built during his lifetime.
[42]
2024 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Turkmenistan
Significant human rights issues included credible reports of: torture or cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment; arbitrary arrest or detention; ...
[43]
[PDF] Leadership Succession in Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan
Two recent transitions in Central Asia—Turkmenistan in 2006 and Uzbekistan in. 2016—have shown that authority can be transferred calmly and peacefully. This.
[44]
[PDF] Economy of Turkmenistan: two decades of independence1)
Turkmen economy since 1997 had been a resumption of natural gas export to. Ukraine and Russia and rise of the global energy price. For instance, in 1998–2008.Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
[45]
https://en.kremlin.ru/catalog/persons/684/events/78088
[46]
World Report 2025: Turkmenistan | Human Rights Watch
Shortages of subsidized food continue. Authorities restrict women's and girls' rights. Consensual same-sex conduct between men is a criminal offense under ...Missing: protests cuts 2022-2025
[47]
Turkmenistan Country Report 2024 - BTI Transformation Index
During the reporting period, people primarily protested the lack of subsidized food supplies, wage and pension arrears, restricted access to funds in their bank ...Missing: 2022-2025 | Show results with:2022-2025
[48]
Turkmenistan: Severe food shortages provoke protests
Hundreds of protesters (mostly women) staged the largest demonstration to date over the breakdown of Turkmenistan's subsidized food system.Missing: cuts 2022-2025
[49]
[PDF] Country Profile: Turkmenistan, February 2007 - Loc
Smaller ethnic groups, in order of size, are Tatar, Kazakh,. Ukrainian, Azeri, and Armenian. The Turkmens are divided into five major tribes: the Ersary,.
[50]
TURKMEN SOCIETY AND TRIBES - Facts and Details
The five largest of the 1000 or so tribes, sub-tribes and major clans are the Yomud (Caspian shore and northern Iran), Tekke (Merv, Ashgabat and central ...
[51]
[PDF] Learning to Become Turkmen: Literacy, Language, and Power, 1914 ...
Turkmen dialects reflect variants that correspond to tribal identity; that is, there is variation in vo- cabulary and some differences in the grammar of spoken ...Missing: composition customs
[52]
Turkmenistan - The World Factbook - CIA
This is the population pyramid for Turkmenistan. A population pyramid illustrates the age and sex. 2022 population pyramid:.Missing: emigration | Show results with:emigration
[53]
Turkmenistan - Minority Rights Group
Almost 1 million Turkmen live in Iran and an estimated 350,000 in Afghanistan. Turkmen converted to Islam earlier than other nomadic Central Asian groups (in ...
[54]
'Out Of Thin Air': Turkmen Unconvinced By New Census Results ...
Jul 24, 2023 · But many Turkmen have rejected the official data, accusing the government of covering up an unprecedented population decline in recent years.
[55]
PANNIER: Turkmenistan claims population jump but compelling ...
Jul 21, 2023 · ... Turkmen National Statistics Institute reported the population as 6.786mn. That was the last time Turkmen officials provided a population figure.
[56]
World Population Dashboard -Turkmenistan
Turkmenistan's 2025 population is 7.6 million, with 31% aged 0-14, 64% aged 15-64, and 5% aged 65+. Life expectancy is 67 for males and 73 for females.
[57]
Turkmenistan Demographics 2025 (Population, Age, Sex, Trends)
The median age in Turkmenistan is 26.9 years (2025). Fertility in Turkmenistan. A Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of 2.1 represents the Replacement-Level Fertility ...Missing: emigration | Show results with:emigration
[58]
Turkmenistan Demographics Profile - IndexMundi
Age structure, 0-14 years: 25.44% (male 713,441/female 693,042) 15-24 years ... Birth rate, 17.85 births/1,000 population (2021 est.) Death rate, 5.95 ...
[59]
Turkmenistan Faces 'Shocking Population Decline' As Exodus ...
Jul 12, 2021 · In May 2019, multiple sources in Ashgabat told RFE/RL that nearly 1.9 million people left Turkmenistan between 2008 and 2018 either for ...
[60]
Turkmenistan population (2025) live - Countrymeters.
As of 1 January 2025, the population of Turkmenistan was estimated to be 6,377,776 people. ... world was approximately 1,016 males to 1,000 females as of 2024.Population fact sheet · Population 2025 · Demographics 2024 · Age structure
[61]
Turkmenistan Escalates Crackdown on Citizens Looking to Emigrate ...
Jul 22, 2025 · With a population of 7 million people, Turkmenistan is a country with a significant emigration rate. In 2024, 366,000 people emigrated ...Missing: estimates | Show results with:estimates
[62]
Genetic Polymorphism of Y-Chromosome in Turkmen Population ...
Nov 3, 2024 · PDF | This study investigates the Y-chromosome genetic diversity of the Turkmen population in Turkmenistan, analyzing 23 Y-STR loci for the ...
[63]
Haplogroup Q-M25 - Wikipedia
Haplogroup Q is found in minority Turkmen tribes living in Afghanistan at percentages of about 32%, and another study found that 42.6% of Iranian Turkmens have ...Distribution · See also
[64]
Y-haplogroup spectrum in Turkmen population from different ...
This study investigates the Y-chromosome genetic diversity of the Turkmen population in Turkmenistan, analyzing 23 Y-STR loci for the first time in a sample ...
[65]
The ethnocultural and sociological analysis of migrations ... - Nature
May 17, 2024 · The term Turkmen, originally used to refer to Muslim Oghuz, has evolved into a collective term for various Turkic tribes spread across the ...<|separator|>
[66]
https://oxfordre.com/asianhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-708
[67]
https://www.jstor.org/stable/27083379
[68]
Turkmen Literacy and Turkmen Identity before the Soviets - jstor
The study shows Turkmen literacy was higher than thought before 1917, and the Ravnaq al-Islām contributed to a sense of supra-tribal identity.
[69]
Between the state and cultural zones: Nation building in Turkmenistan
Aug 6, 2025 · The first part of this article focuses on two issues answering the questions: Is Turkmen identity a fixed and given or socially constructed ...Missing: diaspora | Show results with:diaspora
[70]
Turkmen Language | PDF | Linguistics - Scribd
The place of the language in genealogical classiﬁcation. ○ Language family - Turkic. ○ Group - Oghuz branch. ○ Subgroup - Eastern Oghuz, closely related to
[71]
[PDF] types of labial vowel harmony in the - turkic languages
Turkic languages are agglutinative. Within word structures all grammatical morphemes (suffixes) are added in a strictly determined sequence after the root. The ...
[72]
Turkmen - The Language Gulper
Turkmen is an agglutinative language adding different suffixes to a primary stem to mark a number of grammatical functions. Each morpheme expresses only one of ...
[73]
[PDF] Turkmen Language: Alphabet, structure and writing
Turkmen is a Turkic, agglutinative language with vowel harmony, spoken by about 7 million people, with 23 consonants and 9 vowels.<|separator|>
[74]
[PDF] Mutual Intelligibility among the Turkic Languages - Son Sesler
Personally, I think the intelligibility of. Turkmen and Turkish is probably around 40%. Turkish has low intelligibility between. Crimean Tatar and Karaim.
[75]
To what extent is Turkmen mutually intelligible with both Modern ...
Jan 23, 2018 · Yes, almost. Vocabulary and grammar are quite similar between these two Oghuz languages. The main difference is the unique pronunciation rules of Turkmen.To what degree are Turkic languages mutually intelligible? - QuoraCan speakers of Turkish, Azeri, and Turkmen understand ... - QuoraMore results from www.quora.com
[76]
Sound Types (Chapter 12) - Turkic
Aug 13, 2021 · The type θ, IPA [θ], is a strong interdental fricative, e.g. Turkmen θüːt 'milk', Bashkir tụ̈θ ‹тѳҫ› 'color'. The type δ, IPA [ð], is a weak ...
[77]
Does the Turkmen language always had the “th” and “dh” sounds?
Jan 4, 2023 · No, they come from old turkic *s and *z sounds which didn't evolve in other turkic languages. only bashkir and turkmen have th and dh, which evolved ...Know your ð sounds. : r/linguisticshumor - RedditFolk explanations for the actuation of sound changes : r/linguisticsMore results from www.reddit.comMissing: /θ/ /ð/
[78]
TURKMENS OF PERSIA ii. LANGUAGE - Encyclopaedia Iranica
The Turkmen language belongs to the Oghuz group of Turkic languages and forms a separate northwestern branch within it. Turkmen shows the largest number of ...
[79]
Turkmen - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
... 19th century. Some decades later, Russia annexed the Turkmen territory, which caused many Turkmen groups to emigrate to Afghanistan and Iran. The Turkmen ...
[80]
Latin Lies: The Lost History of Arabic Script Experimentation in ...
Feb 11, 2024 · Since Turkic communities first accepted Islam in the 10th century CE, they have used the Arabic script to record the languages they speak.Missing: transition | Show results with:transition
[81]
Why did Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan switch from the Latin ... - Quora
May 7, 2023 · Originaly both Turkmens and Uzbeks used Arabic script. They switched to Latin script in early Soviet era in 1920s.Why did Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan switch to the Latin alphabet ...What is the real reason behind the strange Latin alphabets ... - QuoraMore results from www.quora.com
[82]
Alphabet Transitions: Chronology of the New Latin Script
Latin replaced Arabic in 1928, followed by Stalin's imposition of Cyrillic in 1938, which remained until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. No matter how ...
[83]
The politics of script reform in Soviet Turkmenistan - OhioLINK
12 April 1993 Turkmenistan's President Saparmurat Niyazov declared that Turkmenistan would reform their Cyrillic alphabet to a new Latin based script.
[84]
Turkmen Report: August 5, 2000 - RFE/RL
Aug 5, 2000 · ... Niyazov's Turkmen language is not perfect and has delayed a standardization of the language. Officials and scholars inside Turkmenistan fear ...
[85]
The Tinder Linguist: Turkmen - 끝소리 kkeutsori
Apr 5, 2020 · When Turkmenistan gained independence in 1991, President Saparmurat Niyazov immediately planned a switch back to the Latin alphabet. The first ...
[86]
LITERATURE OF TURKMENISTAN | Facts and Details
Other famous Turkmen writers include the 19th century poet Kemine, known for his satirical works; and Mollanepes, the author of popular lyrical poems. ...Missing: Alty Karliev
[87]
[PDF] State of Ambivalence: Turkmenistan in the Digital Age
Imagine the Turkmen people, isolated from the rest of the world, posting comments to the Independent's website and taking active part in a global online ...
[88]
The Digital Iron Curtain: Internet Censorship and Cyber Surveillance ...
In Turkmenistan, one of the most repressive and isolated states globally, online expression has become a perilous act. In late 2023, a 26-year-old man from the ...Missing: presence | Show results with:presence
[89]
Ashgabat Population 2025
Ashgabat's 2025 population is now estimated at 941,130. In 1950, the population of Ashgabat was 149,416. Ashgabat has grown by 19,529 in the last year, ...
[90]
Turkmenistan Population (2025) - Worldometer
The current population of Turkmenistan is 7,656,687 as of Friday, October 24, 2025, based on Worldometer's elaboration of the latest United Nations data1.
[91]
Economy in focus: Turkmenistan - Emerging Europe
Jul 31, 2024 · This growth is primarily driven by the country's vast natural gas reserves, which account for around 70 per cent of its total exports.
[92]
UK–Turkmenistan development partnership summary, March 2024
Mar 27, 2024 · Turkmenistan has the world's fourth-largest natural gas reserves. According to government data, hydrocarbons and oil products made up about 83% ...
[93]
Gini index - Turkmenistan - World Bank Open Data
Gini index - Turkmenistan · Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of population) · Poverty gap at $4.20 a day (2021 PPP) (%) · Poverty headcount ...Missing: coefficient | Show results with:coefficient
[94]
Countries > Turkmenistan > Gini Coefficient - World Economics
Turkmenistan's Gini Coefficient Index is 51.1 and was most recently measured in 2019. Turkmenistan's data is highlighted in the table below, use the filter and ...
[95]
Turkmenistan Reaches its Limits With Economic and Security ...
Jul 31, 2018 · This revenue contributes to Turkmenistan's higher average income compared to its neighbors, although income inequality is also high. All its gas ...
[96]
Dress Codes Tighten For Women In Turkmenistan, Where The State ...
Mar 16, 2025 · New rules have been handed down to women working in Ashgabat further restricting what they can wear, adding to a growing list of "aesthetic" ...
[97]
Beauty Ban: Turkmenistan Puts Severe Restrictions On Women's ...
May 4, 2022 · In Turkmenistan, women are no longer allowed to wear "tight-fitting" clothes, dye their hair, or use beauty accessories such as false nails or eyelashes.
[98]
Turkmenistan Takes Policing Women's Bodies to the Next Level
May 3, 2022 · In April, Turkmen authorities began cracking down on salons, enforcing a ban on a range of beauty services.
[99]
Turkmen in Iran people group profile | Joshua Project
Pronunciation, TERK-men ; Alternate Names, Anauli; Chaghatai; Esari; Goklen; Jagarta; Trukhmeny; Turkoman; Yomud; टर्कमेन ; Population this Country, 1,143,000.
[100]
Turkmen People in Iran, Nomadic and Ethnic Groups
Mar 9, 2025 · The Turkmen people in Iran make up about 1% of the country's population, estimated at around one million. They are mostly located in the ...<|separator|>
[101]
Nomadism as a Political Adaptation: The Case of the Yomut Turkmen
Aug 6, 2025 · Their population in Iran was estimated about two million people in 2017 (Ethnologue 2020). ... ... Turkmen in Iran mostly live at Golestan province ...Missing: Yomud | Show results with:Yomud
[102]
[PDF] Iran-Turkmenistan Relations: Cross-Border Ethnic Groups and ...
The establishment of cross-border ethnic ties serves as a crucial strategy for deepening relations between Iran and Turkmenistan, rooted in their shared ...
[103]
Family Language Policy and Language Maintenance among ...
Language Policy. Chapter. Family Language Policy and Language Maintenance among Turkmen-Persian Bilingual Families in Iran. December 2021. DOI:10.5040 ...
[104]
Data | Assessment for Turkmen in Iran - Minorities At Risk Project
Shortly after the Iranian revolution in 1979, the Turkmen rebelled against the new government demanding autonomy, official recognition of their language, and ...Missing: revival | Show results with:revival
[105]
Turkmen Women, Weaving and Cultural Change | LEAF
Turkmen carpets are fine examples of weaving done by nomadic tribal women. In the last 100 years the context of weaving these carpets has changed considerably.
[106]
[PDF] Turkmen Status within Iranian Ethnic Identity (Cultural, Geographical ...
Since the late 70's population estimates are difficult because of the growing: assimilation of the Turkmens. After the Islamic Revolution of 1979 increased ...
[107]
In Iran, ethnic Turks under siege of discrimination and assimilation
Jan 29, 2024 · “There is systematic discrimination against Turkics and pressure for their assimilation in Iran. They are even denied their Turkic identity. The ...
[108]
Turkmenistan and Afghanistan | Institute for the Study of War
Afghanistan is responsible for more than 90 percent of the world's illicit opium production, and 15 percent of the opiates produced in Afghanistan are smuggled ...Missing: trade economy
[109]
Uzbeks and Turkmens in Afghanistan - Minority Rights Group
Previous estimates have suggested that Uzbeks (9 per cent) and Turkmen (3 per cent) make up a total of around 12 per cent of the population.
[110]
Ersari - Sharafi and Co
Once in northern Afghanistan, the Turkmen (mostly members of the Ersari tribe) conquered territories in the provinces of Herat ... tribes involved in their ...
[111]
Afghanistan and Turkmenistan Sign Deal to Expand Torghundi Port
Aug 1, 2025 · With the implementation of this project, trade transit between Afghanistan and Turkmenistan is expected to increase, paving the way for broader ...Missing: border | Show results with:border
[112]
Afghanistan and Turkmenistan sign $5 million agreement for ...
Jul 31, 2025 · Afghanistan and Turkmenistan have signed a $5 million agreement aimed at developing infrastructure at the Torghundi Port, a critical trade ...
[113]
[PDF] POLICY BRIEF - ICMPD
Aug 2, 2024 · Similarly, a 100-fold decrease in the number of refugees from Afghanistan occurred in Turkmenistan over the same pe- riod. In addition, both ...
[114]
Central Asia Refuses to Accept Afghan Refugees - IWPR
Sep 8, 2021 · Analysts believe that Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan do not want to let the refugee issues cloud their future relations with the Taleban regime, ...Missing: flows | Show results with:flows
[115]
Afghanistan: How many refugees are there and where will they go?
Aug 31, 2021 · That means an estimated 3.5 million Afghans are currently internally displaced within the country.
[116]
Trouble In Afghanistan's Opium Fields: The Taliban War On Drugs
Sep 12, 2024 · The Taliban have launched a campaign against the country's illegal narcotics industry, rounding up drug users, destroying opium poppy and ...
[117]
Taking a Terrible Toll: The Taliban's Education Ban
Apr 13, 2023 · Over a year and a half after the Taliban barred girls from secondary education, 'the sadness is overpowering,' one female student told USIP.Missing: Turkmen | Show results with:Turkmen
[118]
Free School Opens for Working, Orphaned Children in Herat
Feb 25, 2025 · A charity foundation in Herat has established a school providing free education for around one thousand working and orphaned children.
[119]
Turkmen in Uzbekistan people group profile | Joshua Project
Turkmenistan, 5,782,000, 0 Progress Gauge ; Afghanistan, 1,194,000, 0 Progress Gauge ; Iran, 1,143,000, 1 Progress Gauge ; Uzbekistan, 221,000, 0 Progress Gauge.
[120]
Current State of Border Issues in Central Asia – ERI
Turkmenistan signed the corresponding agreements with Uzbekistan (September 2000) and Kazakhstan (July 2001), while Kazakhstan settled this issue by signing the ...
[121]
Water Conflict in Central Asia: Turkmenistan's Dilemma
Nov 30, 2015 · However, as water supply becomes insufficient, countries such as Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan have begun to express concern, inferring causal ...
[122]
How many Turkmens live in Kazakhstan? «Connecting Cultures
Oct 22, 2021 · Russian population census, 2.8 thousand representatives of the Turkmen nationality lived on the Kazakh land. According to today's data ...<|separator|>
[123]
Syrian Turkmen Join Opposition Forces in Pursuit of a New Syrian ...
May 30, 2013 · Syria's Turkmen communities are descendants of Oghuz Turkish tribal migrants who began moving from Central Asia into the area of modern-day ...<|separator|>
[124]
A Look at the Turkmen Community in Syria - VOA
Nov 24, 2015 · Syrian Turkmen are Syrian citizens of Turkish ethnicity who have lived in Syria since Ottoman times and have coexisted with Syrian Arabs for hundreds of years.
[125]
An ancient people in Syria: Turkmens | Opinion - Daily Sabah
Apr 21, 2025 · The majority of Syrian Turkmen are Sunni and Hanafi. There are a small number of Alawite Turkmen communities among them. The Turkish spoken by ...
[126]
[PDF] TURKMENISTAN
Turkmenistan has no diaspora engagement policy, its diaspora is autonomous, and the government has limited interest, with no public data on the diaspora.
[127]
Turkmenistan - Migrants & Refugees Section
While the number of refugees and asylum seekers from Turkmenistan was 323 in 2000, this number increased to 804 in 2010 and to 1,680 in 2018.
[128]
Escape From Turkmenistan: Almost 2 Million Have Fled, But The ...
Jun 8, 2019 · "According to the classified information gathered by the state statistics committee, 1,879,413 people left between 2008 and 2018 either for ...
[129]
The XXVI Conference of the Humanitarian Association of Turkmens ...
Sep 15, 2025 · The head of state noted the key role of the Humanitarian Association of Turkmens of the World, founded in 1991, in uniting Turkmens living ...
[130]
The Humanitarian Association of Turkmens of the World gathered ...
Sep 14, 2024 · Currently, there are 27 branches of the Humanitarian Association of World Turkmens operating in 14 countries, namely in the Russian Federation, ...Missing: Western | Show results with:Western
[131]
https://academics.hamilton.edu/central-asian-history/keller-pastoralist-nomads
[132]
Central Asian History - Keller: Pastoralist nomads - Hamilton College
Economically, Turkmen lived along a continuum from nomadic herders to settled farmers, depending on their local environment. Groups who lived closer to oases ...Missing: historical | Show results with:historical
[133]
Turkmens - Summary - eHRAF World Cultures
The Turkmens are one of the major ethnic groups of Central Asia, where they had their own Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR), also referred to as Turkmenia or ...
[134]
The Golden Horses of Turkmenistan - Silkroad Foundation
... Akhal Teke horses are the defining icon of Turkmen culture. Perhaps the oldest pure-blooded horse extant, horses of the Akhal Teke type have been bred in ...
[135]
Akhal-Teke Horse - The Livestock Conservancy
Jan 8, 2025 · The Akhal-Teke descends from the raiding horses of Turkmenistan ... nomadic Teke tribe with whom the breed shares the second half of its name.Missing: culture | Show results with:culture
[136]
The yurt: a mobile home of nomadic populations dwelling ... - PubMed
Jan 8, 2014 · The yurt is the traditional home of the nomadic Turkmen, the Kyrgyz, the Kazakhs, the Uzbeks, the Kalmyks, the Buryats and the Mongolians.
[137]
Traditional turkmen carpet making art in Turkmenistan
Turkmen carpets are created on horizontal or vertical looms, mainly using different coloured wool threads. The carpets serve both as floor coverings and wall ...
[138]
[PDF] TURKMEN - DLIFLC
Ethnic Groups and Languages. Turkmenistan is largely homogenous, with 85% of the population classified as Turkmen. Other groups include. Uzbeks (5%) and ...Missing: composition | Show results with:composition
[139]
[PDF] Untitled - Peace Corps
nomadic lifestyle deemed uncivilized and unproductive. In the 1980s,. Turkmen people began living in bloc-style apartments. Soon enough, communism's ideals ...<|separator|>
[140]
The Formal Strategies of Turkmen Dutar Masters - TUMAC
Jul 19, 2019 · The bagşy tradition varies regionally around Turkmenistan in terms of performance style, repertoire, and instrumentation in ensemble ...
[141]
Turkmen Jewelry - The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Aug 1, 2011 · Common shapes found on Turkmen jewelry include mountains, animals, horns, and plants. The mountain motif is part of the Turkmen creation story ...
[142]
Turkmen Jewelry from the Collection of Marshall and Marilyn R. Wolf
Oct 9, 2012 · From the top down, Turkmen women's jewelry consisted of headgear in the form of crowns, caps, headbands, and braid ornaments; pendants attached ...
[143]
Turkmen food - Central Asia Guide
Feb 26, 2023 · Typically made with long-grain rice like *Basmati* or *Jasmine*, Turkmen plov uses lamb or beef and features an abundance of sautéed onions and ...
[144]
Turkmen Plov | PBS Food
Ingredients · Oxtails · Soft beef meat · Lamb tail fat · Onions · Carrots (yellow & orange) · Garlic (full head) · Rice · Salt, pepper, chili powder/red chili, cumin
[145]
Turkmenistan Food Guide: 20 Popular Turkmen Dishes
Oct 12, 2024 · The king of Central Asian cuisine, plov is a rice dish cooked with chunks of lamb or beef, onions, carrots, and spices. It's a go-to for any big ...
[146]
Culture of Türkmenistan - history, people, clothing, traditions, women ...
The modern standardized language was developed in the 1920s from the Teke and Yomut dialects as a result of Soviet interest in creating a national literary ...Missing: reliable sources
[147]
Turkmenistan Culture and Customs » All you need to know 2025
Hospitality: Turkmen people are known for their generous hospitality. When visitors arrive, they are typically offered tea and refreshments, and it is polite to ...Missing: ethnographic | Show results with:ethnographic
[148]
Turkmens - Marriage and Family
The Turkmens are generally endogamous, choosing spouses from within their own tribe. This contrasts with the strict exogamy of other Central Asian peoples such ...
[149]
MARRIAGE AND WEDDINGS IN TURKMENISTAN | Facts and Details
The Turkmen have strict rules about marrying within one's tribe. Girls traditionally married when they were very young, often to much older men after a high ...Missing: endogamy | Show results with:endogamy
[150]
Gender and Generation in Rural Turkmenistan - Apollo
Apr 27, 2023 · This thesis seeks to explain the reproduction of gender and generation in desert villages of Gökdepe district, Turkmenistan.
[151]
[PDF] Religion and the Secular State in Turkmenistan
Turkmen created intensive and rich religious practices, but those were often mixed with pre-Islamic practices or honed to suit the nomadic lifestyle.Missing: narrative diaspora
[152]
[PDF] Turkmenistan - World Almanac of Islamism
Overview. Over a period of centuries, Islam in Turkmenistan has become an unusual blend of Sufi mysticism, orthodox (Sunni) Islam, and shaman-.
[153]
ISLAM IN TURKMENISTAN - Facts and Details
Sufism in Turkmenistan Sufism has greatly influenced literature, national arts and even political life of Turkmen. Sufism is widely practiced. There is a ...Missing: predominant | Show results with:predominant
[154]
The Ancient Practice of Tengriism, Shamanism and Ancient Worship ...
Dec 2, 2014 · In ancient times, people in Central Asia practiced a religion known as Tengriism, which focused on living in harmony with the natural universe.
[155]
The Revival of Islam in Turkmenistan - The Diplomat
Jun 30, 2022 · Although Islam has been a part of Turkmen culture for centuries, public practice of Islam was largely suppressed during the Soviet Union and in the early ...Missing: atheism | Show results with:atheism<|control11|><|separator|>
[156]
Marble and golden domes: Turkmenistan's mosque building spree
Jul 13, 2024 · Mosques built out of white marble crowned by golden domes have been cropping up in Turkmenistan since Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov rose to power back in 2006.
[157]
Understanding Turkmenistan's society and politics
Nov 10, 2020 · Turkmenistan's society is based on tribal structures. The Teke, Yamut, Ersari, Ali-Eli, and Saryk are among the tribes that, regarding their ...
[158]
Post-Soviet Turkmenistan: A Little-Known Present and an Uncertain ...
Feb 10, 2017 · Turkmenistan is a “nation” of tribes [1]. The key role among them is played by the Tekke tribe from Ahal, which controls the territory ...
[159]
Turkmenistan - Social Structure - Country Studies
A Turkmen's tribal affiliation still is a reliable indicator of his or her birthplace, for example. Lineage still may play a role in the arranging of marriages ...
[160]
Turkmenistan Social Structure - Photius
A Turkmen's tribal affiliation still is a reliable indicator of his or her birthplace, for example. Lineage still may play a role in the arranging of marriages ...
[161]
Tribal Social System and Political Stability in Turkmenistan - LinkedIn
Aug 2, 2017 · After independence and in the framework of official promotional campaigns, tribalism was excluded, and the national identity of the Turkmen ...Missing: diaspora | Show results with:diaspora
[162]
People of Turkmenistan - Advantour
Even urban residents from members of his tribal group, and in rural areas, clan and tribal attachment dominates.
[163]
[PDF] Turkmenistan - Energy Policy Brief - UNECE
Total Current Production: 76.3 bcm in 2023. Gas Exports: Constitutes 73.9% (9.21 billion) of export revenue and 89% (1,666,342 TJ ) of total energy exports in.
[164]
Turkmenistan aims to raise gas production from 80.6 bln bcm in ...
Oct 24, 2024 · According to the Energy Institute's statistical review, Turkmenistan exported 39.5 billion cubic meters of gas in 2023.Missing: revenue | Show results with:revenue
[165]
Turkmenistan Overview - World Bank
Turkmenistan is a landlocked upper middle-income country in Central Asia with a GNI per capita of $8,250. It is one of the world's top exporters of natural gas ...
[166]
Turkmenistan: Denial, Inaction Worsen Food Crisis
Sep 23, 2020 · Declining hydrocarbon income since 2014 and several poor harvests have constrained Turkmenistan's food supplies. In early 2020, the supply of ...
[167]
[PDF] Turkmenistan - Country Partnership Strategy (2024–2028)
Aug 4, 2024 · The annual consumer price inflation averaged 1.39% in 2023, from 3.03% in 2022. To maintain price stability, the government implemented import ...
[168]
Beneath the Surface: The Human Cost of Turkmenistan's Economic ...
Mar 29, 2025 · Inflation dropped to 1.4% in 2023 but is projected to rise to 4.5% in 2025. Social benefits are not fully adjusted for inflation, eroding real ...
[169]
Hyperinflation and hunger: Turkmenistan on 'edge of catastrophe'
Jul 15, 2019 · Turkmenistan is facing its worst economic crisis in three decades, which has led to hyperinflation and widespread food shortages.
[170]
Turkmenistan Unemployment Rate - Trading Economics
Unemployment Rate in Turkmenistan increased to 4.19 percent in 2024 from 4.10 percent in 2023. Unemployment Rate in Turkmenistan averaged 6.00 percent from ...
[171]
2024 Investment Climate Statements: Turkmenistan
In 2023, Transparency International ranked Turkmenistan 170 among 180 countries in its Corruption Perceptions Index with a score of 18 out of 100. Foreign firms ...
[172]
Turkmenistan's deepening water crisis could have far-reaching ...
Jun 9, 2025 · While often overshadowed by other domestic problems, the struggle for water in Turkmenistan is a critical issue demanding immediate attention.
[173]
implications for agriculture in Turkmenistan, central Asia
While problems of waterlogging and salinisation of Turkmenistan's irrigation systems have been reported in the past, detailed information has only recently been ...
[174]
[PDF] Turkmenistan: Power, Politics and Petro-Authoritarianism
This paper argues that power structures and domestic and foreign policy-making in Turkmenistan are primarily aimed at regime self-preservation. While President ...
[175]
Turkmenistan: Freedom in the World 2024 Country Report
Turkmenistan is a repressive authoritarian state where political rights and civil liberties are almost completely denied in practice.
[176]
Turkmenistan: Freedom in the World 2021 Country Report
The party system is dominated by the ruling DPT and controlled by the executive branch. The 2012 law on political parties specified the legal basis for citizens ...
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[PDF] Turkmenistan - Congress.gov
Apr 4, 2025 · Following 2012 legislation allowing for a multi-party system, Turkmenistan now has three officially recognized political parties. The ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] Under the Golden Arch: Permanent Neutrality and Authoritarian ...
Dec 23, 2024 · posits, “[T]he UN's recognition of Turkmenistan's permanent neutrality has essentially conferred a geopolitical immunity upon the country's ...
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The UN General Assembly by consensus adopted the Resolution ...
Mar 23, 2025 · The Resolution “Permanent Neutrality of Turkmenistan” was adopted under Agenda item 61 “Peacebuilding and Peacekeeping” by consensus.
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Turkmenistan president wins re-election with 97% of vote
Feb 13, 2012 · Gurbanguli Berdymukhamedov improves on his performance in 2007 election, but London-based expert says vote was a sham.
[181]
Turkmenistan Holds Presidential Vote With Autocratic Incumbent's ...
Mar 12, 2022 · Turkmenistan held a snap presidential election on March 12 that is widely viewed as a formality to transfer political power from autocratic incumbent ...
[182]
Turkmenistan strongman's son wins presidential vote - The Guardian
Mar 15, 2022 · Serdar Berdymukhamedov, 40, won the ballot held last Saturday with 73% of the vote, the Central Electoral Commission (CEC) said on its website.
[183]
Like Father, Like Son: Why Turkmenistan's Power Transition Is In ...
May 4, 2023 · Soon after he was made president, the two fled Turkmenistan. Immediately after the elections, Serdar reshuffled the government, appointing ...
[184]
A Year of President Serdar: Developments in Turkmenistan
President Serdar Berdimuhamedov came to power after securing about 73 per cent of votes in the Presidential elections held on 12 March 2022.
[185]
Turkmenistan: Stability Through Regime Mobilisation - ResearchGate
The case of Turkmenistan showed that the discourse of transitology (popular in the 1990s and 2000s) could move in the reverse direction, i.e. towards a more ...
[186]
Turkmenistan at Twenty-Five: The High Price of Authoritarianism
Jan 30, 2017 · Twenty-five years after the breakup of the Soviet Union, Turkmenistan holds the title of the most authoritarian of all former Soviet states.
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Chapter 22: Turkmenistan: authoritarianism, nation building and cult ...
Mar 19, 2024 · The chapter argues that intrusive authoritarianism has weakened the stability of the nation and hampers its economic and social progress.Missing: rule | Show results with:rule<|control11|><|separator|>
[188]
World Report 2024: Turkmenistan | Human Rights Watch
Turkmenistan made no improvements to its dire human rights record in 2023. The country remains closed to international scrutiny.Civil Society · Economic, Social, and Cultural... · Political Prisoners, Enforced...
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Human rights in Turkmenistan - Amnesty International
The rights to freedom of expression and association remained severely curtailed as the authorities sought to control the flow of information, suffocate civil ...
[190]
“It's Like I Live in a Cage”: Turkmen Authorities' Denial of Passports ...
Nov 11, 2024 · The Turkmen government arbitrarily and regularly bars its citizens from traveling abroad, including by stopping them at airports and passport ...
[191]
Turkmenistan - United States Department of State
Although the constitution and law prohibited such practices, there were reports that government officials employed them. Human Rights Watch stated torture was ...
[192]
The silent crisis: Abortion and reproductive rights in Turkmenistan
Aug 5, 2025 · The country's authoritarian-minded leadership is resorting to draconian policies to force women to have more babies out of an apparent desire to ...Missing: restrictions | Show results with:restrictions
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Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women ...
Feb 2, 2024 · Would measures to address the cotton harvest be included in the National Action Plan to Prevent Trafficking? Introducing the report, Mahri ...
[194]
Turkmenistan | Country Page | World - Human Rights Watch
Despite a change in Turkmenistan's leadership in 2022, the country remained ruled by one of the most oppressive and authoritarian governments in the world, ...
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Turkmenistan: 17th Human Rights Dialogue with the EU - EEAS
Jun 19, 2025 · The European Union and Turkmenistan held their seventeenth annual Human Rights Dialogue on 17 June in Brussels. The EU welcomed the recent ...<|separator|>
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HRC55 Oral statement: Item 6: Consideration of UPR Reports
Mar 21, 2024 · Oral statement at Item 6 Consideration of UPR reports: Turkmenistan at the 55th Session of the Human Rights Council from 29 February to 5 ...
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Akhal-Teke Horses | Oklahoma State University
The Akhal-Teke is a Turkmen horse known for stamina, used as cavalry and racehorse, with a long head, short mane, and often dun color.
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The Breed - Akhal-Teke Association of America
The Akhal-Teke lived closely with Central Asian nomadic tribes, sharing their tent and subsisting on meager rations high in protein. ... In 1935, fifteen Akhal- ...Missing: culture | Show results with:culture
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Karakul - American Sheep - The Livestock Conservancy
Jan 8, 2025 · Most of the Karakul wool produced in this country is used by hand spinners and weavers. Fleeces weigh five to ten pounds and have a staple ...
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Karakul sheep | CABI Compendium
Annual wool production of mature Karakuls varies between 3 and 4 kg. Wool growth rate is approximately 2 cm per month. Shearing twice a year is therefore ...
[201]
Scientific development of animal husbandry is an important direction ...
Mar 26, 2025 · Currently, two main breeds of sheep are actively bred in the country – Saraja and Karakul. Increasing the meat productivity of sheep is the ...
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[PDF] ISSUES AND APPROACHES TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION
Desert rangelands in Turkmenistan are degraded due to rapacious exploitation of plant resources. It is a typical process among other types of environmental ...
[203]
National Institute of Wilderness, Flora and Fauna
Since 1996, the National Institute has been the Coordinating Scientific Center for Turkmenistan of the UN Convention to Combat Desertification.Missing: wildlife | Show results with:wildlife
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[PDF] NATIONAL ACTION PROGRAMME TO COMBAT ... - UNCCD
Serious ecological degradation occurred in Turkmenistan before finding the independence due to unlimited or even rapacious exploitation of natural resources.
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Turkmen Service - Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty - RFE/RL
Azatlyk Radiosy is the only independent Turkmen-language media outlet reporting inside Turkmenistan, one of the world's most closed and authoritarian regimes.
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Turkmenistan media guide - BBC News
Mar 24, 2023 · The Turkmen government has an absolute monopoly of the media. The authorities monitor media outlets, control printing presses, block websites, monitor internet ...
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Turkmen Film: "Tümlükden Nura" (From Darkness to Light)
Aug 20, 2019 · Tümlükden Nura” (From Darkness to Light) is the first indigenous gospel film for the 10 million unreached Turkmen people of Central Asia. This ...<|separator|>
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TV in Turkmenistan is INSANE | I watched Turkmen TV | Documentary
Jul 4, 2025 · ... Turkmen Gameshows 17:55 Turkmen Cartoons 19:00 Turkmen Talent Shows ... TV in Turkmenistan is INSANE | I watched Turkmen TV | Documentary.
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Film About Turkmen Poet Wins International Award in London
Jun 6, 2025 · The movie tells the story of Magtymguly Pyragy, an 18th-century Turkmen poet and philosopher, focusing on his ideals of peace, love for the homeland, and ...